ENGLISH FOR

PROFESSIONAL AND
ACADEMIC PURPOSES

PREPARED BY:
JOSHUA C. ALPAPARA
Teacher
 ❖ LESSONS AND COVERAGE

LESSONS You’ll learn to…

LESSON 1 Differentiate language used in academic texts from various
Disciplines

Use knowledge of text structure to glean the information he/she

needs
Use various techniques in summarizing a variety of academic texts

Write an objective/balanced review or critique of a work of art, an

LESSON 2 event or a program
Determine the ways a writer can elucidate on a concept by
LESSON 3 definition, explication and clarification

Analyze the arguments used by the writer/s in manifestoes

LESSON 4 Defend a stand on an issue by presenting reasonable arguments

supported by properly cited factual evidences
Writes various kinds of position papers
Determine the objectives and structures of various kinds of
reports
Summarize findings and executes the report through narrative
LESSON 5
and visual/graphic forms
Write various reports

❖ EXPECTED SKILLS

• The learner understands the principles and uses of a position paper.

• The learner presents a convincing position paper based on properly cited factual
evidence produces an insightful statement of principles and reasons for establishing
a student organization, coming up with a group exhibit of creative works, etc.
• The learner understands the principles and uses of surveys, experiments and
scientific observations
• The learner produces a well-written report for various disciplines
 • The learner acquires knowledge of appropriate reading strategies for a better
understanding of academic texts.
• The learner produces a detailed abstract of information gathered from the various
academic texts read.
• The learner understands the principles and uses of a concept paper.
• The learner produces a well-balanced concept paper in a specific discipline.
• The learner understands the principles and uses of a reaction paper/review/ critique.
• The learner produces an Objective assessment of an event, a person, a place or a thing.
Writes a comprehensive review /reaction paper.

❖ MODULE MAP:
Here is a simple map of the above lessons you will cover:

READING
ACADEMIC
TEXTS

LEARN
DIFFERENT USES
OF THE ENGLISH
LANGUAGE

KNOWLEDGE ELUCIDATION
OF OF
STRUCTURE CONCEPTS
LESSON 1
Reading Academic Texts

“Reading is fundamental to writing and research at University,

but often gets overlooked – lecturers assume that students know how to
read, and students assume there’s only one way to read – but neither of
these things is necessarily true! There are ways to read that can improve
information processing, can help with building an argument, and
importantly for many students, can save lots of time!!” — Academic
Literacy Workshops, University of Cape Town

The passage above makes an important point: most of us assume we know how
to read for school. However, methods that may have been fine in the past (skimming, quick
reviews, relying upon class lectures or notes) won’t hold up well as we move further into higher
education.
Academic reading is a specific category of reading. It’s helpful to remember that academic
reading is an act of performance. Rather than sitting back and passively receiving information we
read in college, we will be asked to directly act upon that information in some way. We will be
quizzed or tested. We will be asked to debate, analyze, or critique what we read. We will need to
read closely, remember the text accurately, and compare it to other texts for style and content.

Purpose of Academic Reading

Casual reading across genres, from books and magazines to newspapers and blogs,
is something students should be encouraged to do in their free time because it can be
both educational and fun. In college, however, instructors generally expect students to read
resources that have particular value in the context of a course. Why is academic reading
beneficial?
• Information comes from reputable sources: Web sites and blogs can be a source of insight
and information, but not all are useful as academic resources. They may be written by
people or companies whose main purpose is to share an opinion or sell you something.
Academic sources such as textbooks and scholarly journal articles, on the other hand, are
usually written by experts in the field and have to pass stringent peer review requirements
in order to get published.
• Learn how to form arguments: In most college classes except for creating writing, when
instructors ask you to write a paper, they expect it to be argumentative in style. This means
that the goal of the paper is to research a topic and develop an argument about it using
evidence and facts to support your position. Since many college reading assignments
(especially journal articles) are written in a similar style, you’ll gain experience
studying their strategies and learning to emulate them.
• Exposure to different viewpoints: One purpose of assigned academic readings is to give
students exposure to different viewpoints and ideas. For example, in an ethics class, you
might be asked to read a series of articles written by medical professionals and religious
leaders who are pro-life or pro-choice and consider the validity of their arguments. Such
experience can help you wrestle with ideas and beliefs in new ways and develop a better
understanding of how others’ views differ from your own.
Reading Strategies for Academic Texts
Recall from the Active Learning section that effective reading requires
more engagement than just reading the words on the page. In order to learn and retain what you
read, it’s a good idea to do things like circling key words, writing notes, and reflecting. Actively
reading academic texts can be challenging for students who are used to reading for entertainment
alone, but practicing the following steps will get you up to speed:
• Preview: You can gain insight from an academic text before you even begin the reading
assignment. For example, if you are assigned a nonfiction book, read the title, the back of
the book, and table of contents. Scanning this information can give you an initial idea of
what you’ll be reading and some useful context for thinking about it. You can also start to
make connections between the new reading and knowledge you already have, which is
another strategy for retaining information.
• Read: While you read an academic text, you should have a pen or pencil in hand. Circle
or highlight key concepts. Write questions or comments in the margins or in a
notebook. This will help you remember what you are reading and also build a personal
connection with the subject matter.
• Summarize: After you an read academic text, it’s worth taking the time to write a short
summary—even if your instructor doesn’t require it. The exercise of jotting down a few
sentences or a short paragraph capturing the main ideas of the reading is enormously
beneficial: it not only helps you understand and absorb what you read but gives you ready
study and review materials for exams and other writing assignments.
• Review: It always helps to revisit what you’ve read for a quick refresher. It may not be
practical to thoroughly reread assignments from start to finish, but before class
 discussions or tests, it’s a good idea to skim through them to identify the main points,
reread any notes at the ends of chapters, and review any summaries you’ve written.
The following video covers additional active reading strategies readers can use before, during,
and after the reading process.
Reading Strategies for Specialized Texts and Online Resources
In college it’s not uncommon to experience frustration with reading
assignments from time to time. Because you’re doing more reading on your own outside the
classroom, and with less frequent contact with instructors than you had in high school, it’s possible
you’ll encounter readings that contain unfamiliar vocabulary or don’t readily make sense. Different
disciplines and subjects have different writing conventions and styles, and it can take some
practice to get to know them. For example, scientific articles follow a very particular format and
typically contain the following sections: an abstract, introduction, methods, results, and
discussions. If you are used to reading literary works, such as graphic novels or poetry, it can be
disorienting to encounter these new forms of writing.
Below are some strategies for making different kinds of texts more approachable.
Get to Know the Conventions
Academic texts, like scientific studies and journal articles, may have sections that
are new to you. If you’re not sure what an “abstract” is, research it online or ask your instructor.
Understanding the meaning and purpose of such conventions is not only helpful for reading
comprehension but for writing, too.
Look up and Keep Track of Unfamiliar Terms and Phrases
Have a good college dictionary such as Merriam-Webster handy (or find it online)
when you read complex academic texts, so you can look up the meaning of unfamiliar words and
terms. Many textbooks also contain glossaries or “key terms” sections at the ends of chapters or
the end of the book. If you can’t find the words you’re looking for in a standard dictionary, you
may need one specially written for a particular discipline. For example, a medical dictionary would
be a good resource for a course in anatomy and physiology.
If you circle or underline terms and phrases that appear repeatedly, you’ll have a
visual reminder to review and learn them. Repetition helps to lock in these new words and their
meaning get them into long-term memory, so the more you review them the more you’ll
understand and feel comfortable using them.
Look for Main Ideas and Themes
As a college student, you are not expected to understand every single word or
idea presented in a reading, especially if you haven’t discussed it in class yet. However, you will
get more out of discussions and feel more confident about asking questions if you can identify the
main idea or thesis in a reading. The thesis statement can often (but not always) be found in the
introductory paragraph, and it may be introduced with a phrase like “In this essay I argue that . .
.” Getting a handle on the overall reason an author wrote something (“to prove X” or “to explore
Y,” for instance) gives you a framework for understanding more of the details. It’s also useful to
keep track of any themes you notice in the writing. A theme may be a recurring idea, word, or
image that strikes you as interesting or important: “This story is about men working in a
gloomy factory, but the author keeps mentioning birds and bats and windows. Why is that??”
Get the Most of Online Reading
 Reading online texts presents unique challenges for some students. For one thing, you
can’t readily circle or underline key terms or passages on the screen with a pencil. For another,
there can be many tempting distractions—just a quick visit to [Link] or Facebook.
While there’s no substitute for old-fashioned self-discipline, you can take advantage of the
following tips to make online reading more efficient and effective:
• Where possible, download the reading as a PDF, Word document, etc., so you can read
it offline.
• Get one of the apps that allow you to disable your social media sites for specified periods
of time.
• Adjust your screen to avoid glare and eye strain, and change the text font to be less
distracting (for those essays written in Comic Sans).
Look for Reputable Online Sources
Professors tend to assign reading from reputable print and online sources, so
you can feel comfortable referencing such sources in class and for writing assignments. If you are
looking for online sources independently, however, devote some time and energy to critically
evaluating the quality of the source before spending time reading any resources you find there.
Find out what you can about the author (if one is listed), the Web site, and any affiliated sponsors
it may have. Check that the information is current and accurate against similar information on
other pages. Depending on what you are researching, sites that end in “.edu” (indicating an
“education” site such as a college, university, or other academic institution) tend to be more
reliable than “.com” sites.
Pay Attention to Visual Information
Images in textbooks or journals usually contain valuable information to help you more
deeply grasp a topic. Graphs and charts, for instance, help show the relationship between
different kinds of information or data—how a population changes over time, how a virus spreads
through a population, etc.
Data-rich graphics can take longer to “read” than the text around them because they present a lot
of information in a condensed form. Give yourself plenty of time to study these items, as they
often provide new and lasting insights that are easy to recall later (like in the middle of an exam
on that topic!).
Vocabulary-Building Techniques
Gaining confidence with unique terminology used in different disciplines can help
you be more successful in your courses and in college generally. In addition to the
suggestions described earlier, such as looking up unfamiliar words in dictionaries, the following
are additional vocabulary-building techniques for you to try:
Read Everything and Read Often
Reading frequently both in and out of the classroom will help strengthen your
vocabulary. Whenever you read a book, magazine, newspaper, blog, or any other resource,
keep a running list of words you don’t know. Look up the words as you encounter them and try to
incorporate them into your own speaking and writing.
Make Connections to Words You Already Know
You may be familiar with the “looks like . . . sounds like” saying that applies to words.
It means that you can sometimes look at a new word and guess the definition based on similar
words whose meaning you know. For example, if you are reading a biology book on the human
body and come across the word malignant, you might guess that this word means something
negative or broken if you already know the word malfunction, which share the “mal-” prefix.
Make Index Cards
If you are studying certain words for a test, or you know that certain phrases will be
used frequently in a course or field, try making flashcards for review. For each key term, write the
word on one side of an index card and the definition on the other. Drill yourself, and then ask your
friends to help quiz you.
Developing a strong vocabulary is similar to most hobbies and activities. Even experts in a
field continue to encounter and adopt new words. The following video discusses more strategies
for improving vocabulary.
LESSON 2
Writing the Reaction/Review/Critique Paper

Here’s an excerpt from a sample reaction paper.

“Nothing about the play stimulated me. I was dragged into it only because the class was required
to watch it. So many aspects of the play need improvement. For one, the props were outdated.
Made me wonder if that was part of the ploy, or because the production team was operating on a
tight budget. Another thing that displeased me was the venue. It was evident that the acoustics
had seen better days. Lastly, the script was lackluster and boring. Also, it’s hard to believe that
the characters from this economic group would speak and behave this way. I also find the
speaking style of the characters too pretentious. While I appreciate the effort of the writers,
perhaps they can rethink the characters’ worldview. The only saving grace was that the script
tried as best as it could, to mimic the struggles of the working class.”
When you write about what you have read, or something you have seen or experienced—an
event, situation, or phenomenon—you’re writing your reaction about it and your output would be
classified as a reaction paper. Chances are, you’ve been asked many times to write reaction
papers in your elementary days. However, it’s not uncommon for Senior High School students to
be asked to write reaction papers as well.
When you write reaction papers, you are expected to write about your total experience in relation
to an event or reading material. You write about not just the usual details but also your reaction
to it; you can discuss whether the experience had a positive or negative impact on you.
For example, if you’re asked to write a reaction paper after attending a seminar on “Youth
Empowerment,” you are expected to discuss not just the sequence of the seminar including the
topics, objectives, and program flow, but also your feelings after watching the event. Your insights
about it will be useful when you summarize the event.
A reaction paper would not be complete without your assessment of your experience. In your
assessment, you may include statements praising the organizers or suggesting points for
improvement. Whether you’ve chosen to highlight the positive or negative aspects, it would be
best to be both objective and careful in your assessment, making sure that you balance your
opinion with verifiable facts.
Here are some questions to ask when you write a reaction paper:
1. What is the book, event, or phenomenon about?
2. Did it meet its objective/s?
3. How do I feel about it? Did it influence me in a negative or positive way?
4. What insights did I get from it?
5. Did I tactfully justify my reaction toward the book, event, place, thing, etc.?
Here’s an excerpt from a sample review.
Think of a glass cullet: rotund, translucent, illuminated by rays of light. A robust figure cradling
what seems to be an outline of a child. Or a 12″-high brass piece of a faceless chunk in a
contemplative pose. These remarkable sculptures highlight the exhibit aptly titled “In Praise of
Form” held recently at the Grand Ballroom of Manila Hotel.
The artworks are in scintillating emerald green and deep electric blue, candy-colored but ovoid
and sleek. Cosmopolitan. They look like sweet stuff; but the art pieces would make fitting
adornments in plush homes and offices. Although faceless and rendered as non-representational
abstraction, the art works speak of a profound message about humanity and love. The other art
forms are forays into other media: metal, wood, semi-precious stones and glass. But the piece de
resistance is a combination of glass and bronze, of concave and convex. It is a study in contrast:
simplicity and strength; seamlessness and grace.
Such is the essence of an exhibit that gives tribute to form.
How well did the reviewer describe the art exhibit? Did it go beyond a mere recounting of the
event? Did the writer attempt to tell a story in the framework of the exhibit or did it just describe
the artworks?
Your honest answer to these questions will help you determine the qualities of a well-written
review.
Expressing your opinion about an event, book, restaurant, art, exhibit, performance, movie, or
latest trends is called a review paper. You can also talk about tourist destinations, government
policies, and social phenomena. This type of writing takes the form of blurbs, blogs, and essays.
It is not just a summary but a commentary involving the writer’s opinion, and thus requires
persuasion and critical evaluation. You also aim to argue when writing a review since you want
your readers to make informed decisions based on what you have written.
It is important to be concise in your review, but not too concise that you miss the important aspects
of the book, event, place or phenomenon that you are evaluating. You are also expected to be
unbiased in your evaluation. You can do this by providing your honest appraisal of it, combining
your opinion with accurate facts. In addition, reviews involve arguments, so you are expected to
state your claim in the thesis statement.
For example, when writing a book review, you may quote actual passages from the book that you
can either agree or disagree with. You can explain the passage further in relation to the book’s
literal or symbolic meaning. Furthermore, you can explain your reasons for persuading or
dissuading your readers to read it.
When writing about a film, you might wish to discuss the movie in terms of its subject matter,
theme, cinematography, direction, musical scoring, or actors. You may include your criticism
against any aspect of the movie—and to balance your criticism, you might wish to include your
sincere compliments about an aspect of the movie that you found truly praiseworthy.
Here are some questions to ask when you write a review:
1. Does my review reflect my understanding of the book, event, or phenomenon that I am
evaluating?
2. Did I highlight important aspects of the book, event, or phenomenon?
3. Have I included enough details and evidence to help readers evaluate the merits of the
book, event, place or phenomenon that I am evaluating?
4. Have I been fair in my evaluation?
5. Did I make a clear argument? Did I support my opinion with accurate, verifiable facts?
 6. Have I given my readers enough basis to make an informed judgment based on my
evaluation?
Here’s an excerpt from a sample critique.
Pulitzer-prize winner Toni Morrison gives readers a glimpse of the rich tapestry of her imagination
and insight on how it is to be an African-American in a multi-cultural society. She brings her own
experiences as an African-American from a small town in Lorrain, Ohio to the intricate web of her
novels resorting at times to magical realism, as in two of her novels Song of Solon and Beloved,
she weaves her tales using folklore and myths. Her language is clear and lyrical. Her characters
are like the ever-changing facets of a kaleidoscope.
Morrison has written extensively about racism, class and sexism and explored how these issues
have affected the lives of her characters, positing that these issues are societal and psychological
restrictions that leave a gaping hole in the black woman’s psyche. Her narratives depict the
characters interacting with a variety of forces: the protagonist at odds with other characters; the
protagonist at odds with nature; protagonists at odds with themselves.
Precisely because of her own unique experience as an African-American, Morrison is at her best
when she writes for, and about African-Americans. The extent to which she acknowledges their
experiences against a backdrop of gender oppression and racism is what makes her novels worth
reading. She infuses her novels with these realities and shows just how such issues restrict the
individual not only physically but also emotionally.
As a contemporary fictionist, Morrison continues to be intrigued by the question of how African-
Americans, particularly women—transcend or sometimes succumb to restrictions of class,
gender, and race. Morrison gives her readers a glaring account of the disparity between the
American woman’s experiences vis-a-vis the African woman’s circumstances. In most of her
novels, white American women are depicted as being financially well-off, educated, pretty, and
living a charmed life. In contrast, African-American women are depicted as impoverished,
uneducated, unattractive, and more often than not, deserted by their husbands. However, despite
these glaring stereotypes, Morrison redeems her characters by giving them qualities that would
endear them to the readers. That she should situate her characters in situations where they have
to grapple with the roles ascribed to them by society on the basis of their gender, race, and class
is inevitable.
Of all the types of academic writing in this lesson, critiques are considered the most academic.
Defined as a form of intellectual discourse involving one’s evaluation of an event, book, place, or
phenomenon, a critique is the more expanded version of a reaction paper. Examples of critiques
include a critique of an artist’s work, literary criticism, and scholarly essays evaluating a project.
This type of writing allows writers to articulate their opinion about issues familiar and relevant to
them.
Reaction papers/reviews/critiques allow writers to express their views, enabling others to share
their point or a contrary viewpoint. Although they rely on the writer’s opinion, as with all types of
academic writing, these types of papers require evidence in the form of facts, statistics, examples,
testimony, reviews of fellow writers, pictures, and other pieces of evidence to make the writer’s
claim more valid.
LESSON 3
Writing Concept Paper

A research paper is usually done at the very last year or semester and is vital for the
satisfactory completion of your course. You as the student are required to come up with a topic
of research that you find relevant and essential to potentially solve an existing problem or answer
a controversial question in your area of study or industry in question.
Before doing your research or writing your research paper, you will need to draft a catchy
summary of what the research is about and how it contributes to the world of academia, and
especially with regards to the particular industry in question. This summary is what is known as a
concept paper. The concept paper will be read by your lecturer or supervisor who will be tasked
to determine the suitability of the research project you want to undertake. Based on their analysis
and your prowess in convincing them that it is a worthy and helpful research project, they will
either give you the go-ahead to carry on with the project, suggest similar alternative topics you
can focus on, or tell you to come up with another project altogether. This article details how to
write a concept paper, but first, let us look at what a concept paper is.
Concept paper definition
A concept paper is a document which summarizes what your project is about, why it is important,
and how you intend to carry it out. It consists of the topic under research, the hypothesis that you
seek to approve or disprove, research questions, data required, and methods of obtaining it. It is
sometimes known as a proposal or an abstract. The latter two are usually more detailed than a
concept paper but often serve the same purpose, that is, to convince the party evaluating it that
the research project is worthwhile.
Depending on the research you are carrying out, your concept paper can range from 2-3 pages
for a small research project to up to 20 pages for massive research projects. As for the formatting,
the spacing should be double, the font size should be 12, and the font style should preferably be
Times New Roman. If you refer to any sources while drafting your concept paper, it is important
that you cite them at the end of your document or whenever the citation may be necessary for the
process of concept paper writing.
How to Write a Concept Paper
Writing a concept paper is the first step in writing your research project. A winning concept paper
will capture the attention of whoever is reading it and get you the results you need. Below are the
steps you need to follow to ensure that your concept paper will get a smile and a nod from the
reader.
1. Come up with a research topic that genuinely interests you
The research topic should span areas that interest you as an individual and are still relevant
to your area of study or course. How do you come up with a research topic?
How to Come Up with a Research Topic
As you studied throughout your junior classes, you may have encountered certain concepts
that awoke your curiosity. These may give you ideas of what your research could be about.
Alternatively, while randomly reading a newspaper, watching TV, reading books, and so on,
you may have come across ideas or concepts that aroused your interests. These can serve
as research topics you may consider pursuing. Personal experiences can also be good
starting points when you are searching for a topic to write about.
List all the ideas you can remember or think of that you would be interested in doing a research
on. Afterward, choose the area that interests you most in the list you made as the one in which
you will carry out your research. Ensure it is a topic that is academically relevant and
researchable.
2. Write Down the Research Questions You Need to Research on Depending on the
Idea You Have Chosen
You can come up with as many questions as possible. The more the questions, the longer
your research paper will be, as it will seek to answer to each of them. The questions can range
from:
• Exploratory questions, where you want to find out more about the topic under study,
• Explanatory question, where your aim is to explore the relationship or lack thereof
between two or more variables, and
• Descriptive questions such as determining the averages, means, and modes of a
variable or variables in the topic under study.
3. Develop a Research Hypothesis From Each of the Research Questions That You
Have Listed

A hypothesis, also known as a thesis or theses in plural, is a tentative, usually informed

or educated guess about a certain scenario. It is referred to as ‘an educated or informed
guess’ as it is based on some prior knowledge about the topic either by some pre-known
theory, or a previous research you may have carried out. The hypothesis is what you will
either prove or disprove when the research is done and therefore, be able to draw your
conclusion.

4. Identify the kind of data you need to answer these hypothetical questions and how
you will gather the data
Depending on the type of research you are carrying out, data that you may need may include
actual numbers, averages, and so on. Data can either be primary or secondary, qualitative or
quantitative.
• Primary data is first-hand information obtained from the ground, for example, by
carrying out interviews and site visits.
• Secondary data is second-hand information obtained from reading books, watching
news, videos, the internet, and other already documented material.
• Qualitative data is based on subjective factors such as people’s opinions, while
• Quantitative data is based on actual numbers and is, therefore, more objective.
5. Identify How You Will Analyze, Interpret, and Present the Data
Come up with conclusive and tangible evidence to prove or disprove all the hypotheses you
had stated earlier. Methods of data analysis include the use of statistical analysis such as
mean, totals, income, or the general relationship between variables which can be enhanced
by the use of graphical methods where possible.
Having developed all the above, you are now ready to come up with your concept paper,
which will detail each of the steps outlined. The following is a guideline on how to structure
your ideas for the perfect concept paper.
How to Structure Your Concept Paper
Here are the major elements of a concept paper format:
1. The Title Page
You should begin with a title that fully summarizes what the project you are carrying out is
about. Avoid being wordy and stick to the main point.
2. Introduction and Statement of the Problem
This serves as the most important part of the concept paper. You must be seeking to add
value and convince the reader that you are doing so. For example, your research should seek
to solve an existing problem or provide further insights into a scarcely researched topic. The
problem should be clear. Why would you want to investigate the topic under study, and how
your research will be helpful in achieving this? Herein, you need to provide the evidence that
the research you need to carry out is necessary in that it has not been carried out before or
has not been adequately done. Here are some questions that may help you nail this element:
• What is the problem?
• Why do you feel that it is important?
• How does your study relate to or add to research that has already been done?
3. Value of the Study
Outline specific groups of people who the study may benefit and how it will benefit them.
4. A preliminary Literature Review
You need to back up your passion for the topic under research with solid literature that
supports the topic, for example, literature that supports the fact that further research needs
to be carried out in that area. You need to show that there exists an information gap which
your research seeks to fill. The wider the variety of literature review you have carried out, the
more solid and convincing your concept paper will be.
5. State the Research Goals or Objectives
This is a broad statement or statements of what the research seeks to achieve. It should
start with ‘to’ and answer the questions who, what, when, which, or how.
6. Write Down All the Research Questions
These are important as they will direct you on every research area, for example, the type of
data to collect and how to analyze it. Make sure you have exhausted all the questions for the
research to be complete.
7. The research hypothesis
The research hypotheses stem from the research topic or the research questions and are,
therefore, easy to draft. They are a statement of the situation you anticipate based on some
prior knowledge you have, even before you carry out the research. The research seeks to
find out if these hypotheses are true or not. There should be a positive and a negative
hypothesis for each statement given. A positive hypothesis agrees with the statement in
question while a negative hypothesis opposes it. At the end of the research paper, you will
either accept or reject your positive hypothesis based on your findings.
8. State the Methodology You Intend to Use
The research methodology states the ‘how’ of carrying out the research. It details the
research design, that is, what kind of research you intend to carry out. You can either carry
out:
• An exploratory design that seeks to expound on the area of study that you have an
idea in, in order to understand it better.
 • An explanatory design that seeks to carry out an in-depth study on a certain idea
that was not tackled in-depth. It mostly requires the use of qualitative methods of data
collection.
• A descriptive research that seeks to find out the relationship between two variables
of data you need. It uses analyses methods such as mean and mode.

9. A Timeline for Completion of Each Element Of the Research Project

Undertaking a research can take a very long time if not well planned for, and it is, therefore,
important to lay out just how much time you may need to complete each element of the
research project and ultimately the whole project. In this section, you need to set a time frame
that is realistic.
10. Outline citations
Always remember to give credit to any sources you may have sourced your information from.
This can be done within the document or at the end of the concept paper.

LESSON 4

DISCUSSION 1.1

Writing a Position Paper

The following material explains how to produce a position paper (sometimes called a point of view
paper). A template is provided that outlines the major parts of a good position paper. Keep in
mind, however, that this is just a guide. Talk to your TAs about their individual expectations.
Your TAs may want you to include some criteria that do not appear in this outline. Make
sure you check with them.
Like a debate, a position paper presents one side of an arguable opinion about an issue. The goal
of a position paper is to convince the audience that your opinion is valid and defensible. Ideas
that you are considering need to be carefully examined in choosing a topic, developing your
argument, and organizing your paper. It is very important to ensure that you are addressing all
sides of the issue and presenting it in a manner that is easy for your audience to understand. Your
job is to take one side of the argument and persuade your audience that you have well-founded
knowledge of the topic being presented. It is important to support your argument with evidence to
ensure the validity of your claims, as well as to refute the counterclaims to show that you are well
informed about both sides.

Issue Criteria
To take a side on a subject, you should first establish the arguability of a topic that interests you.
Ask yourself the following questions to ensure that you will be able to present a strong argument:
• Is it a real issue, with genuine controversy and uncertainty?
• Can you identify at least two distinctive positions?
• Are you personally interested in advocating one of these positions?
• Is the scope of the issue narrow enough to be manageable?
In the CMNS 130 courseware the article by Fleras begins to set out a range of issues you may
choose to address. Your tutorial leader will also have a set of suggested paper topics. The
suggested paper topics will also be available on the CMNS 130 website.

Analyzing an Issue and Developing an Argument

Once your topic is selected, you should do some research on the subject matter. While you may
already have an opinion on your topic and an idea about which side of the argument you want to
take, you need to ensure that your position is well supported. Listing the pro and con sides
of the topic will help you examine your ability to support your counterclaims, along with a list of
supporting evidence for both sides. Supporting evidence includes the following:

Type of Information Type of Source How to find these sources

 directories,
introductory information
encyclopedias, Use the Library catalogue
and overviews
handbooks

books, government Library catalogue, Philippine Research

in-depth studies
reports Index, Government web sites

scholarly articles academic journals Article indexes

current issues newspapers, magazines Article indexes

government agencies and

statistics Philippine Statistics Office
associations

position papers and association and institute

Library catalogue, web sites
analyses reports

Many of these sources can be located online through the library catalogue and electronic
databases, or on the Web. You may be able to retrieve the actual information electronically or you
may have to visit a library to find the information in print.
** You do not have to use all of the above supporting evidence in your papers. This is simply a
list of the various options available to you. Consult your separate assignment sheet to clarify the
number and type of sources expected.

Considering your audience and determining your viewpoint

Once you have made your pro and con lists, compare the information side by side. Considering
your audience, as well as your own viewpoint, choose the position you will take.
Considering your audience does not mean playing up to the professor or the TA. To convince a
particular person that your own views are sound, you have to consider his or her way of thinking.
If you are writing a paper for a sociology professor/TA obviously your analysis would be different
from what it would be if you were writing for an economics, history, or communications
professor/TA. You will have to make specific decisions about the terms you should explain, the
background information you should supply, and the details you need to convince that particular
reader.
In determining your viewpoint, ask yourself the following:
• Is your topic interesting? Remember that originality counts. Be aware that your
professor/TA will probably read a number of essays on the same topic(s), so any paper
that is inventive and original will not only stand out but will also be appreciated.
• Can you manage the material within the specifications set by the instructor?
 • Does your topic assert something specific, prove it, and where applicable, propose a plan
of action?
• Do you have enough material or proof to support your opinion?

EXCERCISES
Directions: Encircle the letter of the appropriate source for the type of information you
would use.
1. You are writing an article on your school paper about proper classroom etiquette.

A. Encyclopedia C. Academic Journal

B. Newspaper D. Institute Reports
2. You need to collate all the data collected from participants and want to average them out in
contrast to the population.
A. Government Agencies C. Handbooks
B. Directories D. Books
3. You are making an analysis about the current administration.
A. Academic Journals C. Government Report
B. Newspapers D. Associations
4. You are writing a simplified overview of Philippine History.
A. Newspapers C. Academic Journal
B. Government reports D. Directories
5. You are writing a blog about the latest celebrity gossip.
A. Magazine C. Association
B. Academic Journal D. Government Report
6. You are writing about your point-of-view on anti-terror bill.
A. Newspapers C. Institute Reports
B. Directories D. Handbooks
7. You are making an in-depth research about the country’s poverty line.
A. Academic Journal C. Government Reports
B. Magazines D. Encyclopedia
8. You are creating a basic introductory paper on Writing Haikus.
A. Institute Reports C. Handbooks
B. Government Reports D. Newspapers
9. You are asked by your teacher to write a point-of-view paper on the effects of gaming on your
studies.

A. Institute Reports C. Handbooks

B. Government Reports D. Newspapers

10. You are trying to get the percentage of the people who are living below the poverty line
A. Government Agencies C. Handbooks
B. Directories D. Books

DISCUSSION 1.2

Sample Outline
II. Introduction

A. Introduce the topic

 B. Provide background on the topic to explain why it is important

C. Assert the thesis (your view of the issue). More on thesis statements can be found below.
Your introduction has a dual purpose: to indicate both the topic and your approach to it (your
thesis statement), and to arouse your reader’s interest in what you have to say. One effective way
of introducing a topic is to place it in context – to supply a kind of backdrop that will put it in
perspective. You should discuss the area into which your topic fits, and then gradually lead into
your specific field of discussion (re: your thesis statement).
III. Counter Argument
A. Summarize the counterclaims

B. Provide supporting information for counterclaims

C. Refute the counterclaims

D. Give evidence for argument

You can generate counterarguments by asking yourself what someone who disagrees with you
might say about each of the points you've made or about your position as a whole. Once you have
thought up some counterarguments, consider how you will respond to them--will you concede
that your opponent has a point but explain why your audience should nonetheless accept your
argument? Will you reject the counterargument and explain why it is mistaken? Either way, you
will want to leave your reader with a sense that your argument is stronger than opposing
arguments.
When you are summarizing opposing arguments, be charitable. Present each argument fairly and
objectively, rather than trying to make it look foolish. You want to show that you have seriously
considered the many sides of the issue, and that you are not simply attacking or mocking your
opponents.
It is usually better to consider one or two serious counterarguments in some depth, rather than to
give a long but superficial list of many different counterarguments and replies.
Be sure that your reply is consistent with your original argument. If considering a counterargument
changes your position, you will need to go back and revise your original argument accordingly.
IV. Your Argument

A. Assert point #1 of your claims

1. Give your educated and informed opinion

2. Provide support/proof using more than one source (preferably three)
 B. Assert point #2 of your claims

1. Give your educated and informed opinion

2. Provide support/proof using more than one source (preferably three)

C. Assert point #3 of your claims

1. Give your educated and informed opinion

2. Provide support/proof using more than one source (preferably three)
You may have more than 3 overall points to your argument, but you should not have
fewer.
V. Conclusion

A. Restate your argument

B. Provide a plan of action but do not introduce new information

The simplest and most basic conclusion is one that restates the thesis in different words and
then discusses its implications.

Stating Your Thesis

A thesis is a one-sentence statement about your topic. It's an assertion about your topic,
something you claim to be true. Notice that a topic alone makes no such claim; it merely
defines an area to be covered. To make your topic into a thesis statement, you need to make a
claim about it, make it into a sentence. Look back over your materials--brainstorms, investigative
notes, etc.--and think about what you believe to be true. Think about what your readers want or
need to know. Then write a sentence, preferably at this point, a simple one, stating what will be
the central idea of your paper. The result should look something like this:
Original Subject: an important issue in my major field
Focused Topic: media technology education for communication majors
Thesis: Theories of media technology deserve a more prominent place in this University’s
Communication program
Or if your investigations led you to a different belief:
Thesis: Communication majors at this University receive a solid background in theories of media
technology
It's always good to have a thesis you can believe in.
Notice, though, that a sentence stating an obvious and indisputable truth won't work as a
thesis:
Thesis: This University has a communication major.
That's a complete sentence, and it asserts something to be true, but as a thesis it's a dead end.
It's a statement of fact, pure and simple, and requires little or nothing added. A good thesis asks
to have more said about it. It demands some proof. Your job is to show your reader that your
thesis is true.
Remember, you can't just pluck a thesis out of thin air. Even if you have remarkable insight
concerning a topic, it won't be worth much unless you can logically and persuasively support it in
the body of your essay. A thesis is the evolutionary result of a thinking process, not a miraculous
creation. Formulating a thesis is not the first thing you do after reading the essay
assignment. Deciding on a thesis does not come first. Before you can come up with an
argument on any topic, you have to collect and organize evidence, look for possible relationships
between known facts (such as surprising contrasts or similarities), and think about the beneath-
the-surface significance of these relationships. After this initial exploration of the question at hand,
you can formulate a "working thesis," an argument that you think will make sense of the evidence
but that may need adjustment along the way. In other words, do not show up at your TAs
office hours expecting them to help you figure out your thesis statement and/or help
organize your paper unless you have already done some research.

Writing with style and clarity

Many students make the mistake of thinking that the content of their paper is all that matters.
Although the content is important, it will not mean much if the reader can’t understand what you
are trying to say. You may have some great ideas in your paper but if you cannot effectively
communicate them, you will not receive a very good mark. Keep the following in mind when writing
your paper:
Diction
Diction refers to the choice of words for the expression of ideas; the construction, disposition, and
application of words in your essay, with regard to clearness, accuracy, variety, etc.; mode of
expression; and language. There is often a tendency for students to use fancy words and
extravagant images in hopes that it will make them sound more intelligent when in fact the result
is a confusing mess. Although this approach can sometimes be effective, it is advisable that you
choose clear words and be as precise in the expression of your ideas as possible.

Paragraphs
Creating clear paragraphs is essential. Paragraphs come in so many sizes and patterns that no
single formula could possibly cover them all. The two basic principles to remember are these:
1) A paragraph is a means of developing and framing an idea or impression. As a general rule,
you should address only one major idea per paragraph.
2) The divisions between paragraphs aren’t random, but indicate a shift in focus. In other words,
you must carefully and clearly organize the order of your paragraphs so that they are logically
positioned throughout your paper. Transitions will help you with this.
Transitions
In academic writing your goal is to convey information clearly and concisely, if not to convert the
reader to your way of thinking. Transitions help you to achieve these goals by establishing logical
connections between sentences, paragraphs, and sections of your papers. In other words,
transitions tell readers what to do with the information you present them. Whether single words,
quick phrases or full sentences, they function as signs for readers that tell them how to think
about, organize, and react to old and new ideas as they read through what you have written.
Transitions signal relationships between ideas. Basically, transitions provide the reader with
directions for how to piece together your ideas into a logically coherent argument. They are words
with particular meanings that tell the reader to think and react in a particular way to your ideas. In
providing the reader with these important cues, transitions help readers understand the logic of
how your ideas fit together.

LOGICAL TRANSITIONAL EXPRESSION

RELATIONSHIP

Similarity also, in the same way, just as ... so too, likewise, similarly

Exception/Contrast but, however, in spite of, on the one hand ... on the other hand,
nevertheless, nonetheless, notwithstanding, in contrast, on the
contrary, still, yet

Sequence/Order first, second, third, ... next, then, finally

Time after, afterward, at last, before, currently, during, earlier,

immediately, later, meanwhile, now, recently, simultaneously,
subsequently, then

Example for example, for instance, namely, specifically, to illustrate

Emphasis even, indeed, in fact, of course, truly

Place/Position above, adjacent, below, beyond, here, in front, in back, nearby,

there

Cause and Effect accordingly, consequently, hence, so, therefore, thus

Additional Support or additionally, again, also, and, as well, besides, equally important,
Evidence further, furthermore, in addition, moreover, then

Conclusion/Summary finally, in a word, in brief, in conclusion, in the end, in the final

analysis, on the whole, thus, to conclude, to summarize, in sum,
in summary
Grammar and Spelling
You must make certain that your paper is free from grammar and spelling mistakes. Mechanical
errors are usually the main reason for lack of clarity in essays, so be sure to thoroughly proof read
your paper before handing it in.

Plagiarism and academic honesty

Plagiarism is a form of stealing; as with other offences against the law, ignorance is no excuse.
The way to avoid plagiarism is to give credit where credit is due. If you are using someone else’s
idea, acknowledge it, even if you have changed the wording or just summarized the main points.
To avoid plagiarism, you must give credit whenever you use
• another person's idea, opinion, or theory;
• any facts, statistics, graphs, drawings--any pieces of information--that are not common
knowledge;
• quotations of another person's actual spoken or written words; or
• paraphrase of another person's spoken or written words.
In addition to plagiarism, SFU has policies regarding other forms of academic dishonesty. For
more information on SFU’s policies regarding academic honesty consult your undergraduate If
any of the University’s policies are not clear you must ask your professor or TA for clarification.
Again, ignorance is not an excuse.

ACTIVITY
Directions: Create your own position paper based on the topic assigned to your respective group.
Be mindful of all the principles that are presented and practice them in your work.
LESSON 4
Writing the Survey Report, Field Report and Scientific Technical Report

What is a Survey Report?

A survey report is a document whose task is to present the information gathered during the survey
in an objective manner. It presents a summary of all the responses that were collected in a simple
and visually appealing manner.
The report follows a standard organization, with different sections, headings, subheadings, etc. It
is usually created at the end of a survey (i.e., after constructing and gathering responses).
Survey reports are an integral part of the research, and it is very important that you always
represent accurate data in your report.
5 Steps to Creating a Survey Report
It is one thing to create a survey report, but another to create a good survey report. Therefore,
we have prepared a guide to assist you in writing your next report.
Here are the 5 main steps you need to follow to create a good survey report.
Create a Questionnaire
Every survey report requires a survey Hence, the first thing you need to do is to create a survey
or questionnaire that will be used to carry out your survey.
The responses received from the questionnaire will determine the final outlook of the survey
report. However, there are a few important things you need to consider before creating a
questionnaire for your survey report.
Factors to Consider Before Creating a Questionnaire for a Survey Report
• Define your objectives
The first step to creating a good questionnaire for your survey report is defining the objectives of
your research. After which you will create your questionnaire which aligns with your research
objectives.
In simple terms, your research objective will guide you in choosing the kind of questionnaire that
should be created. For example, if your objective is to sell your products online, then you should
create an online order form.
• Who are your audience?
After defining your objectives, the next step is to identify your target audience. Your target
audience will determine the kind of questions that would be asked in the questionnaire.
When creating a questionnaire to evaluate job seekers, for instance, the questions that will be
asked in the questionnaire will be different from when creating a questionnaire for those seeking
a life partner.
• Survey Report Method (Quantitative/Qualitative)
Now that you know the research objective and target audience, the next step is to determine the
method that will be used in carrying out this survey. Is it going to be quantitative or qualitative? Or
both?
The interesting thing about choosing a method of carrying out your research is that this method
is determined by the first two factors. For an online matchmaking questionnaire, a qualitative
method will be used.
An online order form, on the other hand, will require both, but mostly quantitative methods.
• Best Types of Questions for Surveys
Another important aspect of creating a questionnaire is determining the types of questions that
will be most perfect for the survey. Is it dichotomous, close-ended questions, or rating and ranking
questions?
The type of survey questions should be carefully chosen by the questionnaire in order to collect
the right data and not affect the response rate on the survey. For example, when requesting the
phone number of your respondents, the question shouldn't be closed-ended.
Collect Data
After determining how to create a questionnaire for your survey, the next thing to do is create
the questionnaire and start collecting data. There are points to note in data collection and some
of them have been highlighted below:
• Location of your Audience
to create a more detailed survey report, you need to identify your audience's location when
collecting data. Respondents may be reluctant to provide their location in the questionnaire,
Therefore, you need to create a questionnaire that automatically identifies the respondent's
location once they start filling the questionnaire.
Avoid Survey Bias
One of the best practices of collecting clean data for your questionnaire is by avoiding survey
bias. There are different kinds of biases that we can face during data collection, and they all fall
under response and non-response biases.
There are a lot of things you need to consider when creating your questionnaire to avoid these
biases. These fall under the 4 factors we have highlighted above for you to consider when creating
a questionnaire.
• Ways to Create a Questionnaire (Paper or Online Form)
Another thing to consider when choosing a data collection method is the type of questionnaire to
use. Is it better to use an online or paper form?
There are a lot of factors that should be considered when making this decision. Some of these
include; your target audience, cost of implementation, efficiency, and data security.
The traditional way of data collection is through the paper questionnaire. However, if you consider
the factors that were highlighted above, you will realize that it is better to use an online
questionnaire.
An online questionnaire is easier to implement, more efficient, cost-effective, helps to reach a
larger audience, and even offers more data security. However, if most of your target audience are
in remote areas without an internet connection, or are not familiar with how to use a technological
device, it is better to use paper forms or both.
Analyze Data
Before writing a report from the data collected during your survey, you need to simplify it for better
understanding. This will make it easy to write a survey report for the data collected and for other
people to understand the data.
• Export Data
After data collection, you need to export it for data analysis. This can be done using any of the
available data analysis software.
You can also export the data as CSV and work on it using Microsoft Excel, Power BI, or any other
data analysis software.
Analyze and Interpret
After exporting the data, you analyze it. Data analysis involves breaking data down into simpler
terms, identifying similarities, grouping and interpreting them.
There are different methods of data analysis that can be used in analyzing the data collected from
your questionnaire before interpretation. However, each of these methods follows similar
processes that have been highlighted below.
• Data Cleaning
Due to some factors during the data collection process, you may have collected inaccurate or
corrupt information - making the data "dirty". This may include duplicate records, white spaces, or
outright errors.
Things like this make the collected data irrelevant to your aim of Analysis and should be cleaned.
It is the next step after data collection, so that you may arrive at a conclusion that is closer to your
expected outcome.
• Data Analysis
Once the data is collected, cleaned, and processed, it is ready for analysis. At this point, you may
realize that you have the exact data you need or still need to collect more data. To make analysis
easier, you might use software that will ease understating, interpretation, and conclusion.
• Data Interpretation
After a successful analysis, the next step is interpretation. There are different ways of interpreting
the result of data analysis. It can be done using simple words (usually a summary of the result),
tables, or charts.
• Data Visualization
This is the most common process involved in data analysis and interpretation. It is the process of
displaying data graphically so that it can be easier for everyone to understand and process it. It
is often used to analyze relationships and discover trends by comparing t variables in a dataset.
Write Survey Report
After successfully analyzing and interpreting your data, it is ready to feature in your survey report.
At this stage, all you need to do is plug and play because everything you need has been prepared
in the previous steps.
To further make your survey report writing process easier, it is advised that you follow a pre-
designed template that is tailored to the type of survey under consideration.
Types of Survey Report
Before embarking on the report writing journey, you need to first identify the type of survey report
you want to write. The type of survey report is determined by the nature of the survey that was
carried out.
Some of the different kinds of surveys include employee satisfaction surveys, customer feedback
surveys, market research surveys, etc.
• Employee Satisfaction Survey
This method is used to gauge whether employees are satisfied with the work environment.
Organizations usually do this to ensure that employees are motivated and to build a stronger team
spirit.
Employees are asked to give feedback and particularly voice their frustrations with the company.
• Customer Feedback Survey
This is undoubtedly one of the most common types of surveys. Businesses are always seen
requesting feedback from customers after selling a product or rendering a service.
As an individual, you must have experienced this at a point in time. Whether after purchasing an
item from a grocery store, placing an order online ordering at a restaurant, etc.
• Market Research Survey
It is used to discover customer needs, competitive advantage, how and where products are
purchased, etc. This type of survey can be applied when no data is available yet: For example, to
measure how your target audience feels about a product you intend to lunch.
In some instances, it’s about building on past data in your market research database. When you
are building on past research, you conduct a survey to measure, for example, what people think
about the product, say, a year after its launch.
For each of the different types of surveys highlighted above, the structure of the survey report will
be slightly different from the other.
Features of a Survey Report/Guidelines
Although the structure of the different types of survey reports may vary slightly, there are some
must-have features common to all survey types. The features of a survey report include; a title
page, table of contents, executive summary, background and objectives, methodology, results,
conclusion and recommendations, and appendices.
The content of the above-listed sections may, however, vary across the different types of survey
reports. Asides from following a set structure, there are also guidelines for writing a good survey
report.
This includes writing the executive summary and table of contents last, writing in concise, simple
sentences, and polishing the report before finalizing it.
• Use Analyzed Data and Infer Conclusion
This is the point where you implement all the research and analysis that was done in previous
steps. Note that it is not good practice to write survey reports from memory.
Rather, it should be carefully written using the facts and figures derived from analysis. This is
what is used to drive a conclusion on your research, and also make recommendations.
You will notice that this follows consecutively in the survey report. That is results, the conclusion
derived from results, and the recommendation after observing the conclusion.

Field reports require the researcher to combine theory and analysis learned in the classroom with
methods of observation and practice applied outside of the classroom. The purpose of field
reports is to describe an observed person, place, or event and to analyze that observation data
in order to identify and categorize common themes in relation to the research problem(s)
underpinning the study. The data is often in the form of notes taken during the observation but it
can also include any form of data gathering, such as, photography, illustrations, or audio
recordings.
How to Approach Writing a Field Report
How to Begin
Field reports are most often assigned in the applied social sciences [e.g., social work,
anthropology, gerontology, criminal justice, education, law, the health care professions] where it
is important to build a bridge of relevancy between the theoretical concepts learned in the
classroom and the practice of actually doing the work you are being taught to do. Field reports
are also common in certain science and technology disciplines [e.g., geology] but these reports
are organized differently and for different purposes than what is described below.
Professors will assign a field report with the intention of improving your understanding of key
theoretical concepts through a method of careful and structured observation of and reflection
about real life practice. Field reports facilitate the development of data collection techniques and
observation skills and allow you to understand how theory applies to real world situations. Field
reports are also an opportunity to obtain evidence through methods of observing professional
practice that challenge or refine existing theories.
We are all observers of people, their interactions, places, and events; however, your responsibility
when writing a field report is to create a research study based on data generated by the act of
observation, a synthesis of key findings, and an interpretation of their meaning. When writing a
field report you need to:
• Systematically observe and accurately record the varying aspects of a situation.
Always approach your field study with a detailed plan about what you will observe, where
you should conduct your observations, and the method by which you will collect and record
your data.
• Continuously analyze your observations. Always look for the meaning underlying the
actions you observe. Ask yourself: What's going on here? What does this observed activity
mean? What else does this relate to? Note that this is an on-going process of reflection
and analysis taking place for the duration of your field research.
• Keep the report’s aims in mind while you are observing. Recording what you observe
should not be done randomly or haphazardly; you must be focused and pay attention to
details. Enter the field with a clear plan about what you are intending to observe and record
while, at the same time, be prepared to adapt to changing circumstances as they may
arise.
• Consciously observe, record, and analyze what you hear and see in the context of
a theoretical framework. This is what separates data gatherings from simple reporting.
The theoretical framework guiding your field research should determine what, when, and
how you observe and act as the foundation from which you interpret your findings.

Techniques to Record Your Observations

Note Taking

This is the most commonly used and easiest method of recording your observations. Tips for
taking notes include: organizing some shorthand symbols beforehand so that recording basic or
repeated actions does not impede your ability to observe, using many small paragraphs, which
reflect changes in activities, who is talking, etc., and, leaving space on the page so you can write
down additional thoughts and ideas about what’s being observed, any theoretical insights, and
notes to yourself about may require further investigation. See drop-down tab for additional
information about note-taking.

Video and Audio Recordings

Video or audio recording your observations has the positive effect of giving you an unfiltered
record of the observation event. It also facilitates repeated analysis of your observations.
However, these techniques have the negative effect of increasing how intrusive you are as an
observer and will often not be practical or even allowed under certain circumstances [e.g.,
interaction between a doctor and a patient] and in certain organizational settings [e.g., a
courtroom].

Illustrations/Drawings
This does not an artistic endeavor but, rather, refers to the possible need, for example, to draw a
map of the observation setting or illustrating objects in relation to people's behavior. This can also
take the form of rough tables or graphs documenting the frequency and type of activities observed.
These can be subsequently placed in a more readable format when you write your field report.

Examples of Things to Document While Observing

• Physical setting. The characteristics of an occupied space and the human use of the
place where the observation(s) are being conducted.
• Objects and material culture. The presence, placement, and arrangement of objects
that impact the behavior or actions of those being observed. If applicable, describe the
cultural artifacts representing the beliefs--values, ideas, attitudes, and assumptions--used
by the individuals you are observing.
• Use of language. Don't just observe but listen to what is being said, how is it being said,
and, the tone of conversation among participants.
• Behavior cycles. This refers to documenting when and who performs what behavior or
task and how often they occur. Record at which stage is this behavior occurring within the
setting.
• The order in which events unfold. Note sequential patterns of behavior or the moment
when actions or events take place and their significance.
• Physical characteristics of subjects. If relevant, note age, gender, clothing, etc. of
individuals.
• Expressive body movements. This would include things like body posture or facial
expressions. Note that it may be relevant to also assess whether expressive body
movements support or contradict the use of language.
Brief notes about all of these examples contextualize your observations; however, your
observation notes will be guided primarily by your theoretical framework, keeping in mind that
your observations will feed into and potentially modify or alter these frameworks.

Sampling Techniques
Sampling refers to the process used to select a portion of the population for study.
Qualitative research, of which observation is one method, is generally based on non-probability
and purposive sampling rather than probability or random approaches characteristic of
quantitatively-driven studies. Sampling in observational research is flexible and often continues
until no new themes emerge from the data, a point referred to as data saturation.
All sampling decisions are made for the explicit purpose of obtaining the richest possible source
of information to answer the research questions. Decisions about sampling assumes you know
what you want to observe, what behaviors are important to record, and what research problem
you are addressing before you begin the study. These questions determine what sampling
technique you should use, so be sure you have adequately answered them before selecting a
sampling method.
Ways to sample when conducting an observation include:
Ad Libitum Sampling -- this approach is not that different from what people do at the zoo--
observing whatever seems interesting at the moment. There is no organized system of recording
the observations; you just note whatever seems relevant at the time. The advantage of this
method is that you are often able to observe relatively rare or unusual behaviors that might be
missed by more deliberate sampling methods. This method is also useful for obtaining preliminary
observations that can be used to develop your final field study. Problems using this method
include the possibility of inherent bias toward conspicuous behaviors or individuals and that you
may miss brief interactions in social settings.
Behavior Sampling -- this involves watching the entire group of subjects and recording each
occurrence of a specific behavior of particular interest and with reference to which individuals
were involved. The method is useful in recording rare behaviors missed by other sampling
methods and is often used in conjunction with focal or scan methods. However, sampling can be
biased towards particular conspicuous behaviors.
Continuous Recording -- provides a faithful record of behavior including frequencies, durations,
and latencies [the time that elapses between a stimulus and the response to it]. This is a very
demanding method because you are trying to record everything within the setting and, thus,
measuring reliability may be sacrificed. In addition, durations and latencies are only reliable if
subjects remain present throughout the collection of data. However, this method facilitates
analyzing sequences of behaviors and ensures obtaining a wealth of data about the observation
site and the people within it. The use of audio or video recording is most useful with this type of
sampling.
Focal Sampling -- this involves observing one individual for a specified amount of time and
recording all instances of that individual's behavior. Usually, you have a set of predetermined
categories or types of behaviors that you are interested in observing [e.g., when a teacher walks
around the classroom] and you keep track of the duration of those behaviors. This approach
doesn't tend to bias one behavior over another and provides significant detail about a individual's
behavior. However, with this method, you likely have to conduct a lot of focal samples before you
have a good idea about how group members interact. It can also be difficult within certain settings
to keep one individual in sight for the entire period of the observation.
Instantaneous Sampling -- this is where observation sessions are divided into short intervals
divided by sample points. At each sample point the observer records if predetermined behaviors
of interest are taking place. This method is not effective for recording discrete events of short
duration and, frequently, observers will want to record novel behaviors that occur slightly before
or after the point of sampling, creating a sampling error. Though not exact, this method does give
you an idea of durations and is relatively easy to do. It is also good for recording behavior patterns
occurring at a specific instant, such as, movement or body positions.
One-Zero Sampling -- this is very similar to instantaneous sampling, only the observer records
if the behaviors of interest have occurred at any time during an interval instead of at the instant of
the sampling point. The method is useful for capturing data on behavior patterns that start and
stop repeatedly and rapidly, but that last only for a brief period of time. The disadvantage of this
approach is that you get a dimensionless score for an entire recording session, so you only get
one data point for each recording session.
Scan Sampling -- this method involves taking a census of the entire observed group at
predetermined time periods and recording what each individual is doing at that moment. This is
useful for obtaining group behavioral data and allows for data that are evenly representative
across individuals and periods of time. On the other hand, this method may be biased towards
more conspicuous behaviors and you may miss a lot of what is going on between observations,
especially rare or unusual behaviors.
Structure and Writing Style
How you choose to format your field report is determined by the research problem, the theoretical
perspective that is driving your analysis, the observations that you make, and/or specific
guidelines established by your professor. Since field reports do not have a standard format, it is
worthwhile to determine from your professor what the preferred organization should be before
you begin to write. Note that field reports should be written in the past tense. With this in mind,
most field reports in the social sciences include the following elements:
I. Introduction

The introduction should describe the specific objective and important theories or concepts
underpinning your field study. The introduction should also describe the nature of the organization
or setting where you are conducting the observation, what type of observations you have
conducted, what your focus was, when you observed, and the methods you used for collecting
the data. You should also include a review of pertinent literature.

II. Description of Activities

Your readers only knowledge and understanding of what happened will come from the description
section of your report because they have not been witness to the situation, people, or events that
you are writing about. Given this, it is crucial that you provide sufficient details to place the analysis
that will follow into proper context; don't make the mistake of providing a description without
context. The description section of a field report is similar to a well written piece of journalism.
Therefore, a helpful approach to systematically describing the varying aspects of an observed
situation is to answer the "Five W’s of Investigative Reporting." These are:
• What -- describe what you observed. Note the temporal, physical, and social boundaries
you imposed to limit the observations you made. What were your general impressions of
the situation you were observing? For example, as a student teacher, what is your
impression of the application of iPads as a learning device in a history class; as a cultural
anthropologist, what is your impression of women participating in a Native American
religious ritual?
• Where -- provide background information about the setting of your observation and, if
necessary, note important material objects that are present that help contextualize the
observation [e.g., arrangement of computers in relation to student engagement with the
teacher].
• When -- record factual data about the day and the beginning and ending time of each
observation. Note that it may also be necessary to include background information or key
events which impact upon the situation you were observing [e.g., observing the ability of
teachers to re-engage students after coming back from an unannounced fire drill].
• Who -- note the participants in the situation in terms of age, gender, ethnicity, and/or any
other variables relevant to your study. Record who is doing what and saying what, as well
as, who is not doing or saying what. If relevant, be sure to record who was missing from
the observation.
• Why -- why were you doing this? Describe the reasons for selecting particular situations
to observe. Note why something happened. Also note why you may have included or
excluded certain information.

III. Interpretation and Analysis

Always place the analysis and interpretations of your field observations within the larger context
of the theories and issues you described in the introduction. Part of your responsibility in analyzing
the data is to determine which observations are worthy of comment and interpretation, and which
observations are more general in nature. It is your theoretical framework that allows you to make
these decisions. You need to demonstrate to the reader that you are looking at the situation
through the eyes of an informed viewer, not as a lay person.
Here are some questions to ask yourself when analyzing your observations:
• What is the meaning of what you have observed?
• Why do you think what you observed happened? What evidence do you have for your
reasoning?
• What events or behaviors were typical or widespread? If appropriate, what was unusual
or out of ordinary? How were they distributed among categories of people?
 • Do you see any connections or patterns in what you observed?
• Why did the people you observed proceed with an action in the way that they did? What
are the implications of this?
• Did the stated or implicit objectives of what you were observing match what was achieved?
• What were the relative merits of the behaviors you observed?
• What were the strengths and weaknesses of the observations you recorded?
• Do you see connections between what you observed and the findings of similar studies
identified from your review of the literature?
• How do your observations fit into the larger context of professional practice? In what ways
have your observations possibly changed your perceptions of professional practice?
• Have you learned anything from what you observed?
NOTE: Only base your interpretations on what you have actually observed. Do not speculate or
manipulate your observational data to fit into your study's theoretical framework.

IV. Conclusion and Recommendations

The conclusion should briefly recap of the entire study, reiterating the importance or significance
of your observations. Avoid including any new information. You should also state any
recommendations you may have. Be sure to describe any unanticipated problems you
encountered and note the limitations of your study. The conclusion should not be more than two
or three paragraphs.

V. Appendix
This is where you would place information that is not essential to explaining your findings, but that
supports your analysis [especially repetitive or lengthy information], that validates your
conclusions, or that contextualizes a related point that helps the reader understand the overall
report. Examples of information that could be included in an appendix are
figures/tables/charts/graphs of results, statistics, pictures, maps, drawings, or, if applicable,
transcripts of interviews. There is no limit to what can be included in the appendix or its format
[e.g., a DVD recording of the observation site], provided that it is relevant to the study's purpose
and reference is made to it in the report. If information is placed in more than one appendix
["appendices"], the order in which they are organized is dictated by the order they were first
mentioned in the text of the report.
Scientific/Technical Reports
• Howe Center for Writing Excellence
• Handouts
A scientific, engineering, or technical report informs readers about research you've conducted. (In
your science classes, they may be called Lab Reports). These reports often follow the pattern
explained here and as shown in the figure to the right, though the section titles and organization
can vary by discipline or type of information you're reporting. Remember that your audience,
content, and purpose should inform the way you present and discuss information.
These general guidelines may differ from the instructions provided by your professor or
TA. ALWAYS follow your professor’s or TA’s instructions for writing scientific reports!

Introduction
Your introduction should justify that the study is important and worth conducting. It should have
the following general structure:
• Begin with the general topic and describe the important “big picture” problem in the field.
• Provide appropriate and relevant background information with progressively narrower
scope that provides context and justification for the study. Your background information
should

1. Connect the big picture to your research question

2. Justify the logic and importance of the research question
3. Set your research within the context of other research
 • Reference relevant published studies and identify gaps and unresolved issues that this
study addresses (references are always paraphrased, never quoted).
• Include only relevant information related to the crucial concepts of the study.
• End by stating your research question, your study purpose/goal, and/or any
hypotheses/predictions.
Common Pitfalls
1. Lack of focus: The introduction provides too many irrelevant details or lacks important
concepts/details.
2. Lack of organization: The introduction does not follow the structure listed above.
3. Failure to justify the study: The introduction does not persuade readers that the study is
worth doing and/or the reasoning behind the hypotheses is unclear.
Introduction Checklist
• Begins with the most general topic (“big picture”) and progressively becomes narrower in
scope.
• Provides appropriate background information that justifies why the study is worth doing.
For example, you might introduce the importance of the problem by identifying a gap in
previous research, inconclusive results in previous research, or the need for additional
information.
• Includes only relevant information related to the crucial concepts of the study.
• Ends by introducing the study’s purpose and clearly stating any hypotheses and
predictions.
Methods Section
Your methods section should demonstrate that the research approach was appropriately
designed and implemented, so that your audience trusts the results and so you establish your
credibility. It will cover the details of your study, such as the following:
• Ways you addressed the research question/hypothesis
• Important materials used in the investigation (quantities, equipment, organisms,
databases)
• For person-based research, the data collection method (interviews, surveys, observation,
etc.), number and demographics of participants, etc.
• The outcomes/responses that were measured and how
• Any calculations (including formulae) and statistical tests used
• Any details that, if changed, would substantially alter the results
Common Pitfalls
 1. Lack of organization: The methods are written as a play-by-play of what happened in the
lab (“first, we got scissors, and then we cut the plants”), or the same procedure is
described multiple times.
2. Lack of detail: Follow the bulleted list above for necessary details to include.
3. Unnecessary details: You can leave out details regarding safety (e.g., wearing gloves);
common scientific practice (e.g., labeling, being careful); and steps that, if changed, would
not alter the results (e.g., the class being broken up into groups).
Methods Section Checklist
• Thoroughly describes the procedure used to address the research question/hypothesis.
• Includes all relevant details (e.g., quantities, equipment, organisms, data collection
method, etc.).
• Describes all calculations used (including formulae and definitions of the variables).
• Avoids being repetitive (i.e., describing the same procedure multiple times).
• Avoids unnecessary details.
Results Section
The results section organizes and simplifies the findings of the study for readers and presents
objective explanations.
• Focus on the details that are most relevant for evaluating the study question/hypothesis.
• Begin paragraphs with topic sentences to describe a general pattern in the data. Then,
describe the finer nuances of the data.
• Make comparisons and describe trends when appropriate (e.g., this increased faster than
that, or this treatment was consistently lower than the others, etc.).
• Reference tables and figures within the text.
• Avoid any interpretation of or explanation for the results.
Common Pitfalls
1. Lack of organization: Paragraphs lack topic sentences, or the order in which results are
presented is confusing or difficult to follow.
2. Lack of important details: Fails to describe patterns in the data (see examples above) or
fails to describe results for the entire experiment.
3. Too many details: Too many numbers can be hard to follow and boring to read.
Results Section Checklist
• Describe important trends and provide relevant numerical values.
• Refer to all tables and figures within the text.
• Avoid interpretation of results.
 • Avoid unnecessary details.
Discussion Section
The discussion section interprets and explains the study’s results.
• Start by stating the overall conclusions with respect to the study’s goals/hypotheses.
• Justify the overall conclusions by relating the results to the goals/hypotheses (why did you
conclude this?).
• Interpret and explain the results by
o Providing explanations using relevant disciplinary concepts
o Comparing the study’s results to other groups in class or to published studies
o Suggesting improvements on the experimental design and/or proposing ideas for
future research
• Conclude by discussing the implications of the results with respect to the “big picture”
issue mentioned in the introduction.
Common Pitfalls
1. Shallow data analysis: The analysis and explanation of the results is weak and lacks
depth. Explanations may focus too much on human error rather than scientific or other
disciplinary phenomena.
2. Weak ideas for improvements or future research: Fail to explain how a design
improvement might affect the results, or how a proposed study would advance
understanding of the topic being addressed.
Discussion Section Checklist
• Starts with a statement of the overall conclusions with respect to the study’s
goals/hypotheses
• Briefly describes the results that led to the above conclusions
• Provides explanations of the results using primarily disciplinary concepts
• Explains how the results compare to other groups in class or to published studies (if
applicable)
• Provides logical explanations for unexpected results or results that differ from published
studies
• Explains how the study could be improved (if applicable) and how that might affect the
results.
• Provides well-reasoned ideas for future research that would further understanding of the
topic.
• Concludes by discussing the implications of the results with respect to the “big picture.”
Tables and Figures
Tables and figures should help the reader visualize and understand your results.
• Focus on the most relevant results for evaluating the study question/hypothesis.
• Include enough information so readers can interpret the tables/figures on their own.
• Number tables and figures in the order in which they are referenced in the paper.
For help with Excel or statistics software, visit the Statistics Help Desk in BEST library.
Common Pitfalls
1. Confusing or disorganized tables/figures: Readers should easily understand the data
presented in a figure or table.
2. Improper formatting: Table or figure does not conform to format described below. Titles
are vague and uninformative.
Table Formatting Checklist
• Columns and rows are clearly and concisely labeled and include units (e.g., mm) where
appropriate (see example below)
• Data is neatly organized and easy to understand
• Table titles clearly and completely describe the data being presented (see example below)

Table 1. Physical characteristics of three bird species sampled in Oxford, Ohio. Values represent
the average (± 1 standard deviation).

Figure Formatting Checklist

• X- and y-axes are clearly and concisely labeled and include units (e.g., mm) (see A below)
• When multiple lines are graphed in the same figure, the lines are easy to distinguish and
the key clearly shows what each line represents (see B below)
• Figure titles clearly and completely describe the data being presented (see example
below)
Figure 1. Change in the average height of corn seedlings treated with different concentrations of
soil nitrogen. Error bars indicate the standard deviation.

QUIZ TIME
Directions: Get one whole sheet of paper and number it from one to forty.
 ACTIVITY
Directions: Craft a Field Report, Survey Report, and your own Scientific Technical report
about social media and it’s uses. Be sure that it follows all the guidelines we discussed
(200 words each)