Math Basics 4/15/03 9:43 AM Page 1

SPARKCHARTS

MATH BASICS SPARK

CHARTS
“TH
AM

NUMBER SYSTEMS ARITHMETIC ARI

NATURAL NUMBERS PROP
ADDITION
The natural numbers are the numbers we count with: 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . Zero is not included.
In the equation 3 + 4 = 7 , the numbers 3 and 4 are the addends, and 7 is their sum.
TM

Propert
SPARKCHARTS
WHOLE NUMBERS Commu
SUBTRACTION
The whole numbers are the numbers we count with and zero: 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .
In the equation 15 − 7 = 8 , the number 15 is the minuend, 7 is the subtrahend, and 8 is their Associa
INTEGERS difference.
The integers are the natural numbers, their negatives, and zero: . . . , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . Identitie
• The positive integers are the natural numbers. MULTIPLICATION
• The negative integers are the “minus” natural numbers: −1, −2, −3, −4, . . . In the equation 4 × 5 = 20 , the number 4 is the multiplicand, 5 is the multiplier, and 20 is their
product. Also 4 and 5 are both factors of the product 20 . Inverse
RATIONAL NUMBERS
• Multiplication by a natural number is “repeated addition”: 3 × 4 means “3 added to itself 4
The rational numbers are all the numbers that can be expressed as fractions (positive or negative,
proper or improper). times,” or 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 .
integer • Multiplication is commutative: Miraculously, 4 × 3 (or 4 added to itself 3 times) gives the
Any rational number can be expressed as .
non-zero integer same answer: 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 = 4 + 4 + 4 = 12 . The fact that a × b = b × a is called the Closure
• All integers are rational. Ex: 4 = 41
• All “terminating” decimals are rational. Ex: 5.125 = 41 “commutative” property of multiplication (the two numbers can “move past,” or commute
8 Distribu
with, each other).
(of mu
REAL NUMBERS • Ways to express multiplication:
The real numbers are all those that can be represented as points on a number line. • Cross: 4 × 6 = 24 . There a
• All rational numbers are real, but the real number line has many, many points that are —Multi
• Dot: 3 · 9 = 27 .
“between”
√ rational
√ numbers. —Zero
• Double pair of parentheses: (7)(8) = 56 .
Ex: 2, π, 3 − 9, 0.12112111211112 . . .
3

• Single pair of parentheses: 9(6) = 54 .

Real numbers MUL
DIVISION
To mult
In the equation 36 ÷ 3 = 12 , the number 36 is the dividend, 3 is the divisor, and 12 is the quotient. bend do
• When working with whole numbers, we can divide with remainder: 75 ÷ 8 = 9, remainder 3 . answer.
• In this example, the number 9 is still called the quotient, and 3 is the remainder.
• The quotient 9 above is sometimes called the partial quotient to distinguish from the total In the dia
on one s
quotient (9 38 in the equation 75 ÷ 8 = 9 38 ).
• Dividing by zero is not allowed.
• Ways to express division:
• Division sign: 72 ÷ 9 = 8 .
• Slash: 48/3 = 16 .
WH
IMAGINARY NUMBERS In this se
The imaginary numbers are square roots of negative numbers. They do not exist on the real 7 = 4.
• Fraction: 28
• If a ×
number line. • Long division sign: 6)30 = 5 .
√ evenly
• Colon (rare): 33 : 11 = 3 .
• All of √ by i = −1.
√them are some real number multiplied Ex: 3 is
Ex: −49 is imaginary and is equal to i 49 or 7i.
ORDER OF OPERATIONS every n
COMPLEX NUMBERS Arithmetic operations (+, −, ×, ÷, and raising to powers) are always performed in a specific
50495

• If a nu
The complex numbers are all possible sums order. However, expressions enclosed in parentheses are evaluated first—also according to order
√ of real and imaginary numbers. They are written as • Eve
a + bi, where a and b are real and i = −1 is imaginary. of operation:
• Odd
• All reals are complex numbers (with b = 0 ); all imaginary numbers are complex (with a = 0 ). 1. Parentheses.
• We represent the complex numbers on a 2-dimensional complex plane, with the horizontal axis 2. Exponents • A prim
representing the reals and the vertical axis representing the imaginary numbers. The number 2, 3, 5
3. Multiplication and Division (left to right).
a + bi is represented by the point (a, b).
ISBN 1-58663-618-9

4. Addition and Subtraction (left to right). As a co

9 781586 636180

Fundame
MNEMONIC: PEMDAS. This is sometimes expanded into the phrase “Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally.”
NAMING WHOLE NUMBERS The phrase is somewhat misleading: multiplication and division have equal priority, as do addition and
product o
irreducib
subtraction.
DIGITS VS. NUMBERS • A com
• Digits are symbols. Our number system (the arabic system) uses 10 digits: Ex: 3 + 2 × 32 − (4 + 5 × 2)
Ex: 12
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 . 1. Parentheses: Evaluate (4 + 5 × 2) , performing multiplication before addition to get
prime
• Numbers are actual values represented by some arrangement of digits. This is an abstract concept. (4 + 10) = 14 . We have 3 + 2 × 32 − 14 .
2. Exponents: Evaluate 32 = 9 . We have 3 + 2 × 9 − 14 . • Determ
PLACE VALUE 3. Multiplication and division: 2 × 9 = 18 . We have 3 + 18 − 14 . is to m
How much each digit is worth depends on its location within the number—its place value. Ex: To
4. Addition and subtraction: 3 + 18 = 21 and 21 − 14 = 7 , which is the answer.
• Place values go up by powers of 10 . The 13 , 17
$7.95 CAN

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
arrangement of digits in 234 can be 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
INEQUALITIES AND SIGNS
SparkCharts is a registered trademark
Copyright © 2002 by SparkNotes LLC.

reexpressed as 4, 8 0 3, 1 7 0, 5 6 2 Trichotomy property: If two numbers are not equal, then one of them is greater than the other one.
(2 × 102 ) + (3 × 101 ) + (4 × 100 ) . FACTO
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Sign Meaning Example

A Barnes & Noble Publication

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• Commas: In numbers with more than 4 Every na

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1 < 2 and 4 < 56 and −29 < −3

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less than
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digits, commas separate off each group prime, yo

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of three digits, starting from the left. > greater than 1 > 0 and 56 > 4 and −3 > −29 not, facto
These groups are read off together. ≤ less than or equal to 1 ≤ 1 and 1 ≤ 2
All rights reserved.

of SparkNotes LLC.

• This m
• Reading numbers: The number The digit 7 in the ten-thousands’ place is worth ≥ greater than or equal to 1 ≥ 1 and 3 ≥ −29 for th
4,803,170,562 is read as “four billion, 7 × 10,000 = 7 × 104 . � = not equal to 0 �= 3 and −1 �= 1 but th
eight hundred and three million, one
the en
hundred and seventy thousand, five hundred and sixty-two.” The sharp end of an inequality sign points toward the smaller number; the open part toward the
same.
larger.
ROUNDING MNEMONIC: If you see the sign as a mouth, the mouth wants to eat the larger number:
• The en
A round number ends with one or several zeroes; how many zeroes depends on the context. the pr

3 <5
To round a number is to approximate it with the nearest round number. We specify what place— of the
tens, thousands, etc.—to round to. • In pr
• To “round a number to the nearest … place,” look at the place immediately to the right. large
• If the digit there is 5 or larger, round up: increase the digit in the place being rounded to by
hard.
1 and replace all the digits to the right by zeroes.
ware o
• Otherwise, round down: keep the digit and replace all digits to the right by zeroes.
Ex: 553,488 rounded to the hundreds’ place is 553,500. 77, 901 rounded to the tens’ place is 77, 900. difficu
• When rounding up to a place with a 9 in it, change other digits to the left accordingly. very la
Ex: 5995 rounded to the nearest hundreds’ place is 6,000 .

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 MATH
“THE DIFFERENT BRANCHES OF ARITHMETIC —
AMBITION, DISTRACTION, UGLIFICATION, AND DERISION.” LEWIS CARROLL
FRA
SPARK A frac
CHARTS numer
• If a
Ex:
ARITHMETIC (continued) • The

PROPERTIES OF ADDITION AND MULTIPLICATION MULTIPLICATION TABLE PROP

s, and 7 is their sum. Property Addition (+) Multiplication (× or ·) × 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

• If it
deno
• Othe
Commutativity a+b=b+a a×b=b×a 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Ex: 52
s the subtrahend, and 8 is their Associativity (a + b) + c = a + (b + c) a × (b × c) = (a × b) × c 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 • Am
The
Identities exist 0 is a number and 1 is a number and 2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 mixe
a+0=0+a=a a×1=1×a=a • Con
• 0 is the additive identity. • 1 is the multiplicative identity. 3 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36
is the multiplier, and 20 is their deno
Inverses exist −a is a real number and If a �= 0 then a1 is a real number and 4 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 fract
× 4 means “3 added to itself 4 a + (−a) = (−a) + a = 0 a × a1 = a1 × a = 1 5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Also −(−a) = a . Also, 11 = a. Ex: 2
ded to itself 3 times) gives the a
6 0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72 • Con
at a × b = b × a is called the Closure a + b is a real number a × b is a real number the d
can “move past,” or commute
7 0 7 14 21 28 35 42 49 56 63 70 77 84
fract
Distributive property a × (b + c) = a × b + a × c
(of multiplication over addition): (b + c) × a = b × a + c × a 8 0 8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64 72 80 88 96
Ex: T
There are also two (derivative) properties having to do with zero. 9 0 9 18 27 36 45 54 63 72 81 90 99 108
—Multiplication by zero: a × 0 = 0 × a = 0.
10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 EQU
—Zero product property: If a × b = 0 then a = 0 or b = 0 (or both).
There

MULTIPLICATION BY NINES
11 0 11 22 33 44 55 66 77 88 99 110 121 132 Ex: 34 ,
• If a
To multiply a number n by 9: Look at your ten fingers, 3 fingers 6 fingers
12 0 12 24 36 48 60 72 84 96 108 120 132 144 Ex: 34
he divisor, and 12 is the quotient. 4th
} • To r
}

bend down the nth one from the left, and read off the finger
• Any number times 1 is itself.
er: 75 ÷ 8 = 9, remainder 3 . answer. GCF
• To multiply a number by 10 , attach a zero to the end.
is the remainder. • Any
Ex: 34 × 10 = 340
ent to distinguish from the total In the diagram, bending down the 4th finger leaves 3 fingers
• To multiply a number by 5, you can divide it by 2 and move the decimal point one place to the right.
on one side, and 6 on the other. So 9 × 4 = 36 . COM
Ex: 13 × 5 . Half of 13 is 6.5 so 13 × 5 = 65.
Multip
does n
• To d
WHOLE NUMBERS: FACTORING by t
equa
In this section, all numbers are natural numbers. DIVISIBILITY RULES 18 ×
• If a × b = c, then a and b are factors or divisors of c. You can also say that a and b go into c beco
evenly. Also, c is a multiple of a and of b, and divisible by a and by b. A number is divisible by… if…
• If cr
Ex: 3 is a factor of 12; 15 is not a multiple of 4; 28 is divisible by 7. The number 1 is a factor of 2 its last digit is 2, 4, 6, 8, or 0. cont
every number. Ex: 37
3 the sum of its digits is divisible by 3.
always performed in a specific
• If a number is divisible by 2, it is called even; if not, it is called odd. 4 its last two digits (taken together as a two-digit number) ADD
ed first—also according to order
• Even numbers end with even digits: 0, 2, 4, 6, or 8. are divisible by 4. • Frac
• Odd numbers end with odd digits: 1, 3, 5, 7, or 9. • S
5 it ends in 0 or 5.
E
• A prime number has no factors except for itself and 1. The first few primes are worth knowing:
6 it’s even and the sum of its digits is divisible by 3. • Frac
2, 3, 5, 7, 11 , 13 , 17 , 19 , 23 , 29 , 31 , 37 , 41 , 43 , 47 , 53 , . . . sam
As a convention, 1 is usually not considered prime. Every prime except for 2 is odd. 7 For three-digit numbers: the quantity
conv
Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic: Every natural number (except for 1) can be written as a
2 × (hundreds’ digit ) + 3 × ( tens’ digit ) + ( last digit )
• Le
lease Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally.” is divisible by 7.
product of prime numbers in exactly one way (ignoring rearrangements). Prime numbers are the se
equal priority, as do addition and 8 its last three digits (taken together as a three-digit number) th
irreducible building blocks of all natural numbers.
are divisible by 8. co
• A composite number can be factored in an “interesting” way (neither factor is 1 ).
9 the sum of its digits is divisible by 9.
Ex: 12 = 3 × 4 is composite, but 7 = 1 × 7 is not. Every number (except for 0 and 1) is either
cation before addition to get
prime or composite. 10 it ends in 0.

• Determining whether a number is prime is hard. The easiest way to conclude that n is prime
DEC
√ GREATEST COMMON FACTOR (GCF)
− 14 . is to make sure that every prime number less than n is not a factor of n. Decim
√ • A common factor of two numbers is any number that is a factor of both.
which is the answer. Ex: To check if 589 is prime, test every prime less than 589 ≈ 24. Dividing by 2, 3, 5, 7, 11 , INTE
Ex: 6 is a common factor of 108 and 126.
13 , 17 , 19 , 23 , we see that 19 is a factor: 589 = 19 × 31 and is not prime. • The
• The greatest common factor (GCF), a.k.a. greatest common divisor (GCD), of two numbers is
than
em is greater than the other one. the largest of the common factors.
FACTOR TREES num
Ex: The common factors of 108 and 126 are 1, 2, 3, 6, 9, and 18 , so their GCF is 18. • I
Every natural number greater than 1 can be factored into a product of primes. If the number is
• To find the GCF, factor both numbers into their prime factorizations, find all the primes they d
4 < 56 and −29 < −3 prime, you’re done. If not, factor it, and look at each factor. If they’re both prime, you’re done. If
have in common (counting multiplicity) and multiply them together. • Zero
56 > 4 and −3 > −29 not, factor one or both and repeat…
Ex: 108 = 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 3 = 22 × 33 and 126 = 2 × 3 × 3 × 7 = 2 × 32 × 7, so their poin
1≤2 • This method sometimes is organized in a factor tree. There is more than one valid factor tree
GCF is 2 × 3 × 3 = 18. Ex: 4
3 ≥ −29 for the same number, • Rea
• If two numbers have no “interesting” common factors (their GCF is 1), we say that they are
−1 �= 1 but the prime factors at is re
108 relatively prime. Ex: 40 and 21 are relatively prime (although both are composite).
the end are always the and
mber; the open part toward the
same. LEAST COMMON MULTIPLE (LCM) COM
• The end result is called 9 12 The least common multiple (LCM), sometimes known as the least common denominator (LCD), • If th
he larger number:
the prime factorization of two numbers is the smallest number that is divisible by both. Ex: 5

5
of the original number. • To find the LCM, factor both numbers into primes. Each prime factor of either must appear in • To c
• In practice, factoring the
3 3 3 4 the LCM at least as many times as it does in each one.
part
large numbers is also Ex: 108 has three 3s in its factorization, and 126 has two. So there will be a factor of 3 × 3 × 3
hard. Encryption soft- in their LCM. The LCM of 108 and 126 is 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 7 = 22 × 33 × 7 = 756. ADD
ware often relies on the 2 2 • If you already know the GCF of two numbers: Line u
difficulty of factoring (GCF) × (LCM) = product of the numbers. numb
with s
very large numbers. Ex: Since the GCf of 108 and 126 is 18, their LCM = 10818 ×126
= 756.
108 = 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 3 = 22 × 33 Ex 1
• The LCM of relatively prime numbers is their product. Ex: The LCM of 21 and 40 is 21×40 = 840.
Ex 2

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 MATH BASICS

ON.” LEWIS CARROLL

FRACTIONS
A fraction is a division in progress; it describes parts of a whole. The top is called the Ex 1: 38 + 56 = 8×6 = 48 and 6 = 6×8 = 48
3 3×6 18 5 5×8 40
1. Convert: 8
numerator, and the bottom is called the denominator. 34 is “three fourths” of a whole.
• If a fraction is written with a slash instead of a bar, the numerator comes first. 2. Add: 18
48 + 40
48 = 48
58
3. Reduce: 48÷2 = 29
58÷2
24 = 1 24
5

Ex: 3/4 = 34 Ex 2: 56 + 12 = 5×12+5×6 = 90

72 = 72÷18 = 4
5 90÷18 5
6×12
• The denominator can never be 0. The expressions 10 , −4 0
0 , and 0 are all undefined.
• Less work: When the two denominators have common factors, we can use a smaller
PROPER FRACTIONS, IMPROPER FRACTIONS, AND MIXED NUMBERS common denominator than their product—the LCM. Convert both fractions to equivalent
• If its numerator is smaller than its denominator, a fraction is proper. A proper fraction fractions whose denominator is the LCM of the original denominators. Add. Reducing
9 10 11 12 denotes a quantity less than 1. Ex: 34 and 12
6
are proper fractions. and/or convert to a mixed number if necessary. The advantage of this method is that
• Otherwise, the fraction is improper, and denotes a quantity more than or equal to 1. you’re working with smaller numbers; less multiplication and division is involved. The
0 0 0 0 0 advantage is greatest when one of the original denominators is a factor of the other, as in
Ex: 52 and 16
10 are improper fractions. the second example both above and below.
8 9 10 11 12 • A mixed number has two parts: a whole number and a fraction. Ex: 3 14
Ex 1: 38 + 56 The LCM of 8 and 6 is 24 .
The mixed number is effectively the sum of the integer and the fraction: 3 + 14 = 3 14 . A
6 18 20 22 24 mixed number denotes a quantity more than 1. We convert 3
8 = 3×3
8×3 = 9
24 and 5
6 = 5×4
6×4 = 20
24 . Finally, add: 9
24 + 20
24 = 29
24 = 1 24
5
.
• Converting mixed numbers to improper fractions: Multiply the whole number by the Ex 2: 65 + 12 = 6×2 + 12 = 10+5
12 = 12 = 4
5 5×2 5 15 5
4 27 30 33 36
denominator and add the product to the numerator to get the numerator of the improper
2 36 40 44 48 fraction. The denominator stays the same: SUBTRACTING FRACTIONS
numerator (whole) × (denominator) + (numerator)
whole + = . Subtraction works just like addition.
0 45 50 55 60 denominator denominator
• Fractions with the same denominator: Just subtract the numerators. Reduce as necessary.
Ex: 2 37 = 2×7+3 = 17
8 54 60 66 72 7 7 13
Ex: 18 1
− 18 = 13−1
18 = 18 = 18÷6 = 3
12 12÷6 2
• Converting improper fractions to mixed numbers: Divide (with remainder) the numerator by
• Fractions with different denominators will need to be converted to equivalent fractions with
the denominator. The quotient is the whole number; the remainder is the numerator of the
6 63 70 77 84 a common denominator. Convert. Subtract. Reduce if necessary.
fraction; the denominator is unchanged:
4 − 6 = 4×3 − 6×2 =
Ex: 11 = 12 = 1 12
5 11×3 5×2 33−10 23 11
numerator remainder 12
4 72 80 88 96 denominator
= quotient +
denominator
.

Ex: To convert 5 , first divide: 48 ÷ 5 = 9, remainder3. So 48

MULTIPLYING FRACTIONS
5 = 95.
48 3
2 81 90 99 108 Multiply the numerators. Multiply the denominators. No common denominator necessary.
80 90 100 110 120 EQUIVALENT FRACTIONS • Less thinking: Multiply first, then reduce. Ex: 43 × 92 = 4×9
3×2
= 36
6
= 36÷6
6÷6
= 61
There are many ways to write the same fraction. • Less work: Cancel any common factors from numerators and denominators, then multiply.
88 99 110 121 132 Ex: 34 , 12 −6
16 , and −8 are all ways to write the same quantity. They are equivalent fractions.
No need to reduce. Ex:
• If a fraction is in lowest terms, its numerator and denominator have no common factors.
6 108 120 132 144 Ex: 34 is in lowest terms; 12
16 is not.
• To reduce a fraction to lowest terms, divide the numerator and the denominator by their
GCF—the largest number that goes into both evenly: 12 6
= 12÷6
6÷6
= 12 . DIVIDING FRACTIONS
• Any whole number a is equivalent the fraction a1 . Multiply by the reciprocal of the divisor. No common denominator necessary!
ecimal point one place to the right. • Again, cancelling common factors can happen before or after multiplication.
COMPARING FRACTIONS Ex 1: 43 ÷ 21 = 43 × 12 = 23 Ex 2: 43 ÷ 4 = 43 × 41 = 16
3
Multiplying or dividing the numerator and the denominator of a fraction by the same number
• You cannot divide by 0.
does not change the value of the fraction: ab = ac
bc .
• To determine if two fractions are equivalent, cross-multiply: multiply the numerator of one RECIPROCALS
by the denominator of the other and vice versa. If the two products are The reciprocal or inverse of a fraction ab is the fraction ab . The numerator and the denominator
18 30
equal, then the two fractions are equivalent. Ex: 18 21 = 35 because
30
are flipped.
18 × 35 = 630 and 21 × 30 = 630 . In lowest terms, both fractions 21 35
• A fraction whose value is zero—i.e., any fraction n 0
—has no reciprocal.
6
become 7 . • The product of a fraction and its reciprocal is 1.
• If cross-multiplying does not give the same product, then the larger fraction is the one that • The reciprocal of the whole number a is the fraction a1 .
contributes its numerator to the larger numerator-denominator product.
Ex: 37 > 25 because 3 × 5 = 15 > 14 = 7 × 2. WORKING WITH MIXED NUMBERS
3.
Addition and subtraction:
s a two-digit number) ADDING FRACTIONS • Less thinking: Convert all mixed numbers to improper fractions, add or subtract, then convert back.
• Fractions with the same denominator are easy to add: add their numerators: ab + cb = a+c b . Ex: 11 41 − 4 31 = 45
4 − 3 = = 12 = 6 12
13 45×3−13×4 83 11
12 .
• Sometimes fractions will need to be reduced after addition. • Less work: Add or subtract the whole number parts and the fractional parts separately.
5
Ex: 12 + 12 1
Add: 5+1
12 = 6
12 Reduce: 6
12 = 6÷6
12÷6 = 1
2 • Addition: If the sum of the fractional parts is an improper fraction, convert it to a mixed
s divisible by 3. • Fractions with different denominators have to be converted to equivalent fractions with the number and add whole parts � together.
�
same denominator (common denominator ) before adding. There are two ways of Ex: 1 53 + 2 21 = (1 + 2) + 35 + 12 = 3 + 3×2+1×5 = 3 + 11
10 = 3 + 1 10 = 4 10
1 1
ty 10
converting… • Subtraction: If the fractional part of first number is smaller than the fractional part of the
3 × ( tens’ digit ) + ( last digit )
• Less thinking: Multiply top and bottom of the first fraction by the denominator of the second number, “borrow” a 1 from the whole part by reducing the whole part by 1 and
second fraction; multiply top and bottom of the second fraction by the denominator of making the fractional part
the first fraction. The new fractions are equivalent to the original fractions and have a
� improper.
� � �
as a three-digit number) Ex: 11 14 − 4 13 = 10 + 4+1 − 4 13 = (10 − 4) + 54 − 13 = 6 + 5×3−1×4 = 6 11
4 12 12
common denominator. Add. Reduce. Multiplication and division: Convert mixed numbers to improper fractions before multiplying
9. or dividing.

DECIMALS
Decimals are another way of expressing parts of a whole—using a place value system. MULTIPLYING DECIMALS
tor of both.
INTERPRETING DECIMALS Ignoring the decimal points, multiply as you would whole numbers. Place the decimal point
0 -1 -2 -3 -4
• The decimal point separates the part of a number that is less 10 10 10 10 10 so that the answer has as many digits after the decimal point as both numbers being multiplied
divisor (GCD), of two numbers is
than 1 from the part that is greater than 1. Any whole 5 . 3 4 0 2 combined.
number has a (usually unwritten) decimal point to its right. • Watch the end zeroes. They may end up after the decimal point and be insignificant in the
on

te san s
th red
te al
de

hu s int

18 , so their GCF is 18.

es

n- d
nt p

ou th
ci

nd

• If the number has no whole part, the zero before the answer, but they do count as digits when determining
th th
m
h o

3.235
ou s

rizations, find all the primes they decimal point may be omitted. Ex: .04 = 0.04 the location of the decimal point. 3 digits
sa
nd

x 9.22 2 digits
th

ogether. • Zeroes that occur after the last digit after the decimal • Check that the answer makes sense. The product of
s

× 3 × 7 = 2 × 32 × 7, so their point may be dropped or added without changing the value of the number. the whole parts should be of the same order of 6470
Ex: 4.9 = 4.90; 5 = 5.000 magnitude—in most cases, have the same number of 6470
• Reading decimals: The decimal point is marked with “and;” the part after the decimal point digits before the decimal point—as the answer.
r GCF is 1), we say that they are 29115
is read as a decimal fraction (a fraction whose denominator is a power of ten). 5.3402 is “five Ex: 3.235 × 9.22 = 29.8267
both are composite). 29.82670 5 digits
and three thousand four hundred and two ten-thousandths.”
COMPARING DECIMALS DIVIDING DECIMALS
ast common denominator (LCD), • If the whole parts of two numbers differ, then the one with the greater whole part is greater. • Convert the divisor (the number being divided by) into a whole number by moving the
. Ex: 5.1 > 4.99999 decimal point in both the divisor and the dividend to the right the same number of places.
me factor of either must appear in • To compare the fractional parts, make sure that the numbers have the same number of digits after (Exactly the same as multiplying top and bottom of a
the decimal point, possibly by padding one of them with zeroes. Compare the padded fractional fraction by the same power of ten.) 16.8
parts as you would whole numbers. Ex: 1.009 < 1.3 because 1.3 = 1.300 and 009 < 300 .
here will be a factor of 3 × 3 × 3 You may need to pad the dividend with zeroes. 75. 1260.0 )
3 × 7 = 22 × 33 × 7 = 756. ADDING AND SUBTRACTING DECIMALS • Divide as usual, making sure to line up the digits of the –75
Line up the decimal points, then add or subtract as with whole quotient with the corresponding digits of the dividend. 510
numbers. Padding with zeroes may make this easier—especially
0.0040 • The decimal point in the dividend indicates the location of –450
numbers. 4 9 9 10

with subtraction. 21.0089 5.000

00
00 the decimal point in the answer. 600
6
= 756. – 2.041
Ex 1: 0.004 + 21.0089 + 7 = 28.0129 + 7.0000 Ex: 12.6 ÷ 0.75 = 16.8 –600
CM of 21 and 40 is 21×40 = 840. 0
Ex 2: 5 − 2.041 = 2.959
28.0129 2.959

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 Math Basics 4/15/03 9:43 AM Page 2

CONVERTING BETWEEN FRACTIONS AND DECIMALS POW

Fractions and decimals are two ways of expressing parts of a whole. CONVERTING DECIMALS TO FRACTIONS Raising t
• Decimals (rather than fractions) are often used when the number refers to a physical quantity,
First convert the decimal to a decimal fraction. The numerator is the part after the decimal repeated a
such as bushels of rice or square inches. point. The denominator is a power of 10 —the place value of the last digit in the number (the
• Fractions may be more convenient when the numbers involved are small, especially in number of zeroes in the denominator should correspond to the number of digits after the SQUAR
problems involving a lot of division and multiplication. decimal point). Next, reduce. • The squ
• Reading the decimal aloud should indicate the fraction. Ex: 32 =
TERMINATING AND REPEATING DECIMALS • If the decimal has a whole part, convert to a mixed number first; then convert to an • Any
The most common type of decimal is a terminating decimal: 0.25 or 1.3 are both decimals with improper fraction if necessary. squa
a finite number of digits after the decimal point. However, there are many real numbers that, Ex 1: 0.04 = 100
4
= 251
Ex 2: 1.0625 = 1 10000
625
= 1 16
1 • The
written in decimal form, go on forever. 62 =
√ CONVERTING FRACTIONS TO DECIMALS
Ex: π = 3.14159265 . . . ; 2 = 1.41421356 . . . • The s
• Some of the decimals that go on forever are repeating—after a certain point, a cycle of digits Divide, padding the numerator with a decimal point 1.3125 0.5454... same
repeats over and over again. and as many zeroes as necessary. 16 ) 21.0000 11 ) 6.0000... • Follo
• If the fraction is in reduced form, and the –16 55 • The cub
Ex: 0.33333 . . . ; 2.080808 . . . ; 1.8345454545 . . . . 50 50
denominator does not have prime factors except for Ex: 73 =
• The cycle that repeats is usually denoted with an overline bar. –48 44
Ex: 0.33333 . . . = 0.3 ; 1.8454545 . . . = 1.845 2 and 5, then the decimal answer will terminate. 20 60. • The f
• Otherwise, it will repeat. Either divide until you see –16 ..
• Numbers that can be expressed as terminating or repeating decimals can be rewritten as POWE
the pattern, or stop and get an approximate answer. 40
fractions—they are rational. –32
21
Ex 1: 16 = 1.3125 The expre
• Numbers that are expressed as decimals that go on forever and never repeat—such as π or 80
√
2—are irrational, and cannot be expressed as fractions.
6
Ex 2: 11 = 0.54 –80 In the exp
0 number o
• 34 is
PERCENT • Natural
power i
A percentage is another way of expressing parts of a whole, used most often when discussing PERCENT INCREASE • Zero po
real-world quantities. The word “percent” literally means “out of 100 ;” it is abbreviated with Amount increase: � �
percent increase it as the
the symbol % . Ex: 23% = 100
23
= 0.23 (amount increase) = (original amount) ×
100
• 100% is one whole. More than 100% is more than one whole. OPERA
New amount: (new amount) = (original amount) + (amount increase)
• Multiply
CONVERTING PERCENT TO FRACTIONS AND DECIMALS
� �
percent increase
= (original amount) × 1 + exponen
• Percent to decimals: Drop the % sign and move decimal point two places to the left. Pad 100
• Dividing
with zeroes if necessary. Ex: 8% = 0.08 ; 1.5% = 0.015 exponen
Ex: Phil knew 144 French verbs two months ago. Now he knows 12.5% more verbs. How
• Decimals to percent: Move decimal point two places to the right. Add % sign. Pad with Answer: Phil knows 144 × (1 + 12.5
many verbs does Phil know now? 100 ) = 162 verbs.
zeroes if necessary. Ex: 0.897 = 89.7% ; 1.9 = 190%
• Percent to fractions: Drop % sign and write number over 100 . Reduce.
Ex: 37.5% = 37.5
66 2
PERCENT DECREASE
Amount decrease:
ME
100 = 1000 = 8 ;
375 3
66 23 % = 1003 = 23 �
percent decrease
�
(amount decrease) = (original amount) × METR
• Fractions to percent: Convert fraction to decimal; move decimal point two places to the right 100
and attach % sign. New amount: Used by m
(new amount) = (original amount) − (amount decrease)
� � • Basic u
WHAT IS — % OF — ? percent decrease
= (original amount) × 1 − • The
100
“Of” means multiplication. Convert the percentage to a decimal or fraction and multiply. 0.1 m
Ex 1: What is 40% of 56 ? Ex: Sally the puppy originally cost $450 . How much does Sally cost during the pet store’s 34% • The me
Find 0.40 × 56 or 100
40
× 56 , which is 22.4. off going-out-of-business sale? Answer: Sally’s new price is $450 × (1 − 100
34
) = $297.
differen
Ex 2: 87.5% of the 16 boys in Nadine’s class like to cook. How many boys in Nadine’s class like
INTEREST Ex: The
cooking?
Suppose that dollar amount P is invested at r% yearly interest� forrtt years.
0.875 × 16 = 14 cooking enthusiasts. � Multiplica
• Simple interest: I = P 100r
t . Total amount is P + I = P 1 + 100 .
• If the length of time is in months, divide by 12 to find out the length of time in years. 1,000,00
WHAT PERCENT OF — IS — ? Ex: Ivan invests $2500 at 2.5% simple interest. How much money does he have after 8
1000 = 1
— IS WHAT PERCENT OF — ?
months?
Here, P = $2500 , r = 2.5 and t = 12 8
. He earns $2500 × 100
2.5
× 128
= $41.67 in interest
The “main number”—the one representing a whole, or 100% —is the one preceded by “of.” We 1 = 100
and has a total of $2541.67 at the end.
will call the other number the “part.” In most problems, the main number will be larger.
• Compound interest: In practice, most banks calculate how much interest you have earned 0.1 = 10
Divide the part by the main number to find the fraction; convert to percent. every day so that during the second day you earn a small amount of interest on the interest
Ex 1: What percent of 25 is 4? Ex 2: 18 is what percent of 24 ? that you earned during the first day. The interest is “compounded daily.” This makes a 0.01 = 1
25 = 0.16 = 16% . 24 = 4 = 75%.
4 18 3
difference for large investments. 0.001 =
• If the interest is compounded d times during the year, then the total amount after t years is
— IS — % OF WHAT NUMBER? �
P 1+ r
�td
. 0.000001
percent
Here, we know the part and seek the whole. Since (whole) × ( 100 ) = part , we have 100d
part Ex: If Ivan’s interest is compounded monthly, he would have
whole = 100 × percentage . � 8
� 12 ×12
$2500 × 1 + 2.5
= $2541.97 —which is a difference of 30 cents. ENGLI
8 = 250.
Ex: 20 is 8% of what number? Answer: whole = 100 × 20 100×12
Used in th

POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE NUMBERS

• Length
inch (in
• When subtracting a quantity in parentheses, distribute the negative sign by flipping the sign 1 mi =
THE NUMBER LINE
of every term inside the parentheses. Ex: 3 − (5 − 1) = 3 + (−5) + 1 = −1 1 yd =
The number line is a visual way of keeping track of positive and negative numbers.
Flip only once for a product of two numbers. 1 ft =
• Every point on the line corresponds to some kind of number. The integers (whole numbers
Ex: 4 − (3 − 5 × (−3)) = 4 − 3 + 5 × (−3) = −14
and their negatives) are evenly spaced and often labelled.
• Positive numbers are to the right of 0, negative numbers are to the left. On the number line… TIME
• Any given number is larger than every number to its left and smaller than every number to • Adding a positive number (or subtracting a negative number) means moving to the right.
1 year
its right, regardless of sign. • Adding a negative number (or subtracting a positive number) means moving to the left.
• The absolute value of a number is its distance from 0. The “absolute value of n” is denoted
1 wee
|n|. Essentially, |n| is n without the ± sign. MULTIPLYING AND DIVIDING SIGNED NUMBERS 1 day
• If n is positive, |n| = n . –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 Multiply or divide the numbers disregarding sign. Then choose the sign: 1 hou
• If n is negative, |n| = −n . • Same sign (+) × (+) or (−) × (−) : The answer is positive (+) . 1 min
� 5� 5 � �
Ex: |3| = 3 ; �− � = ; |0| = 0 The number line and the point -3 Ex 1: (−20) ÷ (−4) = 5 Ex 2: (−4) × − 21 = 2
2 2
SCIEN
• Different signs (−) × (+) or (+) × (−) : The answer is negative (−).
ADDING AND SUBTRACTING SIGNED NUMBERS Very larg
Ex: 4 ÷ (−3) = − 34
TIP: Negative signs and subtraction signs are really the same thing. expressed
• To add numbers with the same sign: Add the values and keep the sign. FRACTIONS AND DECIMALS n is any in
Ex: −5 + (−1) = −(5 + 1) = −6 negative
All of the rules above apply to whole numbers, 0
• To add numbers with different signs: Subtract the values and take the sign of the “bigger” –4 4
fractions, decimals—in fact, to all numbers on the • To con
number (bigger in absolute value).
number line. 1 2 decima
Ex 1: −6 + 14 = +(14 − 6) = 8 Ex 2: 7 + (−11) = −(11 − 7) = −4 –3 2 3
• In signed mixed numbers, the fractional part gets the to the l
• To subtract any signed number: Switch its sign and add it. Real numbers on the number line
same sign as the
� whole
� part.
Ex: −5 − (−14) = −5 + 14 = 9
Ex: −3 21 = − 3 + 21 = −3 − 21

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 POWERS AND ROOTS GEO
NS Raising to powers, or exponentiation, is repeated multiplication—just as multiplication is • Raising powers to powers: To raise a power to a power, multiply the exponents. Ex: (2 ) = 2 3 2 6 • The per
units of
tor is the part after the decimal repeated addition. There is no way to combine the sum or difference of two powers into one expression.
• The are
he last digit in the number (the Ex: 24 − 23 is as “simplified” as it can be before evaluating.
SQUARES AND CUBES measur
the number of digits after the • Raising a product to a power: A product raised to a power is equal to the product of powers with length 2
• The square of a number n, written as n2 and pronounced “n squared,” is its product with itself. different bases. Ex: (3 × 4)5 = 35 × 45 • The vol
Ex: 32 = 3 × 3 = 9 • Raising
• Any number can be squared (Ex: (1.2)2 = 1.44 ), but squares of integers are called perfect
� �4a quotient
4
to a power: A power of a quotient is the quotient of the powers. in units
umber first; then convert to an Ex: 23 = 234 • π ≈ 3.1
squares. • This does not work for sums and differences: (3 + 4)2 �= 32 + 42 .
• The first few perfect squares are 02 = 0,, 12 = 1,, 22 = 4 , 32 = 9 , 42 = 16 , 52 = 25 , • Negative powers: Raising to a negative power is the same as taking the reciprocal of the positive
62 = 36 , 72 = 49 , 82 = 64 , 92 = 81 , 102 = 100 , 112 = 121 , 122 = 144, . . . power. Ex: 4−2 = 412
LS • The square of any nonzero number is always positive. (The product of two numbers with the
1.3125 0.5454...
s
same sign is positive.) SQUARE ROOTS
21.0000 11 ) 6.0000... • Following order of operations, −42 = −(42 ) = −16 , which is not the same as (−4)2 = 16. A square √ root of a positive
√
16 55 √integer n, written n, is the positive√ number whose product with itself
• The cube of a number n, written n3 and pronounced “n cubed,” is its product with itself twice. is n. Ex: 25 = 5 . The sign is called the radical sign. In 25 , 25 is the
50 50 √ radicand.
Ex: 73 = 7 × 7 × 7 = 343 . A perfect cube is the cube of an integer. • It is true that (−5) = 5 = 25 , but by convention, √the expression 25 means the positive
2 2
–48 44
20 60. • The first few positive perfect cubes are 13 = 1 , 23 = 8 , 33 = 27 , 43 = 64 , 53 = 125 , . . . square root. To indicate the negative root, write − 25 .
–16 ..
Perfect squares have whole number square roots. The square roots of all other numbers are on
40 POWERS AND EXPONENTS the √
number line, but they are irrational—their decimal expansions go on forever, never repeating. h
–32 The expression 34 means 3 multiplied by itself 4 times: 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 . Ex: 2 = 1.41421356 . . .
80
� �� �
4 times • To estimate a square root, sandwich the radicand between perfect squares.
–80 In the expression 34 , 3 is the base—the number being multiplied—and 4 is the exponent—the
√
0 Ex: 57 is between 7 and 8 because 57 is between 49 = 72 and 64 = 82 .
number of times the multiplication is performed.
• 34 is read as “three to the fourth power.” We also say that 81 (which is 34 ) is a power of 3. SIMPLIFYING SQUARE ROOTS
• Natural number exponents: Any natural number can be an exponent. Any number to the first • Square root of product: The root of a product is the product of the roots.
power is itself. Ex: 31 = 3 √ √ √
Ex: 9×4= 9× 4=3×2=6 � √ b
• Zero power: It is convenient to define the zero power of any number to be 1 (you can think of
� • Square root of quotient: The root of a quotient is the quotient of the roots. Ex: 45
5 = √45
rcent increase it as the “null” product. EXCEPTION: The expression 00 is undefined. 5
• A square root expression is considered simplified if the radicand has no repeated factors. To
100
OPERATIONS ON POWERS simplify,√
factor the radicand and move any factor that appears
√ twice outside the square root
√ √ √
t increase) sign. Ex: 60 = 2 × 2 × 3 × 5 = 2 × 2 3 × 5 = 2 15
� • Multiplying powers: If the bases of two powers are the same, then to multiply, add their
ercent increase h
exponents. Ex: 23 × 28 = 211
100 CUBE ROOTS
• Dividing powers: If the bases of two powers are the same, then to divide, subtract their √ √
A cube root of an integer n, written 3
n is the number whose cube is n. Ex: 3
512 = 8
nows 12.5% more verbs. How exponents. Ex: 37 ÷ 34 = 37−4 = 33

100 ) = 162 verbs.

× (1 + 12.5

rcent decrease
� MEASUREMENT For more details, see the Weights and Measures SparkChart.

METRIC SYSTEM Ex 1:
100 0002.343 x 10 –3 = 0.002343
Used by most industrialized nations except the United States.
decrease)
� • Basic units: meter (m ) for length, liter (L) for volume, and kilogram (kg ) for mass.
Ex 2: 6.59000 x 10 5 = 659000
ercent decrease 1
• The meter is about 40,000,000 of the earth’s circumference; a liter is the volume of a cube • To convert to scientific notation: The exponent is the number of places that the first nonzero
100 a
0.1 m on each side; a kilogram is the mass of a liter of water at 4◦ C. digit of the number must be moved to land into the ones’ place.
cost during the pet store’s 34% • The metric system has principal UNITS (meter, liter, gram) that are made bigger or smaller by • If the number is less than 1, the exponent is negative; if 10 or more, positive; if between 1
50 × (1 − 100 )
34
= $297.
different prefixes—which all indicate multiplication or division by some power of ten. and 10 , the exponent is zero.
Ex: There are 100 centiUNITS in every UNIT. A kiloUNIT is 1000 UNITS. b
Ex 1: 430 = 4.3 × 102
st for t years. Ex 2: 0.109 = 1.09 × 10−1
� Multiplication factor Prefix Symbol Common examples
1 + 100
rt
. • Adding and subtracting in scientific notation: The least thought-intensive way to do this is to
he length of time in years. 1,000,000 = 106 mega M convert both numbers out of scientific notation, perform the operation, and then convert back. d
ch money does he have after 8 KEY: You can only add or subtract the coefficients directly if they are multiplied by the same power of 10.
1000 = 103 kilo k kilometer (km ), kilogram (kg )
Ex: 1.65 × 105 − 9.0 × 104 = 16.5 × 104 − 9.0 × 104
2.5
× 8
= $41.67 in interest
100 12 1 = 100 — — meter (m ), liter (L), gram (g ) = (16.5 − 9.0) × 104 = 7.5 × 104
much interest you have earned 0.1 = 10−1 deci d decimeter (dm ) • Multiplying and dividing in scientific notation: Multiply (or divide) the coefficients, add (or
mount of interest on the interest
mpounded daily.” This makes a 0.01 = 10−2 centi c centimeter (cm )
subtract) the exponents, and convert back to scientific notation.
�
Ex 1: 3.3 × 10−2
�� �
6.20 × 1023 = (3.3 × 6.20) × 10(−2)+23 = 20.46 × 1021
STA
0.001 = 10 −3
milli m millimeter (mm ), milligram (mg ), milliliter (mL ) Convert to get 2.046 × 1022 .
n the total amount after t years is STATI
0.000001 = 10−6 micro µ micrometer (µm ) SIGNIFICANT DIGITS Because
Recognizing which digits in a measurement are “significant” helps determine which numbers in quantitie
have
a calculation combining several measurements are important. data is A
difference of 30 cents. ENGLISH SYSTEM
• Counting significant digits. In the examples, significant digits are underlined. • Mean:
Used in the United States. the su
• All nonzero digits are significant. Also, any zero in between nonzeroes is significant.
• Length: mile (mi ), yard (yd ), foot (ft), • Volume: gallon, quart, pint, fluid ounce (fl. oz ). eleme
Ex: 203 cm
inch (in ). 1 gallon = 4 quarts = 8 pints = 128 fl. oz 2+2+1
• Zeroes in front of the first nonzero digit are not significant (even if a decimal point is
negative sign by flipping the sign 1 mi = 1760 yds = 5280 ft 1 quart = 2 pints = 32 fl. oz • Media
present). Ex: 0.000702 g
+ (−5) + 1 = −1 1 yd = 3 ft = 36 in 1 pint = 16 fl. oz there
• Zeroes after the last nonzero digit are significant only if a decimal point is present.
1 ft = 12 in • Mass: pound (lb ), ounce (oz ). there a
Ex: 25.00 mL , 300 mm , 0.02300 sec
1 lb = 16 oz elemen
• Significant digits in scientific notation:
TIME • All digits written are significant. Ex: 3.010 × 10−2 middle
er) means moving to the right. • To indicate that there are two significant digits in 400 kg , write the number in scientific • If th
1 year = 12 months = 52 weeks = 365 days (366 during a leap year)
er) means moving to the left. the
1 week = 7 days = 168 hours notation as 4.0 × 102 kg .
1 day = 24 hours = 1440 minutes • Multiplication and division: The number of significant digits in a product or a quotient should • Mode:
NUMBERS
1 hour = 60 minutes = 3600 seconds be no more than the number of significant digits in any other value involved in the calculation. mode
se the sign:
e (+) . 1 minute = 60 seconds Round when necessary. Ex: (9.2 m) × (354 m) = 3300 m2
GRAP
• Addition and subtraction: A sum or difference should be as precise as the least precise quantity
SCIENTIFIC NOTATION Data is
involved. Again, round.
gative (−). represen
Very large and very small numbers—which often come up in chemistry and physics—can be • A quantity is precise when it is “fine”—when it has significant digits in small places.
types of g
expressed compactly in scientific notation as a × 10n , where a is a decimal between 1 and 10 and Ex: 3,899,900 —whose last significant digit is in the hundreds’ place—is less precise than
1. Line gr
n is any integer (possibly negative). Very large numbers have positive n; very small numbers have 9.9, whose last significant digit is in the tenths’ place.
hidden
negative n. Ex 1: 4.8 mL + 5.32 mL = 10.1 mL because the less precise summand (4.8 mL ) is precise to
4 0 4 steepn
• To convert from scientific notation: In a × 10n , the exponent n tells how many digits the the tenths’ digit.
increa
–3 2
1 2 decimal point must be moved. If n is positive, move the decimal point to the right; if negative, Ex 2: 1100 kg − 523 kg = 600 kg because the less precise measurement (1100 kg ) is precise
3 often p
to the left. to the hundreds’ digit. However, 1.10 × 103 kg − 523 kg = 580 kg because the less precise
al numbers on the number line
measurement (1.10 × 103 kg ) is precise to the tens’ digit.

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 GEOMETRY AND MEASUREMENT For more details, see the Geometry SparkChart.
• The perimeter (P ) of a plane figure is the total distance around its edges. It is measured in
2 3 )2 = 26
units of length : cm , m, km , in, ft. The perimeter of a circle is called the circumference (C ). CUBE
n.
• The area (A) of a plane figure is the number of unit squares that can be fit inside it—a
measurement of how much 2-dimensional space it encloses. It is measured in units of
owers with s Surface area: SA = 6s2 = 6(side length)2
length 2 : cm2 , m2 , km2 , in2 , ft2 .
Volume: V = s3 = (side length)3
• The volume (V ) of a solid is the number of cubic units that can be fit inside it. Measured
3 3 3
in units of length : cm3 , m3 , km , in3 , ft .
• π ≈ 3.14
RECTANGULAR SOLID

TM

SPARKCHARTS
he positive SQUARE
Surface area: SA = 2(lw + lh + hw)
h Volume: V = lwh = (length) × (width) × (height)
s Perimeter: P = 4(side length) = 4s
Area: A = (side length)2 = s2 w
t with itself l

he positive PYRAMID
RECTANGLE
bers are on
repeating. h � � h Volume: V = 13 Bh = 13 (Base area) × (height)
Perimeter: P = 2(b + h) = 2 (base) + (height)
Area: A = bh = (base) × (height)
b B

PARALLELOGRAM
PRISM
h
Area: A = bh = (base) × (height)
√ b h Volume: V = Bh = (Base area) × (height)
= √45
5
factors. To B
TRAPEZOID
quare root b2
CYLINDER
h Area: A = 12 (b1 + b2 )h = (average of bases) × (height) r

8 b1 Volume: V = Bh = (Base area) × (height)

h = πr 2 h = π(radius)2 × (height)
B
a
c TRIANGLE
h CONE

b Volume: V = 13 Bh = 13 (Base area) × (height)

Perimeter: P = a + b + c = sum of side lengths h
Area: A = 12 bh = 12 (base) × (height) = 13 πr 2 h = 13 π(radius)2 × (height)
st nonzero r
a B
c h
between 1

Contributors: Anna Medvedovsky, Jason Whitlow

SPHERE

Series Editors: Sarah Friedberg, Justin Kestler

r
o this is to CIRCLE Surface area: SA = 4πr 2 = 4π(radius)2

Illustration: Scott Griebel, Porter Mason

nvert back. d Volume: V = 43 πr 3 = 43 π(radius)3
Circumference:
ower of 10.
r C = 2πr = πd = 2π(radius) = π(diameter)
Area: A = πr 2 = π(radius)2

Design: Dan O. Williams

ts, add (or

$7.95 CAN
STATISTICS AND GRAPHS
Tiffany’s movie-watching habits
STATISTICS Number of times Justin fell into the lake

$4.95
Because lists of data can be cumbersome, we use statistical 20

quantities to typify sets of numbers. Suppose our collection of 15 Apart from the first week, Justin’s
numbers in
data is A = {2, 2, 1, 8, 9, 3, 6} . fall rate declined until the fifth

9
15
Number of movies

week, at which point it stabilized.

Number of falls

• Mean: The mean or average of a collection of numbers is www.sparknotes.com/errors

into the lake

10
Perhaps Justin was a first-time

20593 36189
ant. the sum of all the elements divided by the number of 10
instructor; it took him five weeks
Report errors at:

elements. The mean of the numbers in set A is to learn how to avoid most falls.
5
al point is
2+2+1+8+9+3+6
7 = 4.43. 5
• Median: The median is the element with the property that 2
1
nt. there are as many elements smaller than the median as
June July August September October
there are elements larger than the median. If you write the 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 10 14 17 8 5

elements in order from least to greatest; the median is the Weeks Month

middle element. The median of the numbers in A is 3.

Ex: While teaching boating at the Happy Fun summer camp, 3. Pie chart: A pie chart (or pie graph) presents quantities as
n scientific • If there are an even number of elements, the median is
7

Justin fell into the water 8 times during the first week, 15 parts of a whole; it emphasizes relative amounts.
the average of the middlemost two.
times in the second week, 10 times in the third, 7 times in Ex: Budgets are frequently presented in pie-chart form.
ent should • Mode: The mode is the most frequently occurring value. The
the fourth, 2 times in the fifth, 3 times in the sixth, 2 times Ex: Lucy’s allowance is $10 . She spent $1.52 on candy,
alculation. mode of the numbers in A is 2.
in the seventh, and 1 time in the eighth week. $4.75 on a bargain matinee movie, $2.89 on a comic book,
GRAPHS and saved the rest.
se quantity
Data is sometimes presented in a graph —a pictorial 2. Bar graph: A bar graph presents information in a series of Lucy’s expenses
representation of the information. The three most common bars. Bar graphs show trends, too, but there is more
ces. Total $10.00
types of graphs are: emphasis on sheer amount than in a line graph.
recise than
1. Line graph: A line graph plots the information on a (usually
At a glance, the pie chart
hidden) grid and connects the data points with lines. The Ex: Tiffany saw 10 movies in June, 14 in July, 17 in August,
s precise to comic book
$2.89
shows that Lucy spent a little
steepness of the connecting lines indicates the rate of 8 in September, and 5 in October. movie less than half of her money
increase or decrease from point to point. Stock prices are $4.75
on the movie and just over a
) is precise savings
often presented in line-graph form. $0.84 quarter on the comic book.
ess precise candy
$1.52

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