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INTRODUCTION
TO
LINEAR
ALGEBRA
Fourth Edition
MANUAL FOR INSTRUCTORS
Gilbert Strang
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
math.mit.edu/linearalgebra
web.mit.edu/18.06
video lectures: ocw.mit.edu
math.mit.edu/gs
www.wellesleycambridge.com
email: [email protected]
Wellesley - Cambridge Press
Box 812060
Wellesley, Massachusetts 02482
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2 Solutions to Exercises
Problem Set 1.1, page 8
1 The combinations give (a) a line in R3 (b) a plane in R3 (c) all of R3 .
2 v C w D .2; 3/ and v w D .6; 1/ will be the diagonals of the parallelogram with v
and w as two sides going out from .0; 0/.
3 This problem gives the diagonals v C w and v w of the parallelogram and asks for
the sides: The opposite of Problem 2. In this example v D .3; 3/ and w D .2; 2/.
4 3v C w D .7; 5/ and cv C d w D .2c C d; c C 2d /.
5 uCv D . 2; 3; 1/ and uCv Cw D .0; 0; 0/ and 2uC2vCw D . add first answers/ D
. 2; 3; 1/. The vectors u; v; w are in the same plane because a combination gives
.0; 0; 0/. Stated another way: u D v w is in the plane of v and w.
6 The components of every cv C d w add to zero. c D 3 and d D 9 give .3; 3; 6/.
7 The nine combinations c.2; 1/ C d.0; 1/ with c D 0; 1; 2 and d D .0; 1; 2/ will lie on
a lattice. If we took all whole numbers c and d , the lattice would lie over the whole
plane.
8 The other diagonal is v w (or else w v). Adding diagonals gives 2v (or 2w).
9 The fourth corner can be .4; 4/ or .4; 0/ or . 2; 2/. Three possible parallelograms!
10 i j D .1; 1; 0/ is in the base (x-y plane). i C j C k D .1; 1; 1/ is the opposite corner
from .0; 0; 0/. Points in the cube have 0 x 1, 0 y 1, 0 z 1.
11 Four more corners .1; 1; 0/; .1; 0; 1/; .0; 1; 1/; .1; 1; 1/. The center point is . 12 ; 21 ; 12 /.
Centers of faces are . 12 ; 12 ; 0/; . 12 ; 12 ; 1/ and .0; 21 ; 12 /; .1; 12 ; 12 / and . 12 ; 0; 12 /; . 12 ; 1; 12 /.
12 A four-dimensional cube has 24 D 16 corners and 2 4 D 8 three-dimensional faces
and 24 two-dimensional faces and 32 edges in Worked Example 2.4 A.
13 Sum D zero vector. Sum
p D 2:00 vector D 8:00 vector. 2:00 is 30ı from horizontal
D .cos 6 ; sin 6 / D . 3=2; 1=2/.
14 Moving the origin to 6:00 adds j D .0; 1/ to every vector. So the sum of twelve vectors
changes from 0 to 12j D .0; 12/.
3 1
15 The point v C w is three-fourths of the way to v starting from w. The vector
4 4
1 1 1 1
v C w is halfway to u D v C w. The vector v C w is 2u (the far corner of the
4 4 2 2
parallelogram).
16 All combinations with c C d D 1 are on the line that passes through v and w.
The point V D v C 2w is on that line but it is beyond w.
17 All vectors cv C cw are on the line passing through .0; 0/ and u D 12 v C 12 w. That
line continues out beyond v C w and back beyond .0; 0/. With c 0, half of this line
is removed, leaving a ray that starts at .0; 0/.
18 The combinations cv C d w with 0 c 1 and 0 d 1 fill the parallelogram with
sides v and w. For example, if v D .1; 0/ and w D .0; 1/ then cv C d w fills the unit
square.
19 With c 0 and d 0 we get the infinite “cone” or “wedge” between v and w. For
example, if v D .1; 0/ and w D .0; 1/, then the cone is the whole quadrant x 0,
y 0. Question: What if w D v? The cone opens to a half-space.
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50 Solutions to Exercises
" # " # " # " #" #
1 0 0 1 0 0 1 2 4
23 You can see why q 1 D 0 , q 2 D 0 , q 3 D 1 . A D 0 0 1 0 3 6 D
0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 5
QR.
24 (a) One basis for the subspace S of solutions to x1 C x2 C x3 x4 D 0 is v1 D
.1; 1; 0; 0/, v2 D .1; 0; 1; 0/, v3 D .1; 0; 0; 1/ (b) Since S contains solutions to
.1; 1; 1; 1/T x D 0, a basis for S ? is .1; 1; 1; 1/ (c) Split .1; 1; 1; 1/ D b1 C b2
by projection on S ? and S : b2 D . 12 ; 12 ; 12 ; 12 / and b1 D . 12 ; 12 ; 12 ; 23 /.
25 This question
shows 2 by 2 formulas
QR; breakdown R22 D
for 0 when A is sin-
2 1 1 2 1 1 5 3 1 1 1 1 1
gular. D p p . Singular D p
1 1 5 1 2 5 0 1 1 1 2 1 1
1 2 2
p . The Gram-Schmidt process breaks down when ad bc D 0.
2 0 0
T
26 .q T2 C /q 2 D BT c B because q 2 D B and the extra q 1 in C is orthogonal to q 2 .
B B kB k
27 When a and b are not orthogonal, the projections onto these lines do not add to the pro-
jection onto the plane of a and b. We must use the orthogonal A and B (or orthonormal
q 1 and q 2 ) to be allowed to add 1D projections.
28 There are mn multiplications in (11) and 12 m2 n multiplications in each part of (12).
1
29 q 1 D 3
.2; 2; 1/, q 2 D 13 .2; 1; 2/, q 3 D 13 .1; 2; 2/.
1
30 The columns of the wavelet matrix W are orthonormal. Then W D W T . See
Section 7.2 for more about wavelets : a useful orthonormal basis with many zeros.
31 (a) c D 21 normalizes all the orthogonal columns to have unit length (b) The pro-
jection .aT b=aT a/a of b D .1; 1; 1; 1/ onto the first column is p1 D 12 . 1; 1; 1; 1/.
(Check e D 0.) To project onto the plane, add p2 D 21 .1; 1; 1; 1/ to get .0; 0; 1; 1/.
" #
1 0 0
1 0
32 Q1 D reflects across x axis, Q2 D 0 0 1 across plane y C z D 0.
0 1
0 1 0
33 Orthogonal and lower triangular ) ˙1 on the main diagonal and zeros elsewhere.
34 (a) Qu D .I 2uuT /u D u 2uuT u. This is u, provided that uT u equals 1
(b) Qv D .I 2uuT /v D u 2uuT v D u, provided that uT v D 0.
35 Starting from A D .1; 1; 0; 0/, the orthogonal (not orthonormal) vectors B D
.1; 1; 2; 0/ and C D .1; 1; 1; 3/ and D D .1; 1; 1; 1/ are in the directions of q 2 ; q 3 ; q 4 .
The 4 by 4 and 5 by 5 matrices with integer orthogonal columns2 (not orthogonal3rows,
2 3 1 1 1 1
6 1 1 1 17
since not orthonormal Q!) are 4 A B C D 5 D 4 and
0 2 1 15
0 0 3 1
2 3
1 1 1 1 1
6 1 1 1 1 17
6 7
6 0 2 1 1 17
4 0 0 3 1 15
0 0 0 4 1
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90 Solutions to Exercises
7 UU D I : Back substitution needs 12 j 2 multiplications on column j , using the j
1
by j upper left block. Then 21 .12 C 22 C C n2 / 12 . 13 n3 / D total to find U 1 .
1 0 2 2 2 2 0 1 1 0
8 ! ! D U with P D and L D ;
2 2 1 0 0 1 1 0 :5 1
" # " # " # " #
2 2 0 2 2 0 2 2 0 2 2 0
A ! 1 0 1 ! 0 1 1 ! 0 2 0 ! 0 2 0 D U with
0 2 0 0 2 0 0 1 1 0 0 1
" # " #
0 1 0 1 0 0
P D 0 0 1 and L D 0 1 0 .
1 0 0 :5 :5 1
2 3
1 1 0 0
61 1 1 07
9 AD4 has cofactors C13 D C31 D C24 D C42 D 1 and C14 D C41 D
0 1 1 15
0 0 1 1
1. A 1 is a full matrix!
10 With 16-digit floating point arithmetic the errors kx x computedk for " D 10 3 , 10 6 ,
9 12 15
10 , 10 , 10 are of order 10 , 10 , 10 , 10 4 , 10 3 .
16 11 7
p p 1 3 1 1 10 14
11 (a) cos D 1= 10, sin D 3= 10, R D p1 D p1 .
10 3 1 3 5 10 0 8
(b) A haseigenvalues
4 and 2. Put one of the unit eigenvectors
in row 1 of Q: either
1 1 1 1 2 4 1 1 3
QD p and QAQ D or Q D p and QAQ 1 D
2 1 1 0 4 10 3 1
4 4
.
0 2
12 When A is multiplied by a plane rotation Qij , this changes the 2n (not n2 ) entries in
1
rows i and j . Then multiplying on the right by .Qij / D .Qij /T changes the 2n
entries in columns i and j .
13 Qij A uses 4n multiplications (2 for each entry in rows i and j /. By factoring out cos ,
the entries 1 and ˙ tan need only 2n multiplications, which leads to 23 n3 for QR.
1
14 The .2; 1/ entry of Q21 A is 3
. sin C 2 cos /. This is zero if sin D 2 cos or
p p p
tan D 2. Then the 2; 1; 5 right triangle has sin D 2= 5 and cos D 1= 5.
Every 3 by 3 rotation with det Q D C1 is the product of 3 plane rotations.
15 This problem shows how elimination is more expensive (the nonzero multipliers are
counted by nnz(L) and nnz(LL)) when we spoil the tridiagonal K by a random per-
mutation.
If on the other hand we start with a poorly ordered matrix K, an improved ordering
is found by the code symamd discussed in this section.
16 The “red-black ordering” puts rows and columns 1 to 10 in the odd-even order 1; 3; 5; 7,
9; 2; 4; 6; 8; 10. When K is the 1; 2; 1 tridiagonal matrix, odd points are connected
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