Course content: Physical Optics; Spherical waves; interference and diffraction, thin

films; crystal diffraction, holography; dispersion and scattering.

Objectives of this module

When you finish this module, you will be able to:

• Describe a wave front.

• Describe the relationship between light rays and wave fronts.

• Define phase angle and its relationship to a wave front.

• Describe how electromagnetic waves are similar to and different from water waves.

• State the principle of superposition and show how it is used to combine two overlapping

waves.

• State Huygens’ principle and show how it is used to predict the shape of succeeding

wave fronts.

• State the conditions required for producing interference patterns.

• Define constructive and destructive interference.

• Describe a laboratory setup to produce a double-slit interference pattern.

• State the conditions for an automatic phase shift of 180° at an interface between two

optical media.

• Calculate the thickness of thin films designed to enhance or suppress reflected light.

• Describe how multilayer stacks of quarter-wave films are used to enhance or suppress

reflection over a desired wavelength region.

• Describe how diffraction differs from interference.

• Describe single-slit diffraction and calculate positions of the minima in the diffraction

pattern.

• Distinguish between Fraunhofer and Fresnel diffraction.

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• Sketch typical Fraunhofer diffraction patterns for a single slit, circular aperture, and

rectangular aperture, and use equations to calculate beam spread and fringe locations.

• Describe a transmission grating and calculate positions of different orders of

diffraction.

• What happens when coherent light shines on an object with an edge or aperture.

• How scientists use diffraction gratings for precise measurements of wavelength.

• How x-ray diffraction reveals the arrangement of atoms in a crystal.

• How holograms work

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An ugly black oil spot on the pavement can become a thing of beauty after a rain, when the oil

reflects a rainbow of colours. Multi-coloured reflections can also be seen from the surfaces of

soap bubbles and DVDs. How is it possible for colourless objects to produce these remarkable

colours?

But light is fundamentally a wave, and in some situations, we have to consider its wave

properties explicitly. If two or more light waves of the same frequency overlap at a point, the

total effect depends on the phases of the waves as well as their amplitudes. The resulting

patterns of light are a result of the wave nature of light and cannot be understood on the basis

of rays. Optical effects that depend on the wave nature of light are grouped under the heading

physical optics. While our primary concern is with light, interference and diffraction can occur

with waves of any kind.

Interference and coherent Sources

The term interference refers to any situation in which two or more waves overlap in space.

When this occurs, the total wave at any point at any instant of time is governed by the principle

of superposition. This principle also applies to electromagnetic waves and is the most important

principle in all of physical optics. The principle of superposition states:

When two or more waves overlap, the resultant displacement at any point and at any instant is

found by adding the instantaneous displacements that would be produced at the point by the

individual waves if each were present alone.

Coherent Waves (be they light, sound, or disturbances on a string) are waves that have the same

form, the same frequency, and a fixed phase difference (i.e., the amount by which the peaks of

one wave lead or lag those of the other wave does not change with time).

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Interference in two or three dimensions

Interference effects are most easily seen when we combine sinusoidal waves with a single

frequency f and wavelength λ. Figure 1 shows a “snapshot” of a single source S1 of sinusoidal

waves and some of the wave fronts produced by this source. The figure shows only the wave

fronts corresponding to wave crests, so the spacing between successive wave fronts is one

wavelength. The material surrounding S1 is uniform, so the wave speed is the same in all

directions, and there is no refraction (and hence no bending of the wave fronts). If the waves

are two-dimensional, like waves on the surface of a liquid, the circles in fig. 1 represent circular

wave fronts; if the waves propagate in three dimensions, the circles represent spherical wave

fronts spreading away from S1.

Figure. 1. A “snapshot” of sinusoidal waves of frequency f and wavelength l spreading out

from source S1 in all directions

In optics, sinusoidal waves are characteristic of monochromatic light (light of a single color).

Common sources of light do not emit monochromatic (single frequency) light. For example,

incandescent light bulbs and flames emit a continuous distribution of wavelengths. By far the

most nearly monochromatic light source is the laser. An example is the helium–neon laser,

which emits red light at 632.8 nm with a wavelength range of the order of ±0.000001 nm, or

about one part in 109.

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Waves on a pond:

Think of when you drop a pebble into a pond, you will see circular waves emanate from the

point where you dropped the pebble, as seen in fig. 2.

Figure 2. Circular waves from a pebble dropped into a pond

When you drop two pebbles side by side you will see a much more complicated pattern, as

seen in fig. 3.

Figure 3. Circular waves from two pebbles dropped into a pond.

Interference Effects: occur when two or more coherent waves overlap. If two coherent waves

of the same amplitude are superposed, total destructive interference (cancellation, or in the case

of light, darkness) occurs when the waves are 180° out-of-phase. Total constructive

interference (reinforcement, or in the case of light, brightness) occurs when they are in-phase.

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Interference is the combination of two or more waves to form a composite wave, based on such

principle. The idea of the superposition principle is illustrated in fig. 4.

Figure 4. Superposition of waves. (b) Constructive interference, and (c) destructive

interference

In order to form an interference pattern, the incident light must satisfy two conditions:

(i) The light sources must be coherent. This means that the plane waves from the sources

must maintain a constant phase relation. For example, if two waves are completely out of

phase with φ = π, this phase difference must not change with time.

(ii) The light must be monochromatic. This means that the light consists of just one wavelength

λ = 2 π/k.

Light emitted from an incandescent lightbulb is incoherent, fig. 5, because the light consists of

waves of different wavelengths and they do not maintain a constant phase relationship. Thus,

no interference pattern is observed.

Figure 5. Incoherent light source

Perhaps the most fundamental arrangement for producing and studying interference is Young’s

experiment (also known as double-beam interference), depicted in fig. 6.

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Young’s double-slit interference experiment

In 1801 Thomas Young carried out an experiment in which the wave nature of light was

demonstrated. The schematic diagram of the double-slit experiment is shown in figure 6, it

shows the general setup for producing interference with coherent light from two slits S1 and

S2. The source S0 is a monochromatic point source of light whose spherical wave fronts

(circular in the drawing) fall on the two slits to create secondary sources S 1 and S2. Spherical

waves radiating out from the two secondary sources S1 and S2 maintain a fixed phase

relationship with each other as they spread out and overlap on the screen, to produce a series

of alternate bright and dark regions. The alternate regions of bright (B) and dark (D) are referred

to as interference fringes. Figure 6b shows such interference fringes, greatly expanded, for a

small central portion of the screen shown in Figure 6a.

Figure 6. Young’s double-slit interference experiment showing (a) general setup and (b) typical

interference fringes

The light waves emerging from the two slits then interfere and form an interference pattern on

the viewing screen. The bright bands (fringes) correspond to interference maxima, and the dark

band interference minima. Figure 7 shows the ways in which the waves could combine to

interfere constructively or destructively.

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Figure 7. Constructive interference (a) at P, and (b) at P1. (c) Destructive interference at P2.

Detailed analysis of interference from a double slit: With the help of the principle of

superposition, we can calculate the positions of the alternate maxima (bright regions) and

minima (dark regions) shown in figure 6. To do this we shall make use of figure 8.

Figure 8. The geometry of the double-slit interference

Consider light that falls on the screen at a point P a distance y from the point O that lies on the

screen a perpendicular distance L from the double-slit system. The two slits are separated by a

distance d. The light from slit 2 will travel an extra distance 𝛿 = 𝑟2 − 𝑟1 to the point P than

the light from slit 1. This extra distance is called the path difference (𝛿).

This is usually the case for experiments with light; the slit separation (d) is typically a few

millimetres, while the screen may be a meter or more away. The difference in path length is

then given by:

𝛿 = 𝑟2 − 𝑟1 = 𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 (1)

8
where 𝜃 is the angle between a line from slits to screen.

Constructive and Destructive Two-Slit Interference

From figure 6, the constructive interference (reinforcement) occurs at points where the path

difference is an integral number of wavelengths, 𝑚𝜆, where m = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, …. So, the

bright regions on the screen in fig. 6a occur at angles 𝜃 for which;

𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑚𝜆 (2)

The number m is called the order number. The central bright fringe at θ = 0 (point 0 in figure

8) is called the zeroth-order maximum (m = 0). The first maximum on either side, for which m

= ±1, is called the first-order maximum, and so on.

Similarly, destructive interference (cancellation) occurs, forming dark regions on the screen,

1
at points for which the path difference is a half-integral number of wavelengths, (𝑚 + 2) 𝜆:

1
𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = (𝑚 + 2) 𝜆 (3)

Thus, the pattern on the screen of figs. 6a and 6b is a succession of bright and dark bands, or

interference fringes, parallel to the slits S1 and S2. A photograph of such a pattern is shown in

fig. 9.

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Figure 9. Photograph of interference fringes produced on a screen in Young’s double-slit

experiment. The centre of the pattern is a bright band corresponding to m = 0 in eq. (2); this

point on the screen is equidistant from the two slits.

To locate the positions of the fringes as measured vertically from the central point O (fig. 8),

in addition to L >> d, we shall also assume that the distance between the slits is much greater

than the wavelength of the monochromatic light, d >> λ. The conditions imply that the angle

θ is very small, so that

𝑦
sin 𝜃 ≈ tan 𝜃 = (4)
𝐿

Substituting the above expression into the constructive and destructive interference conditions

given in eqns. (2) and (3), the positions of the bright and dark fringes for small angles only are,

respectively,

𝜆𝐿
𝑦𝐵 = 𝑚 (5)
𝑑

and

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 1 𝜆𝐿
𝑦𝐷 = (𝑚 + ) (6)
2 𝑑

where m = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, ….

While we have described the experiment that Young performed with visible light, the results

given in eqs. (2) and (3) are valid for any type of wave, provided that the resultant wave from

two coherent sources is detected at a point that is far away in comparison to the separation d.

Example 1:

Suppose in the double-slit arrangement, d = 0.150 mm, L = 120 cm, λ = 833 nm, and y = 2.00

cm.

(a) What is the path difference δ for the rays from the two slits arriving at point P?

(b) Express this path difference in terms of λ.

(c) Does point P correspond to a maximum, a minimum, or an intermediate condition?

Solutions:

(a) The path difference is given by 𝛿 = 𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃. When L >> y, θ is small and we can make the
𝑦
approximation sin 𝜃 ≈ tan 𝜃 = .
𝐿

𝑦 2.00 x 10−2 𝑚
Thus, 𝛿 ≈ 𝑑 ( ) = (1.5 x 10−4 𝑚) = 2.50 x 10−6 𝑚
𝐿 1.20 𝑚

(b) From the answer in part (a), we have

𝛿 2.50 x 10−6 𝑚
= ≈ 3.00
𝜆 8.33 x 10−7 𝑚

or 𝛿 = 3.00 𝜆.

(c) Since the path difference is an integer multiple of the wavelength, the intensity at point P is

a maximum.

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Example 2:

Monochromatic light from a point source illuminates two narrow, horizontal, parallel slits. The

centers of the two slits are d = 0.80 mm apart. An interference pattern forms on the screen, 50

cm away. In the pattern, the bright and dark fringes are evenly spaced. The distance between

the zeroth-order maximum and the first maximum is 0.304 mm. Compute the wavelength, λ of

the light.

Solution:

d = 0.80 mm, L = 50 cm, y = 0.304 mm, m = 1, λ = ?

𝜆𝐿
recall; 𝑦𝐵 = 𝑚
𝑑

𝑑
⸫ 𝜆 = 𝑦𝐵
𝑚𝐿

3.04 x 10−4 𝑚 x 8.00 x 10−4 𝑚

𝜆 = 486.4 𝑛𝑚

Example 3: Figure 10 shows a two-slit interference experiment in which the slits are 0.200

mm apart and the screen is 1.00 m from the slits. The m = 3 bright fringe in the figure is 9.49

mm from the central fringe. Find the wavelength of the light.

Figure 10. Using a two-slit interference experiment to measure the wavelength of light

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Solution:

d = 0.200 mm, R or L = 1.00 m, 𝑦3 = 9.49 mm, m = 3 bright fringe.

𝜆𝐿
recall; 𝑦𝐵 = 𝑚
𝑑

𝑑
⸫ 𝜆 = 𝑦3
𝑚𝐿

9.49 x 10−3 𝑚 x 2.00 x 10−4 𝑚

𝜆 = 633 𝑛𝑚

Try this: This bright fringe could also correspond to m = - 3. Can you show that this gives the

same result for 𝜆?

Example 4:

A double-slit source with slit separation 0.2 mm is located 1.2 m from a screen. The distance

between successive bright fringes on the screen is measured to be 3.30 mm. What is the

wavelength of the light?

Solution:

d = 0.200 mm, L = 1.20 m, y = 3.30 mm, m = 1(distance between successive bright fringes), λ

=?

𝜆𝐿
recall; 𝑦𝐵 = 𝑚
𝑑

𝑑
⸫𝜆= 𝑦
𝑚𝐿

3.30 x 10−3 𝑚 x 2.00 x 10−4 𝑚

𝜆 = 550 𝑛𝑚

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Intensity In Interference Patterns

Let’s now see how to find the intensity at any point in the pattern. To do this, we have to

combine the two sinusoidally varying fields (from the two sources) at a point P in the radiation

pattern, taking proper account of the phase difference of the two waves at point P, which results

from the path difference. The intensity is then proportional to the square of the resultant

electric-field amplitude.

This is to determine, “How does the brightness (intensity) of the fringes vary as we move, in

either direction, from the central bright fringe (m = 0)?” We obtain a satisfactory answer to this

question by representing the two separate electric fields at point P, the one coming from S1 as

E1 = E cos ωt and the one from S2 as E2 = E cos (ωt + ϕ). The waves are assumed to have the

same amplitude E. Here ϕ is the phase angle difference between the two waves arriving at P.

If the two sources are in phase, then the waves that arrive at P differ in phase by an amount ϕ

that is proportional to the difference in their path lengths, 𝑟2 − 𝑟1.

(a) Amplitude in Two-Source Interference

In Fig. 11, E1 is the horizontal component of the phasor representing the wave from source S1,

and E2 is the horizontal component of the phasor for the wave from S2. As shown in the

diagram, both phasors have the same magnitude E, but E2 is ahead of E1 in phase by an angle

𝜙. Both phasors rotate counter clockwise with constant angular speed v, and the sum of the

projections on the horizontal axis at any time gives the instantaneous value of the total E field

at point P. Thus, the amplitude EP of the resultant sinusoidal wave at P is the magnitude of the

longer phasor in the diagram (labelled EP); this is the vector sum of the other two phasors. To

find EP, we use the law of cosines and the trigonometric identity cos(𝜋 − 𝜙) = − cos 𝜙:

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Figure 11. Phasor diagram for the superposition at a point P of two waves of equal amplitude

E with a phase difference 𝜙

𝐸𝑃2 = 𝐸 2 + 𝐸 2 − 2𝐸 2 cos(𝜋 − 𝜙) (7)

= 2𝐸2 + 2𝐸2 cos 𝜙

𝐸𝑃2 = 2𝐸 2 (1 + cos 𝜙) (8)

𝜙
Then, using the identity 1 + cos 𝜙 = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ( ⁄2), we obtain

𝜙
𝐸𝑃2 = 4𝐸 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 ( ⁄2) (9)

Taking the square root of eqn. 9, will result in:

𝜙
𝐸𝑃 = 2𝐸 |𝑐𝑜𝑠 | (10)
2

When the two waves are in phase, 𝜙 = 0 and EP = 2E. When they are exactly a half-cycle out

𝜙 𝜋
of phase, 𝜙 = 𝜋 rad = 180°, cos ( 2 ) = cos ( 2 ) = 0, and EP = 0. Thus, the superposition of two

15
sinusoidal waves with the same frequency and amplitude but with a phase difference yields a

sinusoidal wave with the same frequency and an amplitude between zero and twice the

individual amplitudes, depending on the phase difference.

(b) Intensity in two-Source Interference

To obtain the intensity I at point P, we know that I is equal to the average magnitude of the

Poynting vector, Sav. For a sinusoidal wave with electric-field amplitude EP, this is given by

(11)

The essential content of these expressions (11) is that I is proportional to 𝐸𝑃2 . When we

substitute eq. (9) into the last expression in eq. (11):

1 2 1 2 𝜙
𝐼= 𝜀0 𝑐𝐸𝑃 = 𝜀0 𝑐4𝐸 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ( ⁄2)
2 2

we get

2 𝜙
𝐼 = 2𝜀0 𝑐 𝐸 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ( ⁄2) (12)

In particular, the maximum intensity I0, which occurs at points where the phase difference is

zero (𝜙 = 0), is

1 2
Note that the maximum intensity I0 is four times (not twice) as great as the intensity 2 𝜀0 𝑐 𝐸

from each individual source. Substituting the expression for I0 into eq. (12), we have

𝜙
𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ( ⁄2) (13)

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The intensity depends on the phase difference f and varies between I0 and zero.

Phase difference and Path difference

Our next task is to find the phase difference 𝜙 between the two fields at any point P. We know

that 𝜙 is proportional to the difference in path length from the two sources to point P. When

the path difference is one wavelength, the phase difference is one cycle, and 𝜙 = 2𝜋 rad =

360°. When the path difference is 𝜆/2, 𝜙 = 𝜋 rad = 180°, and so on. That is, the ratio of the

phase difference 𝜙 to 2 𝜋 is equal to the ratio of the path difference, (δ): 𝑟2 − 𝑟1 to 𝜆:

𝜙 𝑟2 − 𝑟1
= (14)
2𝜋 𝜆

2𝜋 (𝑟2 − 𝑟1 )
Hence; 𝜙 = = 𝑘(𝑟2 − 𝑟1 ) (15)
𝜆

Finally, if the point P is far away from the sources in comparison to their separation d, the path

difference is given by eq. (1): 𝑟2 − 𝑟1 = 𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃

Combining this with Eq. (15), we find

(16)

When we substitute this into eq. (13), we find

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 (17)

Maximum intensity occurs when the cosine has the values ±1: that is, when

𝑦
ordinarily y << L, in that case, 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 is approximately equal to ⁄𝐿, as in eq. (4) and we obtain

the following expressions for the intensity at any point on the screen as a function of y:

from eq. (17),

𝜋𝑑
𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ( 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃) (18)
𝜆

using the condition from eq. (4),

𝜋𝑑𝑦
𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ( ) (intensity in two-slit interference) (19)
𝜆𝐿

where: I = intensity of light along screen at position y

I0 = maximum intensity of light wave from S1 or S2

L or R = distance from the plane of the double slit to the screen

d = slit separation

λ = wavelength of monochromatic light

y = distance above (or below) central bright fringe on the screen

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Here 𝜙 is the critical phase angle difference at point P. For all points P for which 𝜙 = 0, 2π,

𝜙
4π, and so on, corresponding to δ = 0, λ, 2λ, etc., 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ( ⁄2) = 1 and I = I0, the maximum

possible “brightness.” At these points, bright fringes form.

𝜙
For 𝜙 = π, 3π, 5π, and so on, corresponding to δ = λ/2, 3 λ/2, 5 λ/2, etc., 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ( ⁄2) = 0, and

dark fringes form.

Note; The maximum intensity I0 is equal to 4E2

Try this: rewrite eq. (19) using the note above.

Figure 12 shows a graph of eq. (19); we can compare this with the photographically recorded

pattern of fig. 9. All peaks in fig. 12 have the same intensity, while those in fig. 9 fade off as

we go away from the center. We’ll explore the reasons for this variation in peak intensity when

studying diffraction.

Figure 12. Intensity distribution in the interference pattern from two identical slits

Interference In Thin Films

You often see bright bands of colour when light reflects from a thin layer of oil floating on

water or from a soap bubble. These are the results of interference. Light waves are reflected

from the front and back surfaces of such thin films, and constructive interference between the

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two reflected waves (with different path lengths) occurs in different places for different

wavelengths. Figure 13 shows the situation.

Figure 13. Interference between rays reflected from the two surfaces of a thin film

Light shining on the upper surface of a thin film with thickness t is partly reflected at the upper

surface (path abc). Light transmitted through the upper surface is partly reflected at the lower

surface (path abdef). The two reflected waves come together at point P on the retina of the eye.

Depending on the phase relationship, they may interfere constructively or destructively.

Different colours have different wavelengths, so the interference may be constructive for some

colours and destructive for others.

Thin-Film Interference and Phase Shifts During Reflection

Looking at a simplified situation in which monochromatic light reflects from two nearly

parallel surfaces at nearly normal incidence. Figure 14 shows two plates of glass separated by

a thin wedge, or film, of air. We want to consider interference between the two light waves

reflected from the surfaces adjacent to the air wedge. (Reflections also occur at the top surface

of the upper plate and the bottom surface of the lower plate)

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Figure 14. Interference between light waves reflected from the two sides of an air wedge

separating two glass plates. The angles and the thickness of the air wedge have been

exaggerated for clarity

The situation is the same as in Fig. 13 except that the film (wedge) thickness is not uniform.

The path difference between the two waves is just twice the thickness t of the air wedge at each

point. At points where 2t is an integer number of wavelengths, we expect to see constructive

interference and a bright area; where it is a half-integer number of wavelengths, we expect to

see destructive interference and a dark area. Where the plates are in contact, there is practically

no path difference, and we expect a bright area.

Suppose a light wave with electric-field amplitude 𝐸𝑖 is traveling in an optical material with

index of refraction 𝑛𝑎 . It strikes, at normal incidence, an interface with another optical material

with index 𝑛𝑏 . The amplitude 𝐸𝑟 of the wave reflected from the interface is given by

(20)

This result shows that the incident and reflected amplitudes have the same sign when 𝑛𝑎 is

larger than 𝑛𝑏 and opposite signs when 𝑛𝑏 is larger than 𝑛𝑎 . Because amplitudes must always

be positive or zero, a negative value means that the wave actually undergoes a half-cycle (180°)

phase shift. Figure 15 shows three possibilities:

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Figure 15. Electromagnetic waves striking an interface between optical materials at normal

incidence

Figure 15a: When 𝑛𝑎 > 𝑛𝑏 , light travels more slowly in the first material than in the second. In

this case, 𝐸𝑟 and 𝐸𝑖 have the same sign, and the phase shift of the reflected wave relative to the

incident wave is zero. This is analogous to reflection of a transverse mechanical wave on a

heavy rope at a point where it is tied to a lighter rope.

Figure 15b: When 𝑛𝑎 = 𝑛𝑏 , the amplitude 𝐸𝑟 of the reflected wave is zero. In effect there is no

interface, so there is no reflected wave.

Figure 15c: When 𝑛𝑎 < 𝑛𝑏 , light travels more slowly in the second material than in the first. In

this case, 𝐸𝑟 and 𝐸𝑖 have opposite signs, and the phase shift of the reflected wave relative to

the incident wave is π rad (a half-cycle). This is analogous to reflection (with inversion) of a

transverse mechanical wave on a light rope at a point where it is tied to a heavier rope.

If the film has thickness t, the light is at normal incidence and has wavelength λ in the film; if

none (0) or both (2) of the reflected waves from the two surfaces have a half-cycle reflection

phase shift, the conditions for constructive eqn (21) and destructive interference eqn (22) are

𝜆
2𝑡 = 𝑚 𝑛 (𝑚 = 0, 1, 2, . . . . ) (21)

1 𝜆
2𝑡 = (𝑚 + 2) 𝑛 (𝑚 = 0, 1, 2, . . . . ) (22)

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If one of the two waves has a half-cycle reflection phase shift, the conditions for constructive

eqn (23) and destructive interference eqn (24) are reversed:

1 𝜆
2𝑡 = (𝑚 + 2) 𝑛 (𝑚 = 0, 1, 2, . . . . ) (23)

𝜆
2𝑡 = 𝑚 (𝑚 = 0, 1, 2, . . . . ) (24)
𝑛

When light reflects from a medium having an index of refraction greater than that of the

medium in which it is traveling, a 180º phase change (or a λ/2 shift) occurs.

Transmitted light is always in phase with the incident light.

Higher to lower index of refraction; no phase shift

Lower to higher index of refraction; a 180º (π) phase change (or a λ/2 shift)

Thin and Thick Films

In order for two waves to cause a steady interference pattern, the waves must be coherent, with

a definite and constant phase relationship.

The sun and light bulbs emit light in a stream of short bursts, each of which is only a few

micrometres long. If light reflects from the two surfaces of a thin film, the two reflected waves

are part of the same burst (Fig. 16a). Hence these waves are coherent and interference occurs

as we have described. If the film is too thick, however, the two reflected waves will belong to

23
different bursts (Fig. 16b). There is no definite phase relationship between different light bursts,

so the two waves are incoherent and there is no fixed interference pattern. That’s why you see

interference colours in light reflected from a soap bubble a few micrometres thick but you do

not see such colours in the light reflected from a pane of window glass with a thickness of a

few millimetres (a thousand times greater).

(a) (b)

Figure 16 (a) Light reflecting from a thin film produces a steady interference pattern, but (b)

light reflecting from a thick film does not

Example 5:

Calculate the minimum thickness of an oil slick on water that appears blue when illuminated

by white light perpendicular to its surface. Take the blue wavelength to be 470 nm and the

index of refraction of oil to be 1.40.

24
Solution:

Region 1; air, region 2; oil, region 3; water

𝑛1 = 1, 𝑛2 = 1.4, 𝑛3 = 1.33, m = 0, λ = 470 nm

𝜆
Hence, ray 1 has a phase shift of π or 2

1 𝜆
⸫ 2𝑡 = (𝑚 + 2) 𝑛

1 470 x 10−9
𝑡= x = 83.9 𝑛𝑚
2 2 x 1.4

Example 6:

What are the three smallest non-zero thicknesses of soapy water (n = 1.33) on Plexiglas if it

appears green (constructively reflecting 520-nm light) when illuminated perpendicularly by

white light?

Solution:

Region 1; air, region 2; soapy water, region 3; plexiglas

𝑛1 = 1, 𝑛2 = 1.33, 𝑛3 = 1.50, m = 1, 2, 3, λ = 470 nm

𝜆
Hence, rays 1 and 2 has a phase shift of π or 2 (ref. figure in ex. 5)

𝜆
⸫ 2𝑡 = 𝑚 𝑛

1 520 x 10−9
𝑡1 = x = 195 𝑛𝑚
2 1.33

1 520 x 10−9
𝑡2 = x = 390 𝑛𝑚
2 1.33

3 520 x 10−9
𝑡3 = x = 586 𝑛𝑚
2 1.33

25
Example 7:

A soap bubble appears green (λ = 540 nm) at the point on its front surface nearest the viewer.

What is the smallest thickness the soap bubble film could have? Assume n = 1.35

Solution:

Region 1; air, region 2; soap film, region 3; air

𝑛1 = 1, 𝑛2 = 1.35, 𝑛3 = 1, m = 0, λ = 540 nm

𝜆
Hence, rays 1 has a phase shift of π or 2 (ref. figure in ex. 5)

1 𝜆
⸫ 2𝑡 = (𝑚 + 2) 𝑛

1 540 x 10−9
𝑡= x = 100 𝑛𝑚
2 2 x 1.35

Read about applications of thin films

Diffraction

The ability of light to bend around corners, a consequence of the wave nature of light, is

fundamental to both interference and diffraction. Diffraction is simply any deviation from

geometrical optics resulting from the obstruction of a wave front of light by some obstacle or

some opening. Diffraction occurs when light waves pass through small openings, around

obstacles, or by sharp edges.

Several common diffraction patterns—as sketched by an artist—are shown in Figure 17. Figure

17a is a typical diffraction pattern for HeNe laser light passing through a circular pinhole.

Figure 17b is a typical diffraction pattern for HeNe laser light passing through a narrow

(vertical) slit. And Figure 17c is a typical pattern for diffraction by a sharp edge.

26
Figure 17. Sketches of several common diffraction patterns

The intricacy of the patterns should convince us—once and for all—that geometrical ray optics

is incapable of dealing with diffraction phenomena. To demonstrate how wave theory does

account for such patterns, we now examine the phenomenon of diffraction of waves by a single

slit.

Fresnel and Fraunhofer Diffraction

In Fraunhofer diffraction, the source of light and the screen are at infinite distance from the

obstacle, as shown in the fig. 18 below.

Figure 18. A sketch of Fraunhofer diffraction

In Fresnel diffraction, the source and the screen are at finite distance from the obstacle, as

shown in the fig. 19 below.

27
Figure 19. A sketch of Fresnel diffraction

Fig. 20, shows the Fraunhofer and Fresnel diffraction intensity patterns as well their maxima

and minima, well defined and not well defined for Fraunhofer and Fresnel diffractions

respectively.

Figure 20. Diffraction intensity patterns of Fraunhofer and Fresnel diffractions

According to Huygens’s principle, light waves incident on two slits will spread out and exhibit

an interference pattern in the region beyond (Figure 18a). The pattern is called a diffraction

pattern. On the other hand, if no bending occurs and the light wave continue to travel in straight

lines, then no diffraction pattern would be observed (Figure 18b).

28
Figure 18 (a) Spreading of light leading to a diffraction pattern. (b) Absence of diffraction

pattern if the paths of the light wave are straight lines.

In Fig. 19, both the point source and the screen are relatively close to the obstacle forming the

diffraction pattern. This situation is described as near-field diffraction or Fresnel diffraction.

By contrast, we use the term Fraunhofer diffraction for situations in which the source, obstacle,

and screen are far enough apart that we can consider all lines from the source to the obstacle to

be parallel, and can likewise consider all lines from the obstacle to a given point on the screen

to be parallel.

Figure 19. A point source of light illuminates a straightedge

We shall restrict ourselves to a special case of diffraction called the Fraunhofer diffraction. In

this case, all light rays that emerge from the slit are approximately parallel to each other. For a

diffraction pattern to appear on the screen, a convex lens is placed between the slit and screen

to provide convergence of the light rays.

29
Single-Slit Diffraction: Locating the Dark Fringes

Let a source of monochromatic light be incident on a slit of finite width a, as shown in Figure

20.

Figure 20. Diffraction of light by a slit of width a

For simplicity we divide the slit into two halves. At the first minimum, each ray from the upper

half will be exactly 180 out of phase with a corresponding ray form the lower half. For example,

suppose there are 100-point sources, with the first 50 in the lower half, and 51 to 100 in the

upper half. Source 1 and source 51, 2 and 52, 3 and 53, …. are separated by a distance and are

out of phase with a path difference 𝛿 = 𝜆/2.

First consider two narrow strips, one just below the top edge of the drawing of the slit and one

at its center, shown in end view in Fig. 21. The difference in path length to point P is 𝑎/2 sin

θ, where a is the slit width and θ is the angle between the perpendicular to the slit and a line

from the center of the slit to P.

30
Figure 21. Side view of a horizontal slit. When the distance x to the screen is much greater than

the slit width a, the rays from a distance 𝑎/2 apart may be considered parallel.

A dark fringe occurs whenever

(25)

The plus-or-minus (±) sign in eqn. (25) says that there are symmetric dark fringes above and

below point O in fig. 21a. The upper fringe (θ > 0) occurs at a point P where light from the

bottom half of the slit travels λ/2 farther to P than does light from the top half; the lower fringe

(θ < 0) occurs where light from the top half travels λ/2 farther than light from the bottom half.

We may also divide the slit into quarters, sixths, and so on, and use the above argument to show

𝜆 𝜆
that a dark fringe occurs whenever sin 𝜃 = ± 2 𝑎 , ± 3 𝑎, and so on. Thus, the condition for a

dark fringe (destructive interference) is

(26)

For example, if the slit width is equal to ten wavelengths a = 10 λ, dark fringes occur at sin 𝜃 =
1 2 3
± , ± ,± , ……. Between the dark fringes are bright fringes. Note that sin 𝜃 = 0
10 10 10

corresponds to a bright band; in this case, light from the entire slit arrives at P in phase. Thus,

it would be wrong to put m = 0 in eqn. (26).

31
If the distance from slit to screen is x, as in fig. 21a, and the vertical distance of the mth dark
𝑦𝑚
band from the center of the pattern is 𝑦𝑚 , then tan 𝜃 = . For small 𝜃 we may also
𝑥

approximate tan 𝜃 by 𝜃 (in radians). We then find

(27)

The overall geometry for diffraction by a single slit is shown in figure 22. The slit opening,

seen in cross section, is in fact a long, narrow slit, perpendicular to the page. The shaded

“humps” shown along the screen give a rough idea of intensity variation in the pattern, and the

sketch of bright and dark regions to the right of the screen simulates the actual fringe pattern

seen on the screen. We observe a wide central bright fringe, bordered by narrower regions of

dark and bright. The angle θ shown connects a point P on the screen to the center of the slit.

Figure 22. Diffraction pattern from a single slit

Figure 23 shows the positions of several orders of minima and the essential parameters

associated with the single-slit diffraction pattern. (The positions of the maxima are

mathematically more complicated to express, so we typically work with the positions of the

well-defined minima.)

32
Figure 23. Positions of adjacent minima in the diffraction patterns

Figure 24 is a photograph of a single-slit diffraction pattern with the m = ±1, ±2, and ±3 minima

labeled. The central bright fringe is wider than the other bright fringes; in the small-angle

approximation used in eqn. (27), it is exactly twice as wide.

Figure 24. Photograph of the Fraunhofer diffraction pattern of a single horizontal slit.

NOTE: Single-slit diffraction vs. two-slit interference Equation (27) has the same form as the

equation for the two-slit pattern, eqn. (5), except that in eqn. (27) we use x rather than R or L

for the distance to the screen. But eqn. (27) gives the positions of the dark fringes in a single

slit pattern rather than the bright fringes in a double-slit pattern. Also, m = 0 in eqn. (26) is not

a dark fringe. Be careful!

33
Example 8:

You pass 633-nm laser light through a narrow slit and observe the diffraction pattern on a

screen 6.0 m away. The distance on the screen between the centers of the first minima on either

side of the central bright fringe is 32 mm (fig. 25). How wide is the slit?

Figure 25. A single-slit diffraction experiment.

Solution

L or x = 6.0 m, m = 1, λ = 633 x 10−9 m, a = ?

The distance 𝑦1 from the central maximum to the first minimum on either side is half the

distance between the two first minima, so 𝑦1 = (32 mm)/2 = 16 mm.

From eqn. 27

𝑚𝜆𝑥 1 x 633 x 10−9 x 6

Example 9:

A monochromatic light with a wavelength of λ = 600 nm passes through a single slit which has

a width of 0.800 mm. (a) What is the distance between the slit and the screen be located if the

first minimum in the diffraction pattern is at a distance 1.00 mm from the center of the screen?

(b) Calculate the width of the central maximum.

34
Solutions

L = ?, m = 1, λ = 600 x 10−9m, a = 0.800 mm, 𝑦1 = 1.00 𝑚𝑚 (the first minimum)

(a) The general condition for destructive interference is

then,

(b) The width of the central maximum is

Example 10:

Coherent laser light of wavelength 633 nm is incident on a single slit of width 0.25 mm. The

observation screen is 2.0 m from the slit. (a) What is the width of the central bright fringe? (b)

What is the width of the bright fringe between the 5th and 6th minima?

Solutions

L = 2.0 m, m = 1, λ = 633 x 10−9 m, a or b = 0.25 mm

(a) The width of the central bright fringe is 2𝑦1 , where 𝑦1 is the distance to the first minimum

(m = 1) on either side. Thus, using equation 27

35
The width of the central bright fringe is about 1 cm.

Example 11:

Monochromatic light is incident on a single slit of width 0.30 mm. On a screen located 2.0 m

away, the width of the central bright fringe is measured and found to be near 7.8 mm. What is

the wavelength of the incident light?

Solution

L or x = 2.0 m, m = 1, λ = 633 x 10−9 m, a or b = 0.30 mm

Since the width of the central bright fringe is 7.8 mm, equal to 2𝑦1 , we see that 𝑦1 = 3.9 mm.

From eqn. 27

𝜆𝑥 𝑦𝑚 𝑎
𝑦𝑚 = 𝑚 ; 𝜆 =
𝑎 𝑚𝑥

Several typical Fraunhofer diffraction patterns. In successive order, we show the far-field

diffraction pattern for a single slit (figure 26), a circular aperture (figure 27), and a rectangular

36
aperture (figure 28). Equations that describe the locations of the bright and dark fringes in the

patterns accompany each figure.

Figure 26. Fraunhofer diffraction pattern for a single slit

Figure 27. Fraunhofer diffraction pattern for a circular aperture

37
Figure 28. Fraunhofer diffraction pattern for a rectangular aperture

The intensity of a single slit diffraction is expressed as;

(28)

The Diffraction Grating

Diffraction gratings are widely used to measure the spectrum of light emitted by a source, a

process called spectroscopy or spectrometry. Light incident on a grating of known spacing is

dispersed into a spectrum. The angles of deviation of the maxima are then measured, and eqn.

(29) below; is used to compute the wavelength. With a grating that has many slits, very sharp

maxima are produced, and the angle of deviation (and hence the wavelength) can be measured

very precisely.
38
Increasing the number of slits in an interference experiment (while keeping the spacing of

adjacent slits constant) gives interference patterns in which the maxima are in the same

positions, but progressively narrower, than with two slits. Because these maxima are so narrow,

their angular position, and hence the wavelength, can be measured to very high precision. As

we will see, this effect has many important applications.

An array of a large number of parallel slits, all with the same width a and spaced equal distances

d between centers, is called a diffraction grating. The first one was constructed by Fraunhofer

using fine wires. Gratings can be made by using a diamond point to scratch many equally

spaced grooves on a glass or metal surface, or by photographic reduction of a pattern of black

and white stripes on paper. For a grating, what we have been calling slits are often called rulings

or lines.

In fig. 29, GG′ is a cross section of a transmission grating; the slits are perpendicular to the

plane of the page, and an interference pattern is formed by the light that is transmitted through

the slits. The diagram shows only six slits; an actual grating may contain several thousand. The

spacing d between centers of adjacent slits is called the grating spacing.

Figure 29. A portion of a transmission diffraction grating. The separation between the centers

of adjacent slits is d.

39
A plane monochromatic wave is incident normally on the grating from the left side. We assume

far-field (Fraunhofer) conditions; that is, the pattern is formed on a screen that is far enough

away that all rays emerging from the grating and going to a particular point on the screen can

be considered to be parallel.

The relative path difference between each pair of adjacent slits is 𝛿 = 𝑑 sin 𝜃, similar to the

calculation we made for the double-slit case. If this path difference is equal to an integral

multiple of wavelengths, then all the slits will constructively interfere with each other and a

bright spot will appear on the screen at an angle θ. Thus, the condition for the principal maxima

is given by

(29)

If the wavelength of the light and the location of the m-order maximum are known, the distance

d between slits may be readily deduced.

The intensity patterns for two, eight, and 16 slits displayed in fig. 30 show the progressive

increase in sharpness of the maxima as the number of slits increases. When a grating containing

hundreds or thousands of slits is illuminated by a beam of parallel rays of monochromatic light,

the pattern is a series of very sharp lines at angles determined by eqn. (29). The m = ±1 lines

are called the first-order lines, the m = ±2 lines the second-order lines, and so on.

(a) Two slits (b) Eight slits (c) Sixteen slits

Figure 30. Interference patterns for N equally spaced, very narrow slits

40
N = 2: two slits produce one minimum between adjacent maxima, N = 8: eight slits produce

taller, narrower maxima in the same locations, separated by seven minima, N = 16: with 16

slits, the maxima are even taller and narrower, with more intervening minima.

X-Ray Diffraction

X rays were discovered by Wilhelm Röntgen (1845–1923) in 1895, and early experiments

suggested that they were electromagnetic waves with wavelengths of the order of 10−10 m. At

about the same time, the idea began to emerge that in a crystalline solid the atoms are arranged

in a regular repeating pattern, with spacing between adjacent atoms also of the order of 10−10

m. Putting these two ideas together, Max von Laue (1879–1960) proposed in 1912 that a crystal

might serve as a kind of three-dimensional diffraction grating for x rays. That is, a beam of x

rays might be scattered (that is, absorbed and re-emitted) by the individual atoms in a crystal,

and the scattered waves might interfere just like waves from a diffraction grating.

The first x-ray diffraction experiments were performed in 1912 by Friedrich, Knipping, and

von Laue, using the experimental setup shown in Fig. 31a. The scattered x rays did form an

interference pattern, which they recorded on photographic film. Figure 31b is a photograph of

such a pattern.

41
Figure 31. (a) An x-ray diffraction experiment. (b) Diffraction pattern (or Laue pattern) formed

by directing a beam of x rays at a thin section of quartz crystal.

These experiments verified that x rays are waves, or at least have wavelike properties, and also

that the atoms in a crystal are arranged in a regular pattern (fig. 32). Since that time, x-ray

diffraction has proved to be an invaluable research tool, both for measuring x-ray wavelengths

and for studying the structure of crystals and complex molecules.

Figure 32. Model of the arrangement of ions in a crystal of NaCl (table salt). The spacing of

adjacent atoms is 0.282 nm. (The electron clouds of the atoms actually overlap slightly.)

42
A Simple Model of X-Ray Diffraction

To better understand x-ray diffraction, we consider first a two-dimensional scattering situation,

as shown in fig. 33 in which a plane wave is incident on a rectangular array of scattering centers.

The situation might be a ripple tank with an array of small posts or x rays incident on an array

of atoms. In the case of electromagnetic waves, the wave induces an oscillating electric dipole

moment in each scatterer. These dipoles act like little antennas, emitting scattered waves. The

resulting interference pattern is the superposition of all these scattered waves.

Figure 33. Scattering of waves from a rectangular array

The situation is different from that with a diffraction grating, in which the waves from all the

slits are emitted in phase (for a plane wave at normal incidence). Here the scattered waves are

not all in phase because their distances from the source are different. To compute the

interference pattern, we have to consider the total path differences for the scattered waves,

including the distances from source to scatterer and from scatterer to observer.

As fig. 34 shows, the path length from source to observer is the same for all the scatterers in a

single row if the two angles 𝜃𝑎 and 𝜃𝑟 are equal. Scattered radiation from adjacent rows is also

in phase if the path difference for adjacent rows is an integer number of wavelengths.

Interference from adjacent atoms in a row is constructive when the path lengths 𝑎 cos 𝜃𝑎 and

𝑎 cos 𝜃𝑟 are equal, so that the angle of incidence 𝜃𝑎 equals the angle of reflection (scattering)

𝜃𝑟 .

43
Figure 34. Scattering from adjacent atoms in a row

Figure 35 shows that this path difference is 2𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃, where 𝜃 is the common value of 𝜃𝑎 and

𝜃𝑟 . Interference from atoms in adjacent rows is constructive when the path difference 2𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃

is an integral number of wavelengths.

Figure 35. Scattering from atoms in adjacent rows

A two-dimensional model of scattering from a rectangular array. The distance between adjacent

atoms in a horizontal row is a; the distance between adjacent rows is d.

Therefore, the conditions for radiation from the entire array to reach the observer in phase are

(1) the angle of incidence must equal the angle of scattering and (2) the path difference for

adjacent rows must equal ml, where m is an integer. We can express the second condition,

called the Bragg condition in honor of x-ray diffraction pioneers Sir William Bragg and his son

Laurence Bragg, as

2𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑚𝜆 (30)

44
There is also constructive interference between planes when eqn. (30) is satisfied, where d is

now the distance between adjacent planes. Because there are many different sets of parallel

planes, there are also many values of d and many sets of angles that give constructive

interference for the whole crystal lattice. This phenomenon is called Bragg reflection. Bragg

reflection is really Bragg interference, while the term reflection is being used, remember that

we are dealing with an interference effect. The reflections from various planes are closely

analogous to interference effects in thin films.

We can determine the wavelength of x rays by examining the diffraction pattern for a crystal

of known structure and known spacing between atoms, just as we determined wavelengths of

visible light by measuring patterns from slits or gratings. (The spacing between atoms in simple

crystals of known structure, such as sodium chloride, can be found from the density of the

crystal and Avogadro’s number.) Then, once we know the x-ray wavelength, we can use x-ray

diffraction to explore the structure and determine the spacing between atoms in crystals with

unknown structure.

X-ray diffraction is by far the most important experimental tool in the investigation of crystal

structure of solids. X-ray diffraction also plays an important role in studies of the structures of

liquids and of organic molecules.

Example 10:

You direct a beam of 0.154-nm x rays at certain planes of a silicon crystal. As you increase the

angle of incidence of the beam from zero, the first strong interference maximum occurs when

the beam makes an angle of 34.5° with the planes. (a) How far apart are the planes? (b) Will

you find other interference maxima from these planes at greater angles of incidence?

Solution

θ = 34.5°, m = 1 (the first strong interference maximum), λ = 0.154 nm, d = ?

45
from eqn. 30, 2𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑚𝜆

𝑚𝜆 1 x 0.154 nm
⸫𝑑 = = = 0.136 nm
2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 34.5°

Example 11:

A parallel beam of X-rays is diffracted by a rock salt crystal. The first-order strong reflection

is obtained when the glancing angle (the angle between the crystal face and the beam) is 6°50'.

The distance between reflection planes in the crystal is 2.8 Å. What is the wavelength of the

X-rays? (1 angstrom = 1 Å = 0.1 nm or 10−10m and 1° = 60')

Solution

θ = 6°50' = 6.83°, m = 1 (the first-order strong reflection), λ = ?, d = 2.8 x 10−10m

2𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 2 x 2.8 x 10−10 m x 𝑠𝑖𝑛 6.83°

Example 12:

How far apart are the diffracting planes in a NaCl crystal for which X-rays of wavelength 1.54

Å make a glancing angle of 15°54' in the first order?

Solution

θ = 15°54' = 15.9°, m = 1 (first order), λ = 1.54 Å, d = ?

𝑚𝜆 1 x 1.54 x 10−10 m
⸫𝑑 = = = 2.8 x 10−10m = 2.81 Å
2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 2 x 𝑠𝑖𝑛 15.9°

Example 13:

X rays of wavelength 0.0850 nm are scattered from the atoms of a crystal. The second-order

maximum in the Bragg reflection occurs when the angle θ is 21.5°. What is the spacing between

adjacent atomic planes in the crystal?

46
Solution

θ = 21.5°, m = 2 (second order), λ = 0.0850 nm, d = ?

𝑚𝜆 2 x 8.5 x 10−11 m
⸫𝑑 = = = 0.232 x 10−9m = 0.232 nm
2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 2 x 𝑠𝑖𝑛 21.5°

HOLOGRAPHY

Holography is a technique for recording and reproducing an image of an object through the use

of interference effects. Unlike the two-dimensional images recorded by an ordinary photograph

or television system, a holographic image is truly three-dimensional. Such an image can be

viewed from different directions to reveal different sides and from various distances to reveal

changing perspective. If you had never seen a hologram, you wouldn’t believe it was possible

Figure 36 shows the basic procedure for making a hologram. We illuminate the object to be

holographed with monochromatic light, and we place a photographic film so that it is struck

by scattered light from the object and also by direct light from the source. In practice, the light

source must be a laser, for reasons we will discuss later. Interference between the direct and

scattered light forms a complex interference pattern that is recorded on the film.

Figure 36. Recording a hologram

To form the images, we simply project light through the developed film (Fig. 37). Two images

are formed: a virtual image on the side of the film nearer the source and a real image on the

opposite side.
47
Figure 37. Viewing the hologram

A hologram is the record on film of the interference pattern formed with light from the coherent

source and light scattered from the object. Images are formed when light is projected through

the hologram. The observer sees the virtual image formed behind the hologram.

Holography and Interference Patterns

A complete analysis of holography is beyond our scope, but we can gain some insight into the

process by looking at how a single point is holographed and imaged. Consider the interference

pattern that is formed on a sheet of photographic negative film by the superposition of an

incident plane wave and a spherical wave, as shown in Fig. 38. The spherical wave originates

at a point source P at a distance b0 from the film; P may in fact be a small object that scatters

part of the incident plane wave. We assume that the two waves are monochromatic and coherent

and that the phase relationship is such that constructive interference occurs at point O on the

diagram. Then constructive interference will also occur at any point Q on the film that is farther

from P than O is by an integer number of wavelengths. That is, if bm - b0 = mλ, where m is an

integer, then constructive interference occurs.

48
Figure 38. Constructive interference of the plane and spherical waves

The points where this condition is satisfied form circles on the film centered at O, with radii

𝑟𝑚 given by

(31)

Ordinarily, 𝑏0 is very much larger than λ, so we ignore the second term in parentheses and

obtain

(32)

The interference pattern consists of a series of concentric bright circular fringes with radii given

by eqn. 32. Between these bright fringes are dark fringes.

In making a hologram, we have to overcome two practical problems. First, the light used must

be coherent over distances that are large in comparison to the dimensions of the object and its

distance from the film. Ordinary light sources do not satisfy this requirement. Therefore, laser

light is essential for making a hologram. (Ordinary white light can be used for viewing certain

types of holograms, such as those used on credit cards.) Second, extreme mechanical stability

49
is needed. If any relative motion of source, object, or film occurs during exposure, even by as

much as a quarter of a wavelength, the interference pattern on the film is blurred enough to

prevent satisfactory image formation. These obstacles are not insurmountable, however, and

holography has become important in research, entertainment, and a wide variety of

technological applications.

50