(PAGES: 233-234)

GRADING OF LEARNING
OUTCOMES
&
STATISTICS AND COMPUTER:
TOOLS FOR ANALYSING OF
ASSESSMENT OF DATA
Student:
Anne Claire Pilones Tingo – raporture
Rosalie P. Salarda
April Jane M. Rubio
Princess Sarah Salipayan
Shiela May Patcho Riu
Lainie Sumilhig Esrellanes
Lyca B. Sagdi
Jessa Mae Sanupao

Instructor:
Pacita Sundiam LPT.

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 GRADING OF LEARNING OUTCOMES
(Page 233)

Soft copy of Rosalie P. Salarda

BSED-III

1.) K to 12 Grading of learning Outcomes

 DepEd ORDER No. 73 S. 2012 General Guidelines for the Assessment and Rating of
Learning Outcomes • Effective School Year () 2012-2013, the standards-based
assessment and rating system shall be implemented to support the progressive roll-out
starting with grades 1 and 7 of the K to 12 Basic Education Curriculum in public and
private elementary and secondary schools nationwide.

Outline Of Presentation
• Philosophy of Assessment
• Nature of Assessment and Its Purpose
• Levels of Assessment
• Assessment Tools
• Levels of Proficiency and Equivalent Numeric Value
• Rating System
• Assessment Rubric
• Frequency of Assessment.

WHAT IS “K TO 12 PROGRAM”?
 The K to 12 Program covers: • Kindergarten and 12 years of basic education (six years
of primary education, four years of Junior High School, and two years of Senior High
School [SHS])

PHILOSOPHY
 Assessment shall be used primarily as a quality assurance tool to track student progress
in the attainment of standards, promote self-reflection and personal accountability for
one’s learning, and provide a basis for the profiling of student performance

NATURE AND PURPOSE OF ASSESSMENT

 Assessment shall be holistic, with emphasis on the formative or developmental purpose
of quality assuring student learning.
 It also standards-based as it seeks to ensure that teachers will teach to the standards
and students will aim to meet or even exceed the standards.
 The students’ attainment of standards in terms of content and performance is, therefore,
a critical evidence of learning.

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 NATURE OF ASSESSMENT PURPOSE
Assessment of learning Being summative, it measures student’s attainment of
standards.

Assessment as learning Assessment, charts his/her own progress and plans next
steps to improve performance; builds metacognition as it
involves the students in setting and monitoring own
learning goals.

Assessment for learning Determines student’s background knowledge and skills;

tracks students progress in understanding.

LEVEL OF PERFORMANCE AND UNDERSTANDING

At the level of understanding
 Do products and/or performances reflect evidence of students’ learning?

At the level of performance

 Do products and/or performances demonstrate student conceptual understanding and
content and Skills?

LEVELS OF ASSESSMENT
 The attainment of learning outcomes as defined in the standards shall be the basis for
the quality assurance of learning using formative assessments.
 They shall also be the focus of the summative assessments and shall be the basis for
grading at the end of instruction.

LEVEL OF LEARNING OUTCOMES

• Knowledge
• Process or Skill
• Understanding
• Products and Performances
– The levels of Assessment are defined as follows:

KNOWLEDGE
 The substantive content of the curriculum, the facts and information that the student
acquires

PROCESS
 Skills or cognitive operations that the student performs on facts and information for the
purpose of constructing meanings or understandings.

UNDERSTANDING(S)
 Enduring big ideas, principles and generalizations inherent to the discipline, which may
be assessed using the facets of understanding which may be specific to the discipline

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PRODUCTS / PERFORMANCES
 Real-life application of understanding as evidenced by the student’s performance of authentic
tasks.

LEVELS OF ASSESSMENT
 These levels shall be the outcomes reflected in the class record and shall be given
corresponding percentage weights as follows:

Level of assessment Percentage weight

Knowledge 15%

Process or skills 25%

Understanding (s) 30%

Products/performances 30%

Total = 100%

ASSESSMENT TOOLS

KNOWLEDGE PROCESS/SKILLS UNDERSTANDING PRODUCTS &

PERFORMANCE

Traditional tools Transform a textual Facts of Authentic products or

presentation into a understanding performances task
diagram that a student is
expected to do to

Paper and Pencil -Outline, organize, -self knowledge Demonstrate his or

tests analyze, interpret, her understanding
translate. Convert or
express information

-Multiple choice -Flow chart -Empathy -Self understanding

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 -True or False -Construct Graphs -Perspective -Self monitoring

-Matching type -Graphic Organizers -Explanation -Self Assessment

-Construct Response -Draw analogies -Interpretation -Permit choices of

Test combination of oral,
written, visual and
kinesthetic mades

LEVELS OF PROFICIENCY AND ITS EQUIVALENT NUMERICAL VALUE

 The performance of the students shall be described in the report card, based on the
following levels of proficiency.

LEVEL OF PROFICIENCY
Beginning (B)
Developing (D)
Approaching Proficiency (AP)
Proficiency (P)
Advanced (A)

 While, the level proficiency shall be based on a numerical value which arrived form
summing up the results of the student’s performance on the various level of assessment.

EQUIVALENT NUMERICAL VALUE

74% and below
75 – 79%
80 – 84%
85 – 89%
90% and above

 LEVELS OF PROFICIENCY
 The student at this level exceeds the core requirements in terms of knowledge,
skills and understanding, and can transfer then automatically and flexibly through
authentic performance task.

 LEVELS OF PROFICIENCY
 The student at this level possesses the minimum knowledge and skills and core
understanding, but needs help throughout the performance of authentic task.

 FEED BACK

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  Results of the assessment across levels should be fed back immediately to the
students, so that they know what to improve further, and then they can plan
strategically how they can address any learning deficiency

 PROTOTYPE RUBRICS FOR THE DIFFERENT LEVELS OF ASSESSMENT

WHAT IS RUBRIC:
 A rubric is a guideline for rating student performance.
 It must define the range of possible performance levels.
 Within this range, there are different levels of performance which are organized
from the lowest level to the highest level of performance.
 Usually, a scale of possible points is associated with the continuum in which the
highest level receives the greatest number of points and the lowest level of
performance receives the fewest points.

 BENEFITS OF RUBRIC
–The rubric provides assessment with exactly the characteristics for each level of
performance on which the students and the teacher should base their judgment.
–The rubric provides the students with clear information about how well they performed
and what they need to accomplish in the future to better their performance.

 RUBRICS CRITERIA & PERCENTAGE

CRITERIA PERCENTAGE
Knowledge 15%
Skills 25%
Understanding 30%
Transfer of Understanding 30%
Total: 100%

2.) The Effects of Grading on Students

What is a Traditional Grading Scale?
One of the most universally recognized and traditional grading scales is the A-F letter grading
scale. It’s as follows:
A= 90-100%
B= 80-89%
C= 70-79%
D= 60-69%
F= 0-59%

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Some schools may add on a plus or minus to signal which half of the letter grade you fall into.
For example, if it’s above halfway, then you can have a plus grade, like 96% being an A+, and
93% being an A-.
Pros of Grades
With the traditional grading system, many institutions and students can benefit in a variety of
ways. Some of the pros of grades include:
Standardization and universally recognized: In virtually any corner of the globe, people will
understand what an A, B, C, D, or F letter grade stands for. This makes it easy for students to
see where they stand in their academic performance. It also gives students a quantifiable scale
to set their own goals for how to attain good grades.
Easy to understand: The system is set up to be as simple as possible. Since each percentage is
associated with a letter grade, it’s user friendly for students, teachers, admissions committees,
and parents to understand.
Comparison: With the scale, teachers can see how a student is performing compared to the
majority of the class. Not only does this help college admissions committees assess who is
ready for college-level academics, it can also help teachers know who needs extra help.
 
Cons of Grades
Although grades clearly serve a purpose, there are some negative consequences of their
existence. For example:
Subjective: Even though the letter grade is universally recognized and accepted, grades still
have subjectivity involved. While this is less true in math and science where answers are black
and white, the subjectivity of grading is most apparent in subjects like English. To exemplify, if a
teacher creates a rubric to score a writing assignment with letter grades, there could be bias
involved. Furthermore, although the letter grade is standardized, the grading practices are not.
This means that what one teacher would score as an A, another could consider a B, depending
on how strict their grading principles are.
Limited: The grading system may not accurately reflect what a student is learning. There’s no
explanation for what got a student to the grade they achieved. Some may be learning more than
others, but not able to apply their knowledge well to the task at hand.
Time-consuming: Many teachers have to spend an immense amount of time to set up a grading
rubric and scale that translates understanding into a comparable letter grade. This also leans
towards a testing culture rather than a learning culture. Many students will ask the question,
“Will this be on the test?” when learning a new concept, rather than spending their energy to
absorb the material.

What Makes Grades Matter?

In the United States and many other cultures, grades have been made to matter for a variety of
reasons. In many instances, students consider grades to be a reflection of their intelligence.

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Parents and admission committees look to grades to judge if a student is performing at their
expected level.
Tied to self-worth: The majority (80%) of college freshmen reported that their self-worth was tied
to their academic performance and competence. This can become an issue if a student receives
a bad grade and then takes it personally and can’t handle the stress.
Parental opinion: Many parents regard grades highly and may punish their children if grades
aren’t as they’d expect. This could strain a relationship between a parent and child. Or, if it’s
properly managed, it may boost a child’s motivation to do well.
High stakes: There are often high stakes related to grades that make them matter. For example,
colleges consider a student’s GPA, along with other factors like standardized test results, when
admitting a new class of freshmen.

How to Make Learning the Focus and Other Alternatives

While it is useful to be able to judge a student’s performance with grades, the primary regard for
education should be learning. By shifting the focus from grades to learning and a growth
mindset, many students actually will absorb and retain more knowledge.
Some ways to incorporate these methods into the classroom include:
 Setting up fun class activities like collaborative projects or games
 Promoting intrinsic motivation, which means that a student wants to learn for themselves
and learning’s sake, rather than to receive an external motivator like receiving an A
 Providing consistent and useful feedback to students as they submit work
 Allowing students to perform self-assessments to share how they think they are doing
and to express areas in which they may need extra help
 
Grading: From A-F and Everything Between
The effects of the grading system on students has positive and negative attributes. While it’s
useful to have grades to understand how a student is performing, it could cause detrimental side
effects like lowering their own self-worth.
With education, the primary focus should always be to expand one’s knowledge and
understanding so they can apply what they learn in real-world situations. It’s clear this is doable
with or without grades, but the system is so inherently linked with grades that it’s hard to
imagine education without the A-F ranking.
 

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Soft copy of April Jane M. Rubio
BSED-

3:) building a grading ang reporting system

-The purpose of a grading system is to give feedback to students so they can take charge of
their learning and to provide information to all who support these students—teachers, special
educators, parents, and others. The purpose of a reporting system is to communicate the
students’ achievement to families, post-secondary institutions, and employers. These systems
must, above all, communicate clear information about the skills a student has mastered or the
areas where they need more support or practice. When schools use grades to reward or punish
students, or to sort students into levels, imbalances in power and privilege will be magnified and
the purposes of the grading and reporting systems will not be achieved. This guide is intended
to highlight the central practices that schools can use to ensure that their grading and reporting
systems help them build a nurturing, equitable, creative, and dynamic culture of learning.
The system that a school has developed to guide how teachers assess and grade student work.
Reporting System: The system that a school has developed for the organization of assignment
scores in gradebooks (either online or paper), and the determination of final grades for report
cards and transcripts.
Generally, the grading system is the process by which educators evaluate the performance of
the pupils in exams on the standard particular scales which is based on the points entirely and
consist of the grades like A-F or range like 1-10; generally, letters and numbers are used to
describe the grades of the scholars.
showing student's strengths and weaknesses. illustrating range of student work. showing
progress over time or stages of a project. teaching students about objectives/standards they are
to meet.

3.1 levels of good reporting

-A good reporting system should have a proper flow of information. The information should flow
from the proper place to the right levels of management. The information should be sent in the
right form and at a proper time so that it helps in planning and co-ordination.

The frequency of reports will depend upon the nature of report, the types of data required for
preparing the information and cost involved in preparing such reports. The flow of reports should
be such that it does not cause delay in taking decisions. The reports should flow at regular
intervals so that informational needs of different managerial levels are met at a proper time.
Flow of information is a continuous activity and effects all levels of the organisation. Information
may flow upward, downward or sideways within an organisation. Orders, instructions, plans etc.
may flow from top to bottom. Reports, grievances, suggestions etc. may flow from bottom to

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top,. Notifications, letters; settlements, complaints may flow from outside. Information also flows
sideways from one manager to another at the same level through meetings, discussions etc.
Proper Timing:
Since reports are used as a controlling device so they should be presented at the earliest or
immediately after the happenings of an event. The time required for preparation of reports
should be reduced to the minimum; for routine reports the period should be known and strictly
adhered to. It will be waste of time and effort to prepare information which is too late to be of
any use. The absence of information when needed will either mean wrong decisions or
deferment of decisions on matters which may be urgent in nature.

Good Reporting System Principle # 3. Accurate Information:

The information should be as accurate as possible. If the information supplied is inaccurate it
may result in making wrong decisions. However, the degree of accuracy may differ in different
reports. Sometimes, part information may be supplied as a guide for future policy making, so the
degree of accuracy may be less. The supply of exact figures may involve a problem of
understanding.
Good Reporting System Principle # 4. Basis of Comparison:
The information supplied through reports will be more useful when it is supplied in comparison
with past figures, standards set or objectives laid down. The comparison of information with past
or budgeted figures will enable the reader to find out trends of variations. The decision taking
authority will be able to make use of comparative figure while taking a decision. Corrective
measures can also be initiated to improve upon the past performance. The management
accountant can make the reports more useful by giving his own interpretations to the
information.

Good Reporting System Principle # 5. Reports Should be Clear and Simple:

The purpose of preparing reports is to help management in planning, coordinating and
controlling. This purpose can be achieved only when the reports are easily understood by the
readers. The information should be presented in a clear manner by avoiding extraneous data.
Only relevant important information should become the part of a report.

Soft copy of Princess Sarah Salipayan

BSED-III

3.2) MAJOR PURPOSES OF GRADING

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One of the primary goals of a proficiency-based grading system is to produce grades that more
accurately reflect a student’s learning progress and achievement, including situations in which
students struggled early on in a semester or school year, but then put in the effort and hard
work needed to meet expected standards. If you ask nearly any adult, they will tell you that
failures—and learning to overcome them—are often among the most important lessons in life.
The purpose of a grading system is to give feedback to students so they can take charge of
their learning and to provide information to all who support these students—teachers, special
educators, parents, and others.
What is the importance of grading?
The grading system ensures consistency and fairness in the assessment of learning, and in the
assignment of scores and proficiency levels against the same leaning standards, across
students, teachers, assessments, learning experiences, content areas, and time.
Additional Reading on Effective Grading Practices
Many educators, academics and grading experts have dedicated their career to untangling
some of the thornier issues related to grading and determining how grades can facilitate, rather
than impede, the learning process for students. We have included a selected list of books below
for those who want to learn more about the grading practices that support student learning.
Each work outlines practical strategies that educators can use to build an effective proficiency-
based grading and reporting system that values and supports the learning process.

3.3) GRADING AND REPORTING METHODS

Grading and reporting
Assigning students grades is an important component of teaching and many school districts
issue progress reports, interim reports, or mid term grades as well as final semester grades.
Traditionally these reports were printed on paper and sent home with students or mailed to
students’ homes. Increasingly, school districts are using web-based grade management
systems that allow parents to access their child’s grades on each individual assessment as well
as the progress reports and final grades.
Grading can be frustrating for teachers as there are many factors to consider. In addition, report
cards typically summarize in brief format a variety of assessments and so cannot provide much
information about students’ strengths and weaknesses. This means that report cards focus
more on assessment of learning than assessment for learning. There are a number of decisions
that have to be made when assigning students’ grades and schools often have detailed policies
that teachers have to follow. In the next section, we consider the major questions associated
with grading.

Grading method
The grading method defines how the grade for a single attempt of the activity is determined.
There are 4 grading methods:

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Learning objects - The number of completed/passed learning objects
Highest grade - The highest score obtained in all passed learning objects
Average grade - The mean of all the scores
Sum grade - The sum of all the scores

The following points highlight the top three methods of reporting, i.e ,
(1) Written Reporting, (2) Graphic Reporting, and (3) Oral Reporting.

Reporting  Method # 1. Written Reporting:

Written reporting is the most common mode of reporting. It may be in form of a letter, circular or
manual. Written reporting is most popular mode, reason being, reports can be kept as legal
records by using this mode and can be used as reference sources. Written rep orts are always
carefully formulated. Written reporting, sometimes saves time and money. However it suffers
from poor expression of senders.

Reporting Method # 2. Graphic Reporting:

The reports may be presented in the form of charts, diagrams and pictures. These reports have
the advantage of quick grasp of trends of information presented. A look at the chart or diagram
may enable the reader to have an idea about the information. In the modern times graphs and
charts are becoming.

Reporting  Method # 3. Oral Reporting:

Oral reporting may be done in the following forms:
(a) Group meetings

(b) Conversation with individuals.

Oral reporting is helpful only to a limited extent. It cannot form a part of important managerial
decision making. For the purpose, the reports must be in writing so that these may be referred
in future discussions too. A combination of written, graphic and oral reporting may be useful for
effective and efficient reporting in an organization.
The benefits of grading and reporting system is to provide accurate and understandable
descriptions of learning. Regardless of the method or form used, grading and reporting should
communicate effectively what students have learned, what they can do, and whether their
learning status is in line with expectations for that level.

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Soft copy of Sheila May Patcho Riu
BSED-III

4.) DEVELOPING EFFECTIVE REPORTING SYSTEM

Definition of Terms
Grading System: The system that a school has developed to guide how teachers assess and
grade student work.
Reporting System: The system that a school has developed for the organization of assignment
scores in gradebooks (either online or paper), and the determination of final grades for report
cards and transcripts.
The purpose of a grading system is to give feedback to students so they can take charge
of their learning and to provide information to all who support these students—teachers,
special educators, parents, and others. The purpose of a reporting system is to
communicate the students’ achievement to families, post-secondary institutions, and
employers. These systems must, above all, communicate clear information about the
skills a student has mastered or the areas where they need more support or practice.
When schools use grades to reward or punish students, or to sort students into levels,
imbalances in power and privilege will be magnified and the purposes of the grading and
reporting systems will not be achieved. This guide is intended to highlight the central
practices that schools can use to ensure that their grading and reporting systems help
them build a nurturing, equitable, creative, and dynamic culture of learning. Effective
reporting is only defined by the results obtained by reviewing the report data and making
changes to improve performance of the team or individual. ... A consistent measurement
and reporting methodology creates an environment of achievement and success that
benefits the entire organization.
The original publication described three types of reporting systems: event reporting,
case-reporting, and case registries. A significant development since the original
publication has been the emergence of a fourth type of system referred to as
“aggregate”. Two options are commonly used: absolute grading and relative grading. In
absolute grading grades are assigned based on criteria the teacher has devised. If an
English teacher has established a level of proficiency needed to obtain an A and no
student meets that level then no As will be given.

5.) Tools For Comprehensive Reporting System

1. Concept Maps - A diagramming technique for assessing how well students see the "big
picture".
2. Concept Tests - Conceptual multiple-choice questions that are useful in large classes.

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3. Knowledge Survey - Students answer whether they could answer a survey of course content
questions.
4. Exams - Find tips on how to make exams better assessment instruments.
5. Oral Presentations - Tips for evaluating student presentations.
6. Poster Presentations - Tips for evaluating poster presentations.
7. Peer Review - Having students assess themselves and each other.
8. Portfolios - A collection of evidence to demonstrate mastery of a given set of concepts.
9. Rubrics - A set of evaluation criteria based on learning goals and student performance.
10. Written Reports - Tips for assessing written reports.
Other Assessment Types Includes concept sketches, case studies, seminar-style courses,
mathematical thinking and performance assessments.

Soft copy of Lainie Sumilhig Estrellanes

BSED-III

Blank pa xa .
6 & 7 Ang iyaha.

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Soft copy of Lyca B. Sagdi & Jessa Mae Sanupao
BSED-III

TOPIC STATISTICS AND COMPUTER:

TOOLS FOR ANALYSING OF
ASSESSMENT OF DATA
(Page 234)
1. STATISTICS is the study and manipulation of data, including ways to gather, review,
analyze, and draw conclusions from data. The two major areas of statistics are
descriptive and inferential statistics. Statistics can be used to make better-informed
business and investing decisions.
Statistics allow you to evaluate claims based on quantitative evidence and help you
differentiate between reasonable and dubious conclusions. That aspect is particularly
vital these days because data are so plentiful along with interpretations presented by
people with unknown motivations.
It is concerned with the organization, analysis and interpretation of test scores and other
numerical data. It is the study of how to collect, organize, analyze, and interpret
numerical information from data (Brase & Brase, 2012)
Statistics is ‘the science concerned with developing and studying methods for
collecting, analyzing, interpreting, and presenting empirical data. Statistics is a form of
mathematical analysis that uses quantified models, representations, and synopses for a
given set of experimental data or real-life studies. Statistics practically studies
methodologies to gather, review, analyze and draw conclusions from data.

 Statistical techniques help teachers to:

1. Analyze and describe results of measurement obtained in their own
classrooms;

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 2. Understand the statistics used in test manuals and reasearch reports; and
3. Interpret the various types of derived scores used in assessment.

 Statistical methods enable us to look at information from a small collection of

people or items and make inferences about a larger collection of people or
items.

2. TYPES OF STATISTICS:
A. Descriptive Statistics
-used to describe a group of individuals or describe the data that have been
collected; to describe variable that needs to be measured
 Various data analysis techniques provide meaningful description of scores with
small number of numerical indices.
 Such indices are calculated using sample drawn from a population and are called
statistics.
 When indices are calculated using the entire population, it is called parameters.

B. Inferential Statistics
-It is used when there is a need to make a decision estimate prediction, or
generalize about a population based on a sample.
-There are two types of tests in inferential statistics: 1) Parametric and 2) Non-
parametric.
 Parametric Test – a test of of significance is used if the data represent an
interval or ratio scale of measurement and other assumptions have been met.
 Non-Prametric Test – is used when data represent an ordinal or nominal scale,
when a parametric assumption has been greatly violated, or when the nature of
the distribution is not known.

3. STATISTICAL TOOLS FOR GROUPED AND INDIVIDUAL DATA

3.1: MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
The Mean
 Most frequently used index of distributors’ central tendency.
 It is simply an arithmetic average of all the scores in the distribution.
 Since it is computed using every score in the distribution, it is an extremely
representative measure.
 Its strength is also its weakness because several a typically high or a typically
low scores (sometimes called liars)can distort the value of the mean.

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The Median
 The second most frequently used index of central tendency.
 It is the point that divides the scores into two equal halves.
 One advantageof median as a measure of central tendency is that it is not
unduly affected by perculiarly large or small scores.
 Unlike the mean, the median treats each of these wild scores as merely
another score, no more no less than other scores.
 As the mean, the median’s strength is also its weakness, the medial fails to
reflect the magnitude of the impact of every score in the distribution, even
when certain of those scores are very high or very low.

The Mode
 It is the most frequently occurring score in the distribution.
 With most reasonably large set of scores, the mode will occur somewhere
near the middle of the distribution, so it can also serve as an index of the
distribution’s central tendency.
 In some cases, a distribution has two or even three most frequently occurring
scores. In such cases, statiscian refer to it as bimodal or trimodal distribution.
Multi-modal distribution refers to those with three or more frequently occurring
scores.
 Since the mode takes into account even fewer data than the median, and
fewer than the mean, it is not used often in describing a distribution’s central
tendency.

STATISTICAL TOOLS
3.2 MEASURE OF VARIABILITY

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 3.3 STANDARDS SCORES

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 3.4 INDICATOR OF RELATIONSHIP

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 4. COMPUTER: AID IN STATISTICAL COMPUTING AND DATA
PRESENTATION
*Data are usually collected in a raw format and thus the inherent information is
difficult to understand. Therefore, raw data need to be summarized, processed,
and analyzed. However, no matter how well manipulated, the information derived
from the raw data should be presented in an effective format, otherwise, it would
be a great loss for both authors and readers. In this article, the techniques of
data and information presentation in textual, tabular, and graphical forms are
introduced. Text is the principal method for explaining findings, outlining trends,
and providing contextual information. A table is best suited for representing
individual information and represents both quantitative and qualitative
information. A graph is a very effective visual tool as it displays data at a glance,
facilitates comparison, and can reveal trends and relationships within the data
such as changes over time, frequency distribution, and correlation or relative
share of a whole. Text, tables, and graphs for data and information presentation
are very powerful communication tools. They can make an article easy to
understand, attract and sustain the interest of readers, and efficiently present
large amounts of complex information. Moreover, as journal editors and
reviewers glance at these presentations before reading the whole article, their
importance cannot be ignored.
*Data are a set of facts, and provide a partial picture of reality. Whether data are
being collected with a certain purpose or collected data are being utilized,

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 questions regarding what information the data are conveying, how the data can
be used, and what must be done to include more useful information must
constantly be kept in mind. Since most data are available to researchers in a raw
format, they must be summarized, organized, and analyzed to usefully derive
information from them. Furthermore, each data set needs to be presented in a
certain way depending on what it is used for. Planning how the data will be
presented is essential before appropriately processing raw data. First, a question
for which an answer is desired must be clearly defined. The more detailed the
question is, the more detailed and clearer the results are. A broad question
results in vague answers and results that are hard to interpret. In other words, a
well-defined question is crucial for the data to be well-understood later. Once a
detailed question is ready, the raw data must be prepared before processing.
These days, data are often summarized, organized, and analyzed with statistical
packages or graphics software. Data must be prepared in such a way they are
properly recognized by the program being used. The present study does not
discuss this data preparation process, which involves creating a data frame,
creating/changing rows and columns, changing the level of a factor, categorical
variable, coding, dummy variables, variable transformation, data transformation,
missing value, outlier treatment, and noise removal. We describe the roles and
appropriate use of text, tables, and graphs (graphs, plots, or charts), all of which
are commonly used in reports, articles, posters, and presentations. Furthermore,
we discuss the issues that must be addressed when presenting various kinds of
information, and effective methods of presenting data, which are the end
products of research, and of emphasizing specific information.
Data can be presented in one of the three ways:
–as text;
–in tabular form; or
–in graphical form.

Methods of presentation must be determined according to the data format, the

method of analysis to be used, and the information to be emphasized.
Inappropriately presented data fail to clearly convey information to readers and
reviewers. Even when the same information is being conveyed, different methods
of presentation must be employed depending on what specific information is
going to be emphasized. A method of presentation must be chosen after carefully
weighing the advantages and disadvantages of different methods of
presentation.

*Advantages

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 * show each data category in a frequency distribution
* display relative numbers or proportions of multiple categories
* summarize a large data set in visual form
* clarify trends better than do tables
* estimate key values at a glance
* permit a visual check of the accuracy and reasonableness of calculations
* be easily understood due to widespread use in business and the media

*Disadvantages
* require additional explanation
* be easily manipulated to yield false impressions
* fail to reveal key assumptions, causes, effects, or patterns
* Text presentation
- Text is the main method of conveying information as it is used to explain results and
trends, and provide contextual information. Data are fundamentally presented in
paragraphs or sentences. Text can be used to provide interpretation or emphasize
certain data. If quantitative information to be conveyed consists of one or two numbers,
it is more appropriate to use written language than tables or graphs. For instance,
information about the incidence rates of delirium following anesthesia in 2016–2017 can
be presented with the use of a few numbers: “The incidence rate of delirium following
anesthesia was 11% in 2016 and 15% in 2017; no significant difference of incidence
rates was found between the two years.” If this information were to be presented in a
graph or a table, it would occupy an unnecessarily large space on the page, without
enhancing the readers' understanding of the data. If more data are to be presented, or
other information such as that regarding data trends are to be conveyed, a table or a
graph would be more appropriate. By nature, data take longer to read when presented
as texts and when the main text includes a long list of information, readers and
reviewers may have difficulties in understanding the information.
* Table presentation
- Tables, which convey information that has been converted into words or numbers in
rows and columns, have been used for nearly 2,000 years. Anyone with a sufficient
level of literacy can easily understand the information presented in a table. Tables are
the most appropriate for presenting individual information, and can present both
quantitative and qualitative information. The strength of tables is that they can
accurately present information that cannot be presented with a graph. A number such

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as “132.145852” can be accurately expressed in a table. Another strength is that
information with different units can be presented together. For instance, blood pressure,
heart rate, number of drugs administered, and anesthesia time can be presented
together in one table. Finally, tables are useful for summarizing and comparing
quantitative information of different variables. However, the interpretation of information
takes longer in tables than in graphs, and tables are not appropriate for studying data
trends. Furthermore, since all data are of equal importance in a table, it is not easy to
identify and selectively choose the information required.
For a general guideline for creating tables, refer to the journal submission
requirements.
* Graph presentation
- Whereas tables can be used for presenting all the information, graphs simplify
complex information by using images and emphasizing data patterns or trends, and are
useful for summarizing, explaining, or exploring quantitative data. While graphs are
effective for presenting large amounts of data, they can be used in place of tables to
present small sets of data. A graph format that best presents information must be
chosen so that readers and reviewers can easily understand the information.
* Scatter plot
- Scatter plots present data on the x- and y-axes and are used to investigate an
association between two variables. A point represents each individual or object, and an
association between two variables can be studied by analyzing patterns across multiple
points. A regression line is added to a graph to determine whether the association
between two variables can be explained or not.

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