History and Citizenship

for Rwanda Schools

Learner’s Book
Senior 3

Ncungure Aime

fountain publishers
www.fountainpublishers.co.ug
Fountain Publishers Rwanda Ltd
P. O. Box 6567 Kigali, Rwanda
E-mail: [email protected]
[email protected]
Website: www. fountainpublishers.co.ug

© Fountain Publishers 2017

First published 2017

All rights reserved. No part of this publication May be reproduced,

stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without
prior written permission from the publishers.

ISBN 978-9970-19-427-8
Contents
Introduction................................................................................vi
Icons........................................................................................ viii

1. Independent Rwanda.........................................................1
Major Changes During the First and Second Republics..................... 2
The Second Republic (1973–1994) ........................................... 11
Causes of the Liberation War in Rwanda (1990–1994).................. 18
The course of the War Liberation................................................. 22
The effects of the Liberation War................................................. 24
Glossary................................................................................... 28

2. Consequences of the 1994 Genocide Against the Tutsi........29

The consequences of the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi............. 30
Challenges faced by Rwandans after the 1994 genocide
against the Tutsi........................................................................32
Measures taken by the government to rebuild the Nation ............... 36
Achievements of the Government of National Unity ....................... 38
Glossary................................................................................... 50

3. Colonial Administrative Systems and Colonial Powers..........51

African Colonial Masters and their Colonial Administrative
Policies.....................................................................................52
Similarities and differences between British and French
colonial administrative policies....................................................63
African States that were not Colonised:
Ethiopia and Liberia...................................................................66
The relationship of Menelik II with Italians and the
1896–1897 Italian invasion ......................................................67
Foundation of Liberia ................................................................ 73
Glossary................................................................................... 77

4. Colonial Reforms and their Consequences on

African Societies............................................................. 81
Colonial reforms introduced in Africa by Europeans........................ 82
Consequences of colonial reforms on African societies.................... 87
Glossary................................................................................... 89

5. Causes of Decolonisation in Africa with Case Studies of

Ghana and Kenya............................................................ 91
Causes for decolonisation in Kenya............................................ 102
Glossary................................................................................. 106

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 History and Citizenship for Rwanda Schools Book 3

6. Analyse the 1789 French Revolution..................................109

Causes of the 1789 French revolution..........................................110
Effects of the French revolution....................................................116
Glossary...................................................................................118

7. Causes and Effects of the First World War

(1914–1918)................................................................. 121
Causes of the First World War.....................................................122
Course of the First World War ....................................................125
Consequences of the First World War ..........................................132
The 1919 Versailles Peace Treaty................................................135
Glossary...................................................................................143

8. Between Two Wars...........................................................145

The League of Nations................................................................146
World Economic Depression 1929–1935.....................................151
Totalitarian regimes in Europe.....................................................158
Glossary...................................................................................173

9. Causes and Effects of the Second World War (1939–1945).175

Causes of the Second World War.................................................176
Responsibility for the outbreak of World War II .............................178
Course of the World War II..........................................................180
Consequences of dropping the atomic bombs on Hiroshima
and Nagasaki ..........................................................................191
Reasons for Axis powers’ defeat in the Second World War ..............192
Consequences of World War II.....................................................193
Glossary...................................................................................198

10. National and international human rights instruments and the

protection of human rights............................................... 201
Definition of National and International Human Rights
instruments ..............................................................................202
Effectiveness of national and international human rights
instruments in the protection and promotion of human rights..........205
Ways through which human rights can be protected in the
context of democracy.................................................................205
Glossary...................................................................................207

11. Democratisation process...................................................211

The democratisation process.......................................................212
Glossary...................................................................................218

iv
 Contents

12. Understanding Rwandans in Reference to

Regional Groupings.......................................................... 219
Understanding oneself in reference to Rwanda.............................. 220
The importance of regional integration in East Africa...................... 227
Glossary................................................................................... 228

13. National laws in conflict transformation.............................. 229

The Concept of conflict transformation......................................... 230
Sources of Rwandan codes and laws............................................ 230
Legal mechanism and organs vis - à - vis conflict transformation..... 233
Glossary................................................................................... 237

14. Factors for National Independence..................................... 239

Glossary................................................................................... 254

15. Concept of Disability and Inclusive Education..................... 257

Glossary................................................................................... 266

16. Tolerance and respect....................................................... 267

Glossary................................................................................... 274
Bibliography.............................................................................. 276

v
 Introduction

Changes in schools
This textbook is part of the reform of the school curriculum in
Rwanda. It brings change in what is taught. It is hoped this will
make what you learn in school useful to you when you leave school,
whatever you do then.
In the past, the main matter in schooling was to learn knowledge
–that is, facts and ideas about each subject. Now, the main aim
is that you should be able to use the knowledge you learn by
developing skills and competencies. These skills or competencies
include the ability to think for yourself, to be able to communicate
with others and explain what you have learnt, and to be creative,
that is, developing your own ideas, not just following those of
the teacher and the textbook. You should also be able to find out
information and ideas for yourself, rather than just relying on what
the teacher or textbook tells you.

Activity-based learning
This means that this book has a variety of activities for you to do,
as well as information for you to read. These activities present you
with material or things to do which will help you to learn things and
find out things for yourself. You already have a lot of knowledge and
ideas based on the personal experiences you have had and your life
within your own community. Some of the activities, therefore, ask
you to think about the knowledge and ideas you already have.
In using this book, therefore, it is essential that you do all the
activities. You will not learn properly unless you do these activities.
They are the most important part of the book.
In some ways, this makes learning more of a challenge. It is more
difficult to think for yourself than to copy what the teacher tells you.
But if you take up this challenge you will become a better person
and more successful in your life, as well as passing examinations
better.

Group work
You can also learn a lot from other people in your class. If you have
a problem, it can often be solved by discussing it with others. Many

vi
 Introduction

of the activities in the book, therefore, involve discussion or other

activities in groups or pairs. Your teacher will help to organise these
groups and may arrange the classroom so you are always sitting in
groups facing each other. You cannot discuss properly unless you
are facing each other.

Research
One of the objectives of the new curriculum is to help you find
things out for yourself. Some activities, therefore, ask you to do
research using books in the library, the internet if your school has
this, or other sources such as newspapers and magazines. This
means you will develop the skills of learning for yourself when you
leave school. Your teacher will help you if your school does not have
a good library or internet.

vii
 Icons

To guide you, each activity in the book is marked by a symbol or

icon to show you what kind of activity it is. The icons are as follows:

Thinking Activity icon

This indicates thinking for yourself or in groups.
You are expected to use your own knowledge or
Thinking Activity experience, or think about what you read in the
book, and answer questions for yourself.

Practical Activity icon

The hand indicates a practical activity, such as a
role play on resolving a conflict, taking part in a
Activity debate or following instructions on a map. These
activities will help you to learn practical skills which
you can use when you leave school.

Writing Activity icon

Some activities require you to write in your exercise
book or elsewhere.
Writing/Research Activity

Fieldwork Activity icon

Fieldwork means learning outside the classroom
either in the school compound, the local area or
in the learner’s home area. It is suitable since it
Fieldwork Activity
engages the learners and makes them involved in
the learning process. Fieldwork can be used in all
subjects.

Discussion Activity icon

Some activities require you to discuss an issue
with a partner or as part of a group. It is similar
Discussion/Vocabulary Reading
to group work, but usually does not require any
writing, although some short notes can be written
for remembrance.

viii
 Icons

Computer/Internet Activity icon

Some activities require you to use a computer in
your computer laboratory or elsewhere.
Computer/Internet Activity

Pairing Activity icon

This means you are required to do the activities in
pairs and exchange ideas.
Pair Activity

Listening Activity icon

The listening activity requires learners to carefully
listen to the teacher or fellow learner reading a
Listening Activity
passage, poem or extract on the subject and then
answer the questions.

Observation Activity icon

Learners are expected to observe and write down
the results from activities including experiments or
Observation Activity
social settings overtime.

Good luck in using the book!

ix
 History for Rwanda Secondary Schools

Independent
Unit Rwanda
1

Key unit competence

Explain the political, economic and socio-cultural changes in the
First and Second Republic and the causes, the course and the
consequences of the Liberation War in Rwanda (1990–1994)

Introduction
After recovering its independence, Rwanda was ruled by Grégoire
Kayibanda who was the President of the First Republic (1961–
1973) and Major General Juvénal Habyarimana who led the Second
Republic (1973–1994). The two republics were characterised by
ethnic and regional divisions which compromised the development
of Rwanda and led to the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi.
However, in the social and economic fields, the two regimes
made some achievements with support from the western countries
especially the colonial master Belgium, and later France. These
achievements include the building of some infrastructure such as
Kanombe Airport and Butare University during the First Republic,
and Amahoro Stadium, King Faisal Hospital and the construction
of some roads during the Second Republic. Their poor governance
provoked the Liberation War which occurred in 1990 and lasted
4 years. The major cause of the Liberation War was the refusal to
allow the return of Rwandan refugees scattered in neighbouring
countries — Uganda, Tanzania, Burundi, Zaïre (now Democratic
Republic of Congo), Kenya, and in other parts of the world. This
war ended in 1994 when Rwanda Patriotic Front (RPF) stopped
the genocide against the Tutsi.

1
 History and Citizenship for Rwanda Schools Book 3

Links to other subjects

This unit can be linked to other subjects and extended to
units like conflicts and wars in General Studies, population in
Human geography, and regional integration in Economics and
Entrepreneurship.

Main points to be covered in this unit

࿤࿤ The major changes during the 1st and the 2nd Republics
࿤࿤ The root causes of the Liberation War
࿤࿤ The course of the Liberation War
࿤࿤ The effects of the Liberation War

Activity 1

Do research using the internet and library to answer the

following:

Describe the political situation of Rwanda at the time of its

independence.

Major Changes During the First and Second

Republics
The First Republic (1962–1973): Rwanda just after
independence
At independence, Grégoire Kayibanda forced his way into political
prominence and he was more than willing to use ethnic identities to
access power and sow divisions to maintain his rule. Independence
was declared on July 1st, 1962 and Rwanda had a constitution for
the first time.

The final text of the constitution was signed on November 24th,

1961 by 40 deputies. Before that, Kayibanda had prepared a
document to be used as a constitution during the “Coup d’état of
Gitarama”. But this text was never published in the Official Gazette
of Ruanda-Urundi. Moreover, the colonial authority continued
thereafter to dictate laws to the new authorities.

2
 Independent Rwanda

Rwanda also had a government led by a President of the Republic

and a Parliament. According to the constitution, the power of the
government was vested in the President of the Republic, who was
at the same time Head of State.

The Parliament supervised the actions of the executive. Under the

1st Republic, three legislatures were elected respectively in 1961,
1965 and 1969 until the dissolution of Parliament following the
July 5th, 1973 Coup d’état.

From Multipartism to Monopartism

The 1962 constitution devoted its article 10 to the multiparty
system. However, the ruling party MDR PARMEHUTU turned itself
into a “State Party”.
In order to become a single party, MDR-
PARMEHUTU started eliminating other
opposition political parties using diverse
mechanisms including intimidation, arbitrary
arrests, physical violence and at times, but
not often, negotiations.

Hence, after attracting some opposition leaders

for instance Amandin Rugira from APROSOMA
within its ranks and having killed others like
Michel Rwagasana, Joseph Rutsindintwarane,
Etienne Afrika, Burabyo Denis, Gisimba,
Ndahiro, Mpiranyi from UNAR and Lazare Grégoire Kayibanda, the
Ndazaro, Prosper Bwanakweli and Callixte President of the First
Kalinda from RADER, MDR-PARMEHUTU Republic (1961–1973)

transformed itself into a single political party. After eliminating

and assimilating other political parties in 1965, it was the only
party which presented candidates for presidential and legislative
elections.

Activity 2
Use the internet or the library and this book to identify and
explain problems faced by the First Republic just after inde-
pendence. Present your findings to the class.

3
 History and Citizenship for Rwanda Schools Book 3

Problems under the First Republic

Political problems
The First Republic faced the problem of refugees who had fled
the country from 1959 onwards. The attitude of the government
of the First Republic varied with time. In 1960, the Provisional
Government had shown concern and created a State Secretariat
for refugees.

Before the independence of Rwanda, the problem of refugees

preoccupied the Belgian Government. The delegates of UNO were
present in neighbouring countries where refugees lived According to
UNAR, the Belgian Government was opposed to their repatriation.
It was for this reason that Colonel Logiest, the Special Resident
of Rwanda, launched campaigns for the repatriation of displaced
Rwandans.

The returnees could not be given back their properties. These had
been illegally seized by burgomasters and their relatives, or friends.
Moreover, in 1966, President Kayibanda warned the refugees,
prior to the repatriation, against claiming their properties. In 1975,
President Habyarimana issued a law according to which properties
abandoned by refugees became property of the state.

Refugees often attempted to return back to Rwanda but their

number was always small due to the difficult conditions imposed
on them for repatriation. The refugees found it difficult to access
all the administrative documents required by the security services
of the prefecture and commune. These included an identity card,
and documents from the asylum country, and the UNHCR. These
documents also comprised the report made by the préfet of the
prefecture of residence of the repatriated person indicating the
date of his or her departure from Rwanda, asylum countries, and
family members. The returnee had no freedom of movement and to
move from his or her commune to another, he or she had to be get
permission from the préfet of his or her prefecture.

The conditions of the displaced Tutsi and those who remained in

their former regions became worse with the Inyenzi attacks. After
every “Inyenzi” attack, Tutsi would be killed and survivors sought
asylum outside the country. The major attacks of Inyenzi were as
follows:

4
 Independent Rwanda

࿤࿤ The December 21st, 1961 attack which originated from

Uganda, to Kinigi and targeted individuals in Ruhengeri, Kigali
and Gitarama;
࿤࿤ In April 1962, another attack also started from Uganda and
targeted the eastern parts of the country;
࿤࿤ From July 3rd to 4th, 1962, an attack started from Goma and
included approximately 80 to 100 “Inyenzi”. Of the captured
Inyenzi, four were executed in Ruhengeri prison;
࿤࿤ On December 21st, 1963 in Bugesera, another Inyenzi attack
started from Burundi, proceeding to Kirundo and Nemba. After
some successes, the “Inyenzi” were stopped and defeated by the
National Guard commanded by two Belgian officers, Dubois and
Florquin. After the Bugesera attacks (1963–1964), President
Kayibanda, in his speech at Carrefour d’Afrique on March 18th,
1963, warned the Inyenzi that “If they try to conquer Kigali by
fighting, it would be the total and quick end of the Tutsi race”.
࿤࿤ To implement Kayibanda’s speech, many Tutsi, estimated
between 8,000 and 10,000, were killed in Gikongoro
prefecture. In the same period, Kayibanda ordered the execution
of 27 leaders of UNAR and RADER who had been imprisoned in
Ruhengeri prison without any form of legal procedure.
࿤࿤ The last main Inyenzi attacks took place in Cyangugu and
Gikongoro prefectures (Bugarama in 1964, Nshili in 1966 and
Bweyeye in 1966), and in Kibungo prefecture (Butama in 1966).

Ethnicism and regionalism

President Kayibanda’s regime was based on the ideology of his
political party, PARMEHUTU. Political policies and strategies that
the First Republic adopted to govern and ensure security and peace
in the country were guided by the same ideology. This was reflected
in the tendency of the Kayibanda regime to blame the Tutsi during
major crises. In otherwords, the Tutsi had become the scapegoat
because they were killed while the killers remained unpunished.

The regime of President Kayibanda started regional rivalries within

PARMEHUTU itself. PARMEHUTU members from Gitarama tended
to monopolise PARMEHUTU and Government positions at the
expense of other regions. For instance, in the last Government
formed by President Grégoire Kayibanda in 1972, there were six out
of eighteen ministers originating from Gitarama. To cover up this
President Kayibanda resorted to ethnic violence against the Tutsi.
Tutsi children were chased out of school, those in administrative
positions were unfairly dismissed, and many were murdered.

5
 History and Citizenship for Rwanda Schools Book 3

Political crisis
From 1963 the MDR-PARMEHUTU began to experience internal
tensions. Some of these tensions concerned inter-personal rivalries
and the distribution of jobs as the party organs and state structures
fused. There was increasing discontent among cadres, students and
individuals with primary and secondary education. For instance, at
local level, burgomasters and préfets faced opposition.

In October 1968, a parliamentary commission of inquiry report on

the administration of the country was rejected by the majority of
Members of Parliament. This report had grave accusations against
President Kayibanda himself. It accused his regime of favouritism
and nepotism, intimidation, and impunity.

While debating this report, Members of Parliament were divided

into two camps. Some supported the report and others opposed it.
The supporters of the report were suspended from decision making
organs of the party and were even prevented from contesting the
legislative elections of 1969.

Another factor that contributed to the reinforcement of regional

division was the constitutional amendment which was voted on
May 18th, 1973 by the National Assembly. This amendment
increased the duration of presidential terms of office from five to
seven years, and allowed Grégoire Kayibanda to stand for a third
term. Although, the National Assembly supported the amendment
of the constitution, the country was already divided according to
the two main regions: north and south; the former aiming at taking
the power while the latter wanted to maintain it.

In addition, there was a failed coup attempted by Pierre Nyatanyi

who was the chief cabinet minister of President Kayibanda and
Muramutsa Joachim, commandant of the Kanombe unit. These
two officers were from the north because the coup was interpreted
as being coup of the north against the south. The two officers were
imprisoned, only to be pardoned later by President Habyarimana
when he took over power in the coup d’état of 1973.

In order to address discontent in political and military ranks that

was linked to regionalism, President Kayibanda resorted to violence
and ethnic cleansing of Tutsi. Many Tutsi were chased a way from
their jobs and schools.

6
 Independent Rwanda

These purges which began in February 1973 were initially

provoked by students, but also encouraged or perhaps led by the
administrative and political authorities. Along with PARMEHUTU,
the authorities aimed at uniting the regime by defining a common
enemy. Soldiers from the north (particularly Alexis Kanyarengwe,
the Chief of Police from Ruhengeri) who, in turn, wished to cause
a political crisis, also targeted the Tutsi population. The purges,
which initially involved the posting of lists of Tutsi students and
staff, asking them to leave universities and companies, later went
beyond the control of the authorities. They came to bear certain
demands, both social (general resentment of the rich) and regional
(opposition between the south and centre of the country on the one
hand, and the north on the other).

Consequently, Grégoire Kayibanda punished several dignitaries

from the north by removing them from the jobs and locations
associated with power. Alexis Kanyarengwe was appointed director
of the Nyundo seminary and Major Nsekalije was assigned to
a tea cooperative in Byumba. All the general secretaries of the
government ministries were replaced, as well as nine of the ten
préfets. It seemed the division between the south and the north
was firmly established.

During the months of February – March1973, purges were organised

in schools, and in the public and private sectors of services against
the Tutsi population (Mututsi mvira aha). Tutsi students designated
on lists posted in all secondary schools and universities and signed
‘Mouvement des Étudiants’ (‘Students’ Movement’) or ‘Comité de
Salut Public’ (‘Committee of Public Safety’), were under threat and
had to flee from these institutions.

By mid-February, the movement reached the National University

of Butare. It also reached private companies where employers
were requested to fire their Tutsi servants. After the towns, this
phenomenon reached the countryside. In the préfectures of
Gitarama and Kibuye, the Tutsis’ houses were burnt down and they
were told to leave. Several hundred people were killed.

Several explanations have been given about the source of this turmoil.
Though orders were transmitted through the administration, they
may have originated from the entourage of Grégoire Kayibanda.
According to other hypotheses, they may also have come from
Alexis Kanyarengwe, the Chief of Police, who was from Ruhengeri.

7
 History and Citizenship for Rwanda Schools Book 3

Afterwards, the violence seemed to have become too difficult

for the central authorities to control. The names of some of the
ministers appeared on the lists drawn up in Kigali. In Gitarama,
several rich Hutu traders’ stores were attacked and looted, as
well as the residences of some politicians, including that of Jean
Baptiste Rwasibo. On March 22nd, Grégoire Kayibanda made a
pacification speech and announced the creation of a ministerial
commission in charge of inspecting schools.

The people who were involved in these acts of killing, looting, and
burning houses, were not punished. This impunity degenerated into
a kind of regional confrontation. The Hutu of the north started to
resent and fight the Hutu of the central region who were said to be
favoured by President Kayibanda. It was in that atmosphere that
Juvenal Habyarimana, at the time Minister of Defense, decided to
intervene militarily. He overthrew Kayibanda in the Coup d’état of
5th July 1973. Kayibanda and many dignitaries of his regime were
thrown into prison; they were sentenced by a court martial, some
of them to a death sentence and others to long term imprisonment.

Economic problems
After the recovery of independence, Rwanda’s main offices were
still in Bujumbura, the colonial capital of Ruanda-Urundi. Rwanda
was under equipped. There were few infrastructures in Kigali.

The country had no airport, radio, tarmac roads, telephone system,

university, or any other institution of higher education. Everything
had to come through Bujumbura or Belgian Congo.

In addition to the inadequate infrastructure in Rwanda, food security

was also another major problem. This was due to overcultivation,
high population density, and soil erosion. To solve the problem of
poverty and shortage of land, the government opened up farms
in the former prefectures of Gitarama, Kibungo and Rural Kigali.
The government also encouraged migration from the prefectures of
Ruhengeri, Byumba, Gikongoro, and especially Butare, to the new
farming areas.

Rwanda lacked adequate financial resources for the economy to

function properly. It had only one development partner: Belgium.
This led to financial dependence on its donors in all the sectors of
the economy.

8
 Independent Rwanda

Another problem was the poor functioning of the monetary and

customs union between Rwanda and Burundi. Moreover, the
two countries did not have good relations because they had two
different political systems; Rwanda was a Republic while Burundi
was a constitutional monarchy.

The country was going through an extremely difficult crisis including

deficits in the balance of payments, because in 1962 inflation rose
to 50 per cent and by 1964, inflation had risen to 300 per cent
(Bamusananire, E.2009, Rwanda since independence, London). The
Rwanda franc depreciated and agricultural and mineral production
declined. This created a big decline in exports, which in return led
to a big gap in foreign exchange, and the failure to pay for imports.

To address this situation, Rwanda had to ask for assistance from

Western countries and from international organisations such as
International Monetary Fund (IMF). The donor countries were
mainly Belgium and United States of America (USA). Belgium
and IMF granted Rwanda a little more in terms of loans and USA
donated food and some money to buy equipment.

Besides external assistance, the government adopted other

measures to get the country out of the crisis. It took political
measures which saw the government reduce expenses of all
ministries, including funds allocated to education. Another
proposed solution was the ”First five year economic development
plan of 1966–1971”. Its objective was based on an analysis of
economic and social conditions and problems that Rwanda had to
face in order to sustain its economic development.

Achievements of the First Republic

Activity 3

Use the internet or library to assess the achievements made

by the first Republic. Present results of your assessment to the
class.

Despite the problems faced by the country and political

mismanagement under the First Republic, the country made the
following achievements in the economic, education and health
sectors.

9
 History and Citizenship for Rwanda Schools Book 3

Economy
Some financial institutions like banks were opened and they
provided financial support to a few factories and industrial
companies. The National Bank was established in January 1964,
the Banque Commerciale du Rwanda in 1965, and the Banque
Rwandaise de Développement in 1968.

It should be noted that in the framework of the Five Year Development

Plan (1966–1971) it was proposed to tarmack all the road axes
linking the country to her neighbours (Ministere des travaux publics,
Rapport annuel 1971). In order of priority the following roads were
to be tarmacked: Kigali–Gatuna, Kigali–Butare, Kigali–Rusumo,
and Kigali–Cyanika. Besides, the construction of Kanombe airport
opened the country to the outside world.

But by the end of the 1st Republic in 1973, only the Kigali–Gatuna
road had been started in 1971, and it was completed in 1977.
Also constructed was the Rusumo Bridge at the Akagera River
linking Rwanda and Tanzania, and the bridge on river Nyabarongo
(1968–1969).

With regards to rural development, some marshlands were

reclaimed in order to improve agricultural production. ISAR (Institut
des Sciences Agronomiques du Rwanda) located at Rubona
improved seeds and plants and distributed them in some parts of
the country. New crops like rice were introduced.

Education
The 1st Republic made a lot of effort to provide free primary
education. At independence, Rwanda had few secondary schools
including Ecole Officielle d’Astrida in the former province of
Butare, Ecole Technique Officielle Kicukiro in Kigali, Collège Saint
André in Kigali, Collège du Christ Roi at Nyanza and Seminaries at
Kabgayi, Nyundo, Rwesero and Kansi.

In 1962, there were 23 secondary schools which increased to

63 in 1972. In 1962, the budget allocated to education was
162,204,000 Rwf. This envelope increased to 563,194,000 Rwf
in 1972. In 1962, enrolment in primary schools was 261,306
which increased to 425,000 in 1972. Enrollment for girls increased
from 29 per cent 1961 to 45 per cent in 1972 (Bamusananire,
E.2009, Rwanda since independence, London).

10
 Independent Rwanda

The first university was started on November 3rd, 1963 by a Canadian

Priest called Levesque as the first Rector. It opened with 50 students
distributed in three faculties: medicine, arts and science. The Institut
of Pédagogique National was started later in 1966.

Health
The number of dispensaries increased. To address the problem of
malnutrition and poor conditions of hygiene, some socio-medical centres
were opened to provide sanitary or health education, training on how to
avoid and prevent diseases, and skills in maternal health care.

A centre for handicapped children was built at Gatagara (Nyanza

District) and a psychiatry centre for the mentally handicapped at
Ndera (Gasabo District). This centre, also known as Caraes-Ndera,
was run by the Gand Brothers of Charity. In preventive medicine,
vaccination campaigns were initiated between 1965 and 1970
(Ministere de la santé publique, Rapport annuel 1970).

The Second Republic (1973–1994)

Activity 4

Use research on the internet or library to examine the factors

which helped President Habyarimana Juvénal to consolidate
his power. Present your research to the class.

The Coup d’Etat of 1973 and its aftermath

Coup d’Etat of July 5th, 1973
In the night of July 5th, 1973, the presidential guard under the
command of Major General Juvénal Habyarimana, Minister of
Defense and Chief staff, staged a coup d’état against the regime of
Grégoire Kayibanda and Major General Habyarimana took over power
as president.

Major General Juvénal Habyarimana was assisted by the following

senior military officers: Lieutenant Colonel Alexis Kanyarengwe,
Majors Aloys Nsekarije, Benda Sabin, Epimaque Ruhashya, Fabien
Gahimano, Jean Nepomuscene Munyandekwe, Bonaventure
Ntibitura, Laurent Serubuga, Bonaventure Buregeya and Aloys Simba.

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 History and Citizenship for Rwanda Schools Book 3

The coup d’état leaders dissolved the National Assembly, suspended

the 1962 constitution and abolished all political parties existing
at the time, such as the organs of MDR-PARMEHUTU. They also
dissolved the government and replaced it with a National Committee
for Peace and Reconciliation constituted of 11 senior officers.

In its declaration of July 5th, 1973, the new regime talked about
about peace and unity and denounced regionalism, immorality and
corruption in the regime of Kayibanda.
After this coup d’état, the former leaders were
unfairly arrested, nearly all of them from the
south (Gitarama). The court martial of June
1974 sentenced to death former President
Kayibanda and prominent personalities in his
regime. For Kayibanda, his death sentence
was acommuted to permanent detention in his
residence at Kavumu, near Kabgayi, where he
died on December 15th, 1976, while others
were executed.
Juvénal Habyarimana, President of
the second republic (1973–1994)
(Source: Google)

Foundation of “Mouvement Révolutionaire National pour le

Développement” (MRND)
On July 5th, 1975, Major General Juvénal Habyarimana established
the MRND. Its objective was unite all Rwandans so as to
enhance economic, social and cultural development in a peaceful
environment.

In the 7th article, of the new constitution adopted on December

20th, 1978 by referendum, MRND was declared the sole political
party where all Rwandans would participate in the management
of public affairs. This marked the establishment of a one party
system. All Rwandans were automatically members of MRND. The
new constitution abolished the National Assembly and replaced it
with Conseil National pour le Développement (CND).

With time, President Habyarimana started developing a personality

cult. This was done through mobilisation and glorification of the
President and placing his political party using animation and
placing his portrait everywhere in public and private surroundings.

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 Independent Rwanda

However, from1980, MRND started falling apart. This began

with two highly regarded senior military officers, Colonel Alexis
Kanyarengwe and Major Théoneste Lizinde, who were accused of
plotting a coup d’état. The misunderstanding divided politicians
and the people who hailed from the north of the country.

Political power was from that time monopolised by a small group

of people from Bushiru in the ex-commune of Karago in the current
District of Nyabihu. Finally, power was in the hands of President
Habyarimana, his immediate family, and his in-laws. This was
known as “Akazu” or “one single household”. Corruption became
normal practice and some top leaders treated public offices like
personal property.

Activity 5

Explain the achievements of the Second Republic and present

the result to the class.

Activity 6

Analyse the appointment or distribution of positions in public

administration during the Second Republic. Thereafter, answer
the following questions:
1. Which part of the country was favoured?
2. Which ethnic group dominated?
3. Do you think this policy was good?
4. Discuss and criticise the rule of Habyarimana.
5. What do you propose should be done to avoid discrimination?

Economic and socio-cultural evolution under the Second

Republic

Economic evolution
Under the Second Republic, there was implementation of the “Second
Five-year economic, social and cultural development plan” which
lasted from 1977 to 1981.

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 History and Citizenship for Rwanda Schools Book 3

This plan had four missions:

1. Ensuring food security of the population and reducing the
population growth rate.
2. Promotion of human resources management.
3. Improvement of the social conditions of individuals and the
community.
4. Improvement of the Rwanda’s external relations.
The objective of this second Five Year Development Plan was the
creation of more jobs, especially in the secondary sector, in order to
provide young people in rural areas with opportunities to participate
in the social and economic life of the country.

From 1981 to 1986, the “Third Five-Year Economic, Social and

Cultural Development Plan” was also adopted with the following aims:
1. To improve food security for the population in terms of both
quality and quantity.
2. To promote jobs at sustainable wage levels that cover the basic
needs while emphasising training programmes in order to
increase productivity.
3. To improve health conditions, promote access to shelter, and
produce goods for mass consumption.
4. To develop external relations and encourage the equilibrium of
international trade conditions.
In this context, the Rwandan diplomatic representation in foreign
countries increased. In 1979, Rwanda hosted the sixth Franco-
African conference and in 1976, Rwanda was a co-founder of the
Communauté Économique des Pays des Grands Lacs (CEPGL). It was
also host to the headquarters of the Akagera Organisation du Bassin
de riviere Akagera (OBK). The Second Republic made a great effort in
agriculture. The cash crops especially tea, coffee and pyrethrum were
promoted by increasing areas cultivated and the building of factories.
These include for instance the tea factories of Shagasha, Mata, Gisovu
and Nyabihu; and that for processing pyrethrum in Ruhengeri.
During this period, the Government of the Second Republic paid
particular attention to food crops like maize, rice, soya beans,
sugarcane. Some factories were also set up to process crops. These
included the Maïserie de Mukamira, and Sucrerie de Kabuye.
Emphasis was also put on the establishment of agricultural projects
in almost all former prefectures. These included Développement
Global de Butare (DGB), Projet Agricole de Gitarama (PAG),
Développement Rural de Byumba (DRB) and Crête Congo Nil.
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 Independent Rwanda

In animal husbandry, the rearing of one cow in a cowshed and planting

of reeds and other types of grass were prioritised. To improve the
existing breeds of cows, importation of bulls, artificial insemination,
research, and fighting cattle diseases were carried out.

With regards to infrastructure development, the following

infrastructures were built by the Second Republic (Ministere des
travaux publics, Rapport annuel 1970):
1. Tarmacking or asphalting of several roads which reached a
distance of 888. 5km by 1989
2. Construction of administrative offices for ministries, prefectures
and communes
3. Building of schools, health centres and hospitals like King
Faisal Hospital and Kigali international airport
4. Extension of electricity network
5. Construction of Amahoro Stadium

Kigali international airport (Source: Google Rwanda image)

Amahoro Stadium (Source: Google Rwanda Image)

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 History and Citizenship for Rwanda Schools Book 3

King Faisal Hospital (Source: Google Rwanda Image)

From 1980 to 1986, the country enjoyed economic growth due to
good climatic conditions, increase in the production of coffee, tea,
and minerals; and a considerable amount of capital coming into
the country.

However, from the end of 1986, the situation deteriorated and the
economy gradually declined. The causes of the economic crisis
during this period included the following;
1. The drastic fall of the world coffee and tin prices;
2. The devaluation of the Rwandan franc;
3. Monopolisation of the limited resources by a few political and
military leaders;
4. Food shortages;
5. The demographic explosion prevailing since 1940
(Bamusananire, E.2009, Rwanda since independence,
London).

To address the demographic problem, the government opened

Office National de la Population (ONAPO) to deal with population
growth problems.

The government applied the Structural Adjustment Programme

as dictated by the World Bank and International Monetary Fund
with a view to stabilising the economy and benefiting from their
financial support.

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 Independent Rwanda

Socio-cultural evolution under the Second Republic

Education
In this sector, some achievements were attained.

New primary and secondary schools were constructed and many

reforms made at all levels of education.

In 1978–1979, the system of primary education was revised. The

primary cycle changed from 6 to 8 years. Training in professional
skills was introduced and Kinyarwanda became a language
of instruction from Primary 1 up to Primary 8 (Ministere de
l’Eduacation nationale, Rapport annuel,1981).

This reform established professional schools known as Centre

de l’Enseignement Rural et Artisanal Intégré (CERAI). These
professional schools admitted students who had failed national
secondary school examinations and they studied for three years.
They learnt woodwork, electricity, masonry and plumbing. At the
secondary education level, the ordinary level was reduced by one
year and specialisation now started in the second year. However,
this reform failed due to the following reasons:
࿤࿤ Lack of teaching aids
࿤࿤ Lack of qualified teachers in the newly introduced subjects
࿤࿤ Lack of appropriate evaluation methods.
In 1991, these reforms were revisited. The primary education cycle
was brought back to 6 years.

At University level, the Institut Pédagogique National (IPN) was

fused with some of the departments of the National University
of Rwanda. The new campus of Nyakinama was opened in
1980– 1981 as a result of this fusion. The duration of study in
most faculties was reduced from five to four years (Ministere de
l’Eduacation nationale, Rapport annuel,1991).

Health
Under the Second Republic, many attempts were made towards the
expansion of the health sector. The dispensaries were transformed
into health centres and more medical personnel trained.

The government also introduced a policy which set up nutritional

centres in order to educate parents about diets and hygiene.

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 History and Citizenship for Rwanda Schools Book 3

Another achievement in the health sector was the establishment of

the Broad-based Vaccination Programme (BVP) with the objective
of reducing infant mortality. In 1987, the government established
the National Programme for the Fight against AIDS known as
Programme National pour la Lutte contre le Sida (PNLS) to
control, prevent, reduce and conduct research on AIDS.

In the same year, the National Programme for the Fight against
Malaria Programme National de lutte contre le Paludism (PNLP)
was set up. In 1989, the programme for acceleration of primary
health care Programme National pour l’Accélération des Soins de
Santé Primaire (PASSP) was also introduced. It aimed to encourage
participation in self-reliance and management of health services in
health centres.

Causes of the Liberation War in Rwanda (1990–

1994)

Activity 7

Use the internet or other sources to research on and describe

the life of a refugee and try to find out his feelings. Then,
discuss it with the class.

Activity 8

Use the internet or other sources and read an extract of the

text about the socio-economic situation of Rwandan refugees
in neighbouring countries before their return to their homeland.
Discuss why they wanted to come to Rwanda at any cost.
Then, present your results to the class.

The long exile

The first group of refugees were registered in 1959 after the unrest
marked by violence and massacres against the UNAR members,
mainly Tutsi, committed by PARMEHUTU with assistance from
Belgian colonialists. The resistance which was organised by Inyenzi

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 Independent Rwanda

to return home was in vain and the refugees were desperate to

recover their dignity as Rwandans. The poor conditions of living
such as lack of employment and good education in host countries,
made them think of a strategy to return home. Groups started to
form around the themes of return and self-help.

Among the institutions set up to address the challenges of education

were the Rwandese Refugees Welfare Foundation (RRWF) in
Uganda and College Saint Albert in Kivu and Bujumbura. Later
these institutions provided a large number of leaders to political
movements like the Rwandese Alliance of National Unity (RANU),
which was started in Nairobi in June 1979, and RPF-Inkotanyi in
1987 in Kampala.

RANU had many objectives. It aimed at fighting against ethnic

divisions and the ideology of divisionism by the Kigali regime. It
also sought to fight against grabbing Rwanda’s riches by a small
group of people. The other objective was to sensitise Rwandans
about their rights. RANU wanted to find an appropriate solution to
the refugee problem and to fight the fascist and dictatorial regime of
Kigali. The strategy consisted of uniting all Rwandan intellectuals
inside the country and in the diaspora in order to restore national
unity.

The refusal to allow Rwandan refugees to return home

In June 1986, the Central Committee of MRND examined the
problem of Rwandan refugees scattered around the world,
especially in the neighbouring countries such as Burundi, Uganda
Kenya, Tanzania and Zaire ( now DRC).

Unfortunately, the Central Committee of MRND resolved that

Rwandan refugees could not massively return into the country. The
committee strongly advocated that refugees should find a way of
integrating themselves into their respective countries of asylum.

The argument was that the country was overpopulated and

incapable of receiving and accommodating her own people.
Habyarimana himself declared that Rwanda was like a glass full of
water to which one could not add a drop. He added that “a child
of a refugee should not be called a refugee” and so he started
negotiations with Uganda in February 1989.

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 History and Citizenship for Rwanda Schools Book 3

According to the Habyarimana regime Rwandan refugees were

declared economic refugees who were to remain wherever they
were and earning their living. They were not supposed to dream of
returning to home.

Ethnic and regional division

Both the First and the Second Republics institutionalised ethnic
labels (Hutu, Tutsi, Twa) in identity cards and the quota system
(ethnic and regional equilibrium) administration, schools, the
army, etc.

During the First Republic, power was in the hands of a few people
from some communes of Gitarama and again a few people from
some parts of the former Ruhengeri and Gisenyi prefectures during
the Second Republic. Both Republics were characterised by identity
ideology.

The two regimes reinforced the conflict between Nduga people in

the central and southern part of the country and Rukiga people in
the northern and western part of the country by monopolising and
excluding many parts of the country. During these regimes, hatred
against Tutsi worsened.

Every political crisis was blamed on Tutsi who were treated as

scapegoats. This case was raised when Inyenzi attacked Rwanda
in 1963 and later before the 1973 Habyarimana’s coup d’Etat.

Intimidation and killing of opposition politicians

The regime of Juvénal Habyarimana did not tolerate any opposition.
Any person who tried to oppose him suffered long prison terms.
Political assassinations were frequent as well. For instance, the
murder of the former chief editor of Kinyamateka newspaper,
Father Sylvio Sindambiwe and Nyiramutarambirwa Felicula, a
member of parliament.

Increasing dictatorship in Rwanda

During the Second Republic, only one political Party, MRND, was
allowed as it was stipulated by the 1978 constitution. All the powers
were concentrated in the hands of a small group —members of the
President’s family and his in-laws which was called Akazu. No

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 Independent Rwanda

single decision could be made without prior approval and blessing

of the President and his MRND.

Participation of Rwandans in other movements of National

Liberation
Many Rwandan refugees had lost hope and were reluctant to join
any political organisation due to past failures of the earlier attempts
to regain their home country, spearheaded by Inyenzi.

By 1979, some Rwandans, like Fred Gisa Rwigema, had participated

in African struggles, especially in Mozambique. In 1982, when the
government of Uganda under President Milton Obote expelled more
than 60,000 Rwandans (Ndahiro A, Rwagatare J,Nkunsi A. 2015,
Rwanda Rebuilding of a Nation, Kampala, Fountain Publishers
Ltd), the government of Rwanda refused to recognise them as
Rwandans. This situation forced them to enroll in the National
Resistance Army (NRA), the armed wing of the National Resistance
Movement (NRM) in Uganda, led by Yoweri Kaguta Museveni.

The big number of Rwandans in the ranks of NRA and their role in
liberating Uganda was a source of renewed hope. For them, there
was no magic formula for a solution to their country’s problems.
The victory showed that a successful liberation war was possible
in Rwanda.

The Military option

The military option was dictated by the denial of fundamental rights
and democracy by the Habyarimana regime which was denounced
by the population. Students abroad were also organising themselves
to challenge the Habyarimana regime. Those on scholarships in
Europe and Canada, formed organisations such as Association
Générale des Etudiants Rwandais (AGER) and Association des
Etudiants Rwandais au Burundi(AERB). The refugees resented
their continued exile and the indifference of the Rwanda government
towards their plight. All this made the military option inevitable for
the Rwanda Patriotic Front (RPF).

On September 30th, 1990, the Rwanda Patriotic Front (RPF) with

its military wing, Rwanda Patriotic Army (RPA), took a decision to
attack Rwanda and withdrew some of its units from NRA across
Uganda and assembled them near Kagitumba. On October 1st,
1990, the first attack was launched.

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 History and Citizenship for Rwanda Schools Book 3

The reasons for the war, as summarised in the RPF programme,

were: to restore national unity among Rwandans, establish true
democracy eradicate racism against the Tutsi and sectarianism of
the Kigali regime, poor management of state affairs, and to find a
lasting solution to the question of refugees to which the Rwandan
government had turned a deaf ear.

The course of the War of Liberation

Major General Fred Gisa Rwigema, Commander-in.Chief of RPA. (Source:

Google)
The following were the major steps of the Liberation War:
࿤࿤ On October 1st, 1990, the Rwanda Patriotic Front (RPF) and its
armed wing (RPA) declared the war of liberation which lasted
almost four years. The first attack was in Umutara, but was
not successful because of the death of Major General Fred Gisa
Rwigema. The RPA was pushed from Umutara after which they
changed tactics by launching a guerrilla warfare in the northern
region.
࿤࿤ On January 23rd, 1991, they captured Ruhengeri town and
liberated the political prisoners who had been jailed in Ruhengeri
prison. Among them, there were Theoneste Lizinde, Biseruka
and Brother Jean Damascène Ndayambaje.
࿤࿤ On March 29th, 1991, the first negotiations between the
RPF and the government of Rwanda started at N’sélé in the
Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). Other meetings, had been
held in Arusha G’badolité, and Mwanza.

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 Independent Rwanda

࿤࿤ Regarding the internal political evolution, a coalition was formed

on March 14th, 1992 by the main opposition political parties.
It was called Forces Démocratiques pour le Changement
(Democratic Forces for Change). Its aim was to negotiate peace
with RPF.
࿤࿤ On July 12th, 1992, a ceasefire was negotiated and signed
in the Arusha Peace Agreement between the RPF and the
Habyarimana Government. An Organisation of African Unity
force known as ‘Groupe d’Observateurs Militaires Neutres’
(GOMN) was to observe the ceasefire.
࿤࿤ On November 15th, 1992, Habyarimana declared the negotiations
between the government and RPF null and void. According
to him the ceasefire was a mere piece of paper–rubbish–and
thanked the Interahamwe killer militia of his MRND Party for
the massacres they had committed, especially in the northern
part of the country. This growing insecurity was one of the ways
used by the Habyarimana regime to block the implementation
of the Arusha Peace Agreement.
࿤࿤ On February 8th, 1993, in response to those massacres, the
RPF launched an offensive that resulted in the capture of a large
part of the country, especially in the northern region. The RPF
were approaching the gates of Kigali. But due to international
pressure to resume negotiations, the RPF returned to its former
positions around Kinihira. On the side of government, troops
had to remain in the new positions. The area between the two
armies was declared a demilitarised zone.
࿤࿤ On August 4th,1993, the Arusha Agreement was signed. It was a
political compromise for power sharing between the Government
and the RPF, but the Broad-based Transitional Government’
failed to take off because Habyarimana refused to swear in the
new government and Parliament of which RPF was to be part.
࿤࿤ In December 1993, a United Nations Intervention Force
arrived. It was a United Nations Peacekeeping Force known as
United Nations Mission for Rwanda (Unamir). Its mission was
to supervise the implementation of the Arusha agreement of
August 4th, 1993.
࿤࿤ On December 28th, 1993, 600 soldiers of the Third battalion
of the RPF arrived at the Conseil National de Développement
(CND) to ensure the security of the RPF future ministers and
Members of parliament in the new broad-based transition
Government.

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 History and Citizenship for Rwanda Schools Book 3

࿤࿤ On January 5th, 1994, President Habyarimana was sworn in as

President in accordance with the Arusha Agreement but blocked
the swearing in of other members of the Broad-based Transition
Government.
࿤࿤ On April 6th,1994, the presidential plane was hit by a missile
and President Habyarimana died. The downing of the plane
was followed by genocide against the Tutsi and the killing of
some Hutu who did not approve of the government’s political
extremism. It was the Rwanda Patriotic Front which stopped
genocide.
࿤࿤ On July 19th, 1994 the Government of National Unity was
formed.

The effects of the Liberation War

Activity 9

Examine the consequences of the war in general and the

Liberation War of Rwanda in particular. Explain why RPF
launched the Liberation War. Present the outcome of your
discussions to the class.

The Liberation War was launched on the 1st October 1990 by RPF-
Inkotanyi and its armed wing, the Rwandese Patriotic Army (RPA)
and ended on July 4th, 1994 with the fall of Kigali and Butare. It
had the following effects:
࿤࿤ Death of Major General Fred Rwigyema
The first effect was the death of Major General Fred Gisa
Rwigema the chairman of RPF and the supreme commander of
RPA. This death was a great loss for RPF.
࿤࿤ Death of other Rwandans
Many soldiers were killed on both sides and others were
wounded. There was also the massacre of “Abagogwe “people
from 1991 to 1993 by Habyarimana regime in retaliation
for RPA attack. Similar killings were carried out in Kibirira,
Bugesera, Kibuye, Murambi and in Umutara.
࿤࿤ Displacement, loss of property and psyclogical effects
There was displacement of people from their properties, trauma,
and destruction of properties.

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 Independent Rwanda

࿤࿤ Reaction of Rwandans
For those in exile, they felt time had come to return home and
massively joined the RPF and the struggle as the war progressed.
Mobilisation to support the war effort was deepened in the
region, and recruitment into the RPF was intensified. A lot of
money, medicine, food, and clothes were mobilised in support
of the war.
Inside Rwanda, there were mixed reactions. Some people,
mainly sympathisers of the RPF who had been treated as
second class citizens, felt time had come for their rescue and
joined the struggle from neighbouring countries while others
were worried about the reaction of the Habyarimana regime.
࿤࿤ Call by the Government of Rwanda for support
The government of Rwanda was supported by its allies.
Habyarimana argued that he had been invaded by neighbouring
Anglophone Uganda and mobilised his closest allies to assist
him militarily and diplomatically. Consequently, France,
Belgium and the then Zaire (now DRC) under Mobutu Sese
Seko sent troops.
࿤࿤ Increasing of pressure for democratisation
While the Habyarimana regime was facing the armed struggle
with RPF-Inkotanyi on the local fronts, on the international level,
Habyarimana was facing pressure to democratise Rwanda (La
Baule summit). The regime also faced internal opposition. In
June 1991, Habyarimana was forced to accept the multiparty
system by signing a new constitution.
Chronology of Rwanda’s democratisation process
a) In June 1990, at the La Baule Summit in France President
François Mitterrand announced that French aid would
depend on democratisation.
b) On July 5th, 1990, at the MRND congress, President
Habyarimana declared that the country was adopting the
multiparty system.
c) On September 1st, 1990, there was a declaration by
thirty three intellectuals claiming the establishment of
multipartism in Rwanda.
d) On September 21st, 1990, President Habyarimana
established a commission with the task of studying
how multipartism could be established in Rwanda. This
commission ended its work and submitted its report in

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 History and Citizenship for Rwanda Schools Book 3

January 1991. Meanwhile, on November 11th, 1990,

President Habyarimana allowed multipartism and declared
the amendment of the Rwandan constitution. In June 1991,
the new constitution was approved by the Conseil National
de Développement (CND). The new constitution banned
political parties based on ethnicity or regional affiliation, the
position of prime ministership, and limited the executive,
judicial and legislative branches of government.
e) Beginning July 1991, new political parties were legally
registered. These included Parti Socialiste Démocratique
(PSD), Parti Libéral (PL), Mouvement Démocratique
Républicain (MDR), Parti Socialiste Rwandais (PSR),
Union Démocratique du Peuple Rwandais (UDPR), Parti
Ecologiste (PECO), and Parti pour la Démocratie Islamique
(PDI).
࿤࿤ The signing of Arusha Peace Agreement
The Liberation War led to the signing of Arusha Peace
Agreement on August 4th, 1993 whose purpose was to
obtain a lasting peace. Both parties, the RPF-Inkotanyi and
the Rwanda Government agreed to share power. However, the
Hutu extremists, who felt left out of the process and threatened
by the results, were not satisfied and started to organise a
genocide against the Tutsi and killing of moderate Hutu.
࿤࿤ Decline of the economy
Because of the war and the pressure on the Habyarimana
regime, Rwanda’s economy collapsed. Coffee, which was the
main source of foreign currency, was not produced. Thus, the
country witnessed a hard economic situation. Besides, foreign
aid stopped and the Rwandan franc lost its value. The main
sectors of the economicy collapsed. People became poor and
discontented. Because of the war, the Northern corridor was
closed and this led to the stoppage of commercial exchange with
Uganda. Moreover, the war increased the military expenditure
of the government and this made the country more and more
impoverished.
࿤࿤ Displacement of many people
More than one million Rwandans were displaced inside the
country. These were in great need of shelter, food and other
basic needs.

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 Independent Rwanda

Among the positive effects of the Liberation War, the following

deserve to be mentioned:
࿤࿤ There is promotion of National unity. Thanks to the Liberation
War, many achievements were made in the national unity,
justice, peace and security, and ending of segregation.
࿤࿤ Corruption, favouritism, embezzlement are being fought.
࿤࿤ All reasons for fleeing the country were eliminated and the
refugees are encouraged to return home.
࿤࿤ The war helped to establish a true democracy. The people of
Rwanda have the right to choose their leaders at all levels.
࿤࿤ The war contributed to the improvement of the image of the
country. Rwandans are well-known all over the world as a good
example of reconciliation, people living together on the same
land, victims and criminals, after the 1994 genocide against
the Tutsi.
࿤࿤ The country promoted international relations based on mutual
respect, cooperation and mutual economic exchange. This
helped the country to reduce economic and political dependence
on foreign countries.

Unit summary
This unit covers the major political and socio-economic changes
which happened during the First and the Second Republics. In the
political field the First and the Second Republics were characterised
by ethnic and regional divisions. The two discriminatory ideologies
led to disunity, hence the lack of social cohesion. However, the
two regimes made some achievements such as the setting up of
transport, education and health infrastructures, and promotion of
agriculture and industries.

The divisive ideology of the two regimes led to the outbreak of

the Liberation War which lasted almost four years from 1990 to
1994, and the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi. The causes of the
Liberation War were for instance, the long exile of the Rwandan
refugees, ethnic and regional divisions, and dictatorship. As a
result of the Liberation War, Rwandans enjoy national unity, rule
of law and good governance.

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 History and Citizenship for Rwanda Schools Book 3

Glossary
Allocate: distribute according to a plan or set apart for a
special purpose
Asylum country: a country which offers shelter to someone
escaping from danger or hardship
Coup d’état: a sudden and decisive change of government
illegally or by force
Drastic: extreme, rigorous or far reaching.
Framework: a structure designed to support something or
system
Tarmack: seal the surface of an area with tarmac (a
paving material of tar and broken stone; mixed
in a factory and shaped during paving or a
paved surface having compressed layers of
broken rocks held together with tar)
Plight: a situation which is dangerous, difficult,
unpleasant or trying
Plot: a secret scheme to do something (especially
something underhand or illegal)
Reclaim: make useful again; transform from a useless or
uncultivated state e.g. “The people reclaimed
the marshes”
Scapegoat: someone who is blamed for the errors of others
Summit: a meeting of heads of governments

Revision questions
1. What political system was used by Rwandans before
independence?
2. What political system was adopted after independence?
3. Name four ways used by Kayibanda to eliminate opposition.
4. Give four reasons for the fall of the First Republic.
5. Explain the principal causes of the Liberation War.
6. Examine the major effects of the Liberation War on Rwandan
society.
end of unit 1
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 History for Rwanda Secondary Schools

Consequences of
Unit the 1994 Genocide
1
2 Against the Tutsi

Key unit competence

Examine the consequences of the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi
and how Rwandan society has been rebuilt.

Introduction
The 1994 genocide against the Tutsi was a carefully planned and
executed project to completely destroy the Tutsi population and
moderate Hutu who did not agree with the prevailing extremist
politics of the time. It was the fastest and most cruel genocide ever
recorded in human history and its atrocities have torn the hearts
of survivors and severely ruined the country. It led to numerous
consequences at all levels of national life as explained below.

This unit examines the effects of the 1994 genocide against the
Tutsi and analyses the efforts made by Rwandans to re-build their
homeland.

Links to other subjects

This unit can be linked to other subjects and extended to units
like conflict transformation in General Studies and communication
Skills, Social and Religious Studies.

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 History and Citizenship for Rwanda Schools Book 3

Main points to be covered in this unit

࿤࿤ The consequences of the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi and
the lessons we can learn from it.
࿤࿤ How Rwandan society has been re-built after the1994 genocide
against the Tutsi and how much effort has been deployed.
࿤࿤ Measures taken by the Rwandan Government to re-build the
country and challenges faced during the process.

Activity 1

Discuss the responsibility of all actors involved in the preparation

and execution of the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi. Then
examine the effects of the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi.
Finally, expose your ideas to the rest of the class.

Activity 2

Discuss possible strategies to avoid genocide. You may use the

internet to help you.

The consequences of the 1994 Genocide

against the Tutsi
The effects of the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi are many. They
are explained and classified as follows:
࿤࿤ T
he most negative impact was the human disaster in which
more than one million innocent people who included men,
women and children were killed in just 100 days.
࿤࿤ It led to the destruction of infrastructure and equipment, public
properties like offices, communication lines, schools, and
hospitals, and private properties such as houses.
࿤࿤ It caused physical mutilation of people. During this genocide
against Tutsi, the perpetrators did not only kill the victims but
they also deformed the bodies of the Tutsi.
࿤࿤ The 1994 genocide against Tutsi led to a high level of trauma.
This situation was caused by sexual abuse and torture of the
victims by the killers and loss of family members.

30
 Consequences of the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi

࿤࿤ It led to excessive degradation of human dignity characterised

by inhuman crimes like cannibalism, rape and even the burial
of people who were alive.
࿤࿤ In addition, the 1994 genocide against Tutsi caused the
devastation of the environment. For instance, many forests were
cut down, huge plantations damaged, and domestic animals
belonging to the Tutsi slaughtered and eaten.
࿤࿤ There is also an increase in HIV/AIDS prevalence in the post
genocide period because during the genocide against the Tutsi,
the perpetrators used the rape of women and girls as a weapon.
࿤࿤ There was decadence of the country’s economy. During the
genocide most of the active population could not carry out their
daily economic activities because of insecurity. The perpetrators
and victims of genocide could not work and participate in
economic activities.
࿤࿤ There was an increase in the number of widows, orphans, and
the disabled people. The 1994 genocide against the Tutsi has
led to the death of more than one million Tutsi and left many
widows and orphans who lost their family members. After the
1994 genocide against the Tutsi, Rwanda also registered a large
number of disabled persons.
࿤࿤ At the end of the 1994 genocide against Tutsi, more than one
hundred thousand people suspected of committing genocide
were apprehended and imprisoned. Considering the big number
of these prisoners waiting to be judged, it was difficult to give
justice to both victims and prisoners in a reasonable period.
࿤࿤ A climate of suspicion and mistrust also prevailed in the country.
The Tutsi survivors of genocide could not interact with the Hutu
whom they considered as the perpetrators of genocide that led
to the death of their relatives.
࿤࿤ To judge a big number of alleged culprits of the 1994 genocide
against the Tutsi, the Gacaca courts were created by Organic Law
No. 40/2001 of 26/01/2001 published in the official gazette of
the Republic of Rwanda on March 15th, 2001 in Rwanda as a
solution to the crucial problem of a big number of the victims of
genocide who were waiting for justice. At the international level,
the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda ICTR based in
Arusha, Tanzania, was created to judge the cases of the planners
of the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi.
࿤࿤ Politically and diplomatically, Rwanda’s international image was
tarnished. After the genocide against the Tutsi, the country was
only seen in a negative way by considering almost all Rwandans

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 History and Citizenship for Rwanda Schools Book 3

as killers. Rwanda was also seen as a country totally destroyed

and without any humanity.
࿤࿤ Because of the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi, more than two
million of Rwandans fled the country and established themselves
in neighbouring countries in refugees camps. Another big
number of Rwandans were displaced throughout the country.
࿤࿤ Due to the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi, Rwanda became
an epicenter of genocide ideology in the Great Lakes region. The
perpetrators of genocide who fled the country and went to live
in refugees camps in DRC exported the ideology of genocide and
continued to kill innocent people.
In conclusion, it should be noted that the 1994 genocide against
the Tutsi left Rwanda deeply damaged and the devastation was
so great and so painful that some people regarded Rwanda as a
failed state. Although this genocide affected mainly the Tutsi, all
Rwandans were generally affected. Many people became refugees
and were displaced while others were apprehended and became
prisoners.

Challenges faced by Rwandans after the 1994

genocide against the Tutsi

Activity 3
1. Discuss the following statement:
“Rebuilding a nation’s social fabric cannot follow any
predetermined guidelines and it will only succeed if it is
owned by citizens.” President Paul Kagame. Thereafter
present the result in class.
2. Using information from the last unit, research and on your
own point out or imagine the multiple challenges met by the
Government of National Unity to re-build the country after
the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi. Thereafter, present
your work in the class.

After the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi, Rwandans met serious
difficulties in reconstructing their country. Among them are the
following:

32
 Consequences of the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi

Suspicion and mistrust

Since Rwanda’s social cohesion had fractured due to the divisive
politics that preceded the genocide, suspicion and mistrust
characterised the population.

Thus, the new government inherited a deeply scarred nation where

trust within and between communities had been replaced by fear
and betrayal.

This posed a serious challenge to the functioning of institutions

because the RPF’s vision was not shared by all stakeholders.
In spite of all this, the RPF believed that Rwanda was not dead
but that it could be reborn and re-built. To achieve that goal, the
RPF advocated strongly for unity and reconciliation despite the
enormous challenges.

Security problems
Although the RPF had captured power and a transitional government
had been put in place, the security situation was still fluid, with
former government forces and Interahamwe militia still carrying
out genocide against Tutsi in various part of the country. A French
buffer area in western Rwanda, known as the Turquoise Zone, had
become a safe haven for genocidal forces. In addition, infiltrators
from refugee camps across the border continued to cross and
destabilise the country. The ex-FAR and interahamwe were allowed
to retain their weapons and to mix with the civilian refugees. Other
sympathisers of the former regime, notably the DRC (then Zaire)
under President Mobutu Sese Seko, continued to provide support.
All these proved to be security challenges for a country that had
been hit by one of the worst human tragedies of the 20th century.

The Broad-based Transitional Government under RPF leadership

had to devise means to address insecurity in the whole country and
regain a semblance of normalcy so that Rwandans could begin the
task of rebuilding the nation.

Resettlement of refugees and genocide survivors

The RPF strived to restore Rwanda as a country for all Rwandans
and provided a homeland to which millions of Rwandan refugees
could return. Tens of thousands of internally displaced people,
especially genocide survivors whose homes had been destroyed,
were resettled and provided with basic housing facilities. About

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 History and Citizenship for Rwanda Schools Book 3

three million refugees who had been held hostage by fleeing

genocidal forces in the DRC and some in Tanzania were brought
back home by the Transitional Government.

This humanitarian exercise was largely successful despite the

failure of the international community to address their plight in
refugee camps. About two million older refugees (from 1959 and
subsequent years) were also resettled peacefully across the country.

Economic challenges
The Rwandan economy and political situation before 1994
was marked by economic stagnation and high levels of poverty,
mainly attributed to lack of vision, poor economic planning,
mismanagement, embezzlement and corruption by the leadership
of the time. They emphasized state control of the economy by a
clique who benefited from the existing system.

As a result, post-genocide Rwanda faced economic challenges

including an unstable macroeconomic environment. For example,
in 1994 the economy shrank by 50 per cent and inflation rose to
64 per cent. Between 1985 and 1994, the GDP growth rate was
a mere 2.2 per cent against a population growth rate of 3.2 per
cent, meaning there was an annual decline of -1 per cent of per
capita GDP (Ndahiro A, Rwagatare J,Nkunsi A. 2015, Rwanda
Rebuilding of a Nation, Kampala, Fountain Publishers Ltd).

This was mainly due to the fact that the economy was characterised
by low productivity in all sectors, but most especially in agriculture,
a sector on which more than 90 per cent of the population
depended for their livelihood. Without a visionary leadership to
avert the situation, this resulted in a very weak export base coupled
with a narrow revenue collection base. This implied that there was
lack of internally generated resources to fund social services like
education and health.

In addition, there was low private investment and as such, the

country lacked a serious and vibrant private sector to drive economic
growth. In the public sector too, there was a highly unskilled labour
force. For example in 1994, at least 79 per cent of civil servants
in the country did not have qualifications higher than secondary
school. To make matters worse, skilled professionals had been
particularly targeted in the genocide.

34
 Consequences of the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi

In brief, the Government of National Unity inherited an economy

completely destroyed by genocide and over three decades
mismanagement.

Health
In the health sector, the picture was equally bleak. This sector
had always been weak in Rwanda. Health workers in this sector
were few and poorly trained. This was a result of chronically
poor human resource development strategies that characterised
colonial and post colonial Rwanda. This situation was exacerbated
by the genocide in which a large number of health workers had
participated and consequently fled the country or were killed. The
few that had returned from exile settled in Kigali, which had some
infrastructures and was also safer to live in.

To mitigate the health crisis, a number of NGOs and the army came
in and tried to make a difference, but the task was overwhelming
since the number of the injured and the sick was very high. Statistics
indicate that immunization coverage for children had dropped to
27 per cent as a result of war and mismanagement.

Malnutrition levels were also very high. Child as well as maternal

mortality rates were equally high due to poor health service delivery.
The prevalence of water-borne diseases and other conditions
related to poor sanitation was among the highest in Africa at that
time. Equally worrying was the high infection rate of transmittable
diseases, especially HIV and AIDS, which had been made worse
during the genocide where rape was used as a weapon of war.
The situation was worsened by a very high fertility rate, coupled
with ignorance. Malaria was hyper endemic in some parts of the
country, especially in the east and southern provinces.

Education
During the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi, most education
infrastructure was destroyed and the human capital decimated.
Besides, the poor and discriminatory education policies, coupled
with an education system that did not respond to the socio-economic
needs of the country, served to perpetuate massive ignorance. Even
the few that went to school could not translate their knowledge into
productive activities to improve the standard of living.

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 History and Citizenship for Rwanda Schools Book 3

In the eastern part of the country, schools were not only few, but
in some areas they did not exist at all. During the first and second
Republics, higher education was not only quantitatively low but
also a privilege of the few favoured ones. Not even the quota system
worked. For instance, between 1963 and 1994, only about 2000
Rwandans had completed university education.

Justice
The Transitional government inherited a broken justice sector. More
than 140, 000 genocide suspects had been arrested, yet there
was insufficient prison infrastructure to host them. Their upkeep
became a huge challenge in terms of feeding, and provision of
medical and other services.
To make matters worse, there was an inadequate number of trained
lawyers to handle the large number of perpetrators of genocide and
this was also true for other crimes that were being committed in
the country.
The laws were also outdated, obscure and inadequate. The justice
sector also witnessed unskilled personnel. For example, according
to records of the Supreme Court, out of 702 judges in 2003, only
74 possessed a bachelor’s degree in law.
Nonetheless, justice had to be delivered. And despite the meagre
resources that were available, the government had to introduce the
needed reforms and new judicial institutions to deal with all these
judicial problems.

Measures taken by the government to rebuild

the Nation

Activity 4

Using the library and internet, research on measures taken

by government of National Unity to rebuild Rwanda after the
19190–1994 Liberation War and make presentation of your
findings to the class.

After its military victory, on July 19th, 1994 the RPF-Inkotanyi put
in place a coalition government called “Broad-Based Government of
National Unity”. Its legal framework was based on the constitution
of July 10th, 1994, the Arusha Peace Accord, the RPF-Inkotanyi
36
 Consequences of the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi

declaration of July 17th, 1994 and the joint Agreement between

RPF, MDR, PDC, PSD, PDI, PSR, PL and UDPR regarding the
implementation of the national institutions signed on November
24th, 1994. The transitional National Assembly was put in place
in November 1994.

The RPF-Inkotanyi had worked out a programme addressing the

political, economic and social problems of the country. It was this
programme that the Government of National Unity (GNU) adopted
on coming to power on July 19th, 1994 as listed below:
1. To promote National Unity and Reconciliation,
2. To establish genuine democracy,
3. To provide security for all Rwandans,
4. To build an integrated and self-sustaining economy,
5. To eradicate corruption in all forms,
6. To repatriate and to resettle Rwandan refugees,
7. To devise and implement policies for the social welfare for all
Rwandans,
8. To pursue a foreign policy based on equality, peaceful coexistence
and mutual benefit between Rwanda and other countries,
9. To fight against genocide and eradicate the genocide ideology.

The Broad-Based Government of National Unity was headed by

Pasteur Bizimungu from 1994 up to 2000 and by Paul Kagame
from 2000 up to 2003. However, Paul Kagame has continued to
be President of Rwanda after being voted in 2003 under the new
constitution.

Pasteur Bizimungu, the President Paul Kagame, the President

of Rwanda, 1994–2000 (Source: of Rwanda, 2000–to-date
Google) (Source: Google)

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 History and Citizenship for Rwanda Schools Book 3

Achievements of the Government of National

Unity

Activity 5
By reading textbook and or using internet, examine the
achievements of the Government of National Unity and
appreciate the efforts made by Rwandans in the reconstruction
of the country. Then present your findings to the class.

Emergency period (1994–1999)

It was a period of intense stress. The country had become a total
ruin, with mass graves all over.

It was a period when everyone had to play his/her part to reconstruct

what had been destroyed in all domains of national life by genocide.

Politically, the government had to rebuild the state by focusing on

the principles of good governance and rehabilitation of the judicial
system.

Economically, there was a need to rehabilitate all basic

infrastructures: water, electricity, road transport, banks, schools
and hospitals. Everything had to be rehabilitated and the refugees
had to be resettled.

On the socio-cultural level, it was felt necessary to undertake

sensitisation of the population because of the difficult situation
occasioned by genocide. This involved conferences and meetings
on unity and reconciliation, and fundamental human rights, good
governance.

Period of durable development programmes (after 1999)

Activity 6

Using this section and research, discuss and write a list of

major achievements of the Rwandans, then share them with
the class.

38
 Consequences of the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi

Activity 7

State and explain some achievements inspired by Rwandan

tradition. Thereafter, explain to the class how tradition is very
important to the development of the country.

The following are the achievements of the Government of Rwanda:

Safeguarding national security

After the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi, the security in Rwanda
was extremely unstable as because of unhealed wounds from the
war. Most of the population was displaced, creating a volatile
situation in the country. Military strategies were devised to find
solutions and eradicate the thousands of military groups and ex-
combatants who continued to torment and kill citizens.

The problem of insecurity, especially on the western border of the

country, was caused by the incursions of Ex-FAR and Interahamwe
militias. To put an end to these activities, the GNU proceeded to
repatriate refugees from DRC and launched military operations
aiming at weakening these evil forces.

Promotion of unity and reconciliation

The prime objective of National Unity is good governance. National
Unity implies the indivisibility of the Rwandan people. GNU fought
and eliminated all constraints to national unity such as ethnicity,
regionalism, and discrimination.

All citizens have equal access to economic resources and can

claim equal political rights. Moreover, the GNU repatriated a big
number of refugees which was a fundamental obligation and a
bridge to peace, national unity and reconciliation. To achieve this
goal, the GNU, introduced several structures and programmes that
were meant to correct past errors that led to war and genocide
against Tutsi. These were: the National Commission of Human
Rights, the National Unity and Reconciliation Commission, the
Gacaca Jurisdictions, Commission Nationale de Lutte Contre le
Génocide (CNLG), the National Itorero Commission, and Rwanda
Demobilisation Commission.

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 History and Citizenship for Rwanda Schools Book 3

Besides, to promote unity among Rwandans, new national symbols

namely; the national anthem, the national flag and the coat of arms
were designed to reflect the unity of Rwandans.

Ingando or Solidarity camps

This brings together diverse groups of people like students,
farmers and civil servants to deliberate on issues like the history
of Rwanda, the nation and citizenship, good governance, human
rights, economy and social affairs.

Ingando is a type of civic education that helps Rwandans to acquire

democratic values and patriotism. On November 16th, 2007,
ingando was transformed into National Itorero Commission.

Establishing the rule of law

A just state means that nobody is above the law. Instead, every
citizen respects the fundamental rights and the freedom of citizens.
Legitimacy that leads to regularity, as well as justice that promotes
human values by means of executive institutions are the pillars of
a just state.

Therefore, a just state guarantees national unity, the respect for

fundamental freedom and rights of its citizens in addition to being
a very good indicator for democracy.

Democratisation
Democracy is generally defined as the government of the people,
by people and for people.

The underlying factor is that people own sovereignity through

transparently elected representatives by a majority vote. This
representation of people reflects the citizens’ authentic free will.
In addition, citizens participate in decision-making and control the
implementation of decisions.

Since 2000, free, transparent, and peaceful elections have been

organised at local levels. Rwanda has put in place a constitution
that cleary defines the main principles as well as performance and
limits of political institutions, multiparty system and respect of
everybody’s rights. The constitution of Rwanda is against all kinds
of racism and all identity ideologies. It is against any type of coup
d’etat or any government that does not respect its constitutional

40
 Consequences of the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi

norms. Moreover, citizens differ in terms of opinions, beliefs,

religion, cultures and aspirations.

All leaders are elected in transparency, and there are no privileged

persons. The 2003 constitution, revised in 2015, provides that
all the most important political positions in the country must be
shared. This leads to a consensual democracy and power-sharing.

Rwanda’s Parliament is made up of two chambers: the Chamber of

Deputies and the Senate. These two chambers are complementary
in nature, but independent of each other. The Executive is overseen
by Parliament, according to the constitution, while the Judiciary is
also independent from the Executive and the Legislature.

Establishing core institutions

To re-inforce good governance in Rwanda, anti-corruption and
public accountability institutions were created by the GNU. Their
operational capacity continued to be strengthened so as to achieve
greater accountability. They include the office of the Ombudsman,
Office of the Auditor General for State Finances, Rwanda Public
Procurement Authority, Rwanda Revenue Authority, and Rwanda
Governance Board.

These institutions are mandated to fight injustice, corruption and

abuse of office by public officials and related offences in both public
and private administration, and to promote the principles of good
governance based on accountability and transparency.

All forms of injustice and impunity were eliminated and anyone

who commits a fault, faces justice.

The national anthem, the national flag and the coat of arms were
designed to reflect the Unity of Rwandans.

Rwanda has also signed and ratified the United Nations Convention
Against Corruption (UNCAC), the African Union anti-corruption
convention (AUCC) and the UN convention against Transnational
Organised Crime (UNTOC).

Implementing decentralisation
The local community have the right to participate in the process
of decision making, in the executive as well as in the monitoring
and evaluation of local development projects. With decentralisation,

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 History and Citizenship for Rwanda Schools Book 3

the GNU decided to delegate power to the local authorities and

community leaders. Its objective is to reinforce the populations
participation in decision making from the grassroots level. This will
enable the population to plan and execute their local development
activities.

Imihigo or performance contracts

One of the key tools introduced by the GNU since 2006 to
reinforce participation and accountability of local government is
the performance based contracting, locally known as imihigo.
Imihigo is a traditional cultural practice in which an individual
would set him/herself targets to be achieved within a specific
period of time.
This home-grown initiative has introduced a radical development in
districts, cells, and villages. This includes improved infrastructure
schools, health centres, and modern markets.

Economic growth and development

The GNU inherited an economy completely destroyed by genocide.
Some regions had been deliberately prevented from realising their
economic potential for purely political reasons. Human resource
development was also neglected.
The GNU immediately set out to create fiscal stability and economic
growth. It also implemented structural adjustment programmes
which aimed to eliminate public sector inefficiency and strengthen
the economy.

The privatisation of government enterprises started in 1996. Many

enterprises were put up for privatisation and shares were sold to
local or foreign investors. The GNU made it a priority to diversify
Rwanda’s economic base.
Regarding planning, many framework documents were prepared
to support the growth of the economy. They include the Vision
2020, the Poverty Reduction Strategy Programme (PRSP), and
Economic Development and Poverty Reduction Strategy (EDPRS).
These documents referred to the more global planning framework
documents like the Millennium Development Goals.

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 Consequences of the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi

Education
Neglect of education by the colonial and post-colonial
administrations left Rwanda with the lowest skilled populations.
Since 1994, the number of higher learning institutions has gone
up from one to six in 2000. The total number of students receiving
higher education rose from 3000 to 7000.

Similarly, from 1994 to 2000, the number of primary schools

increased by more than one and a half times. The qualified teachers
also increased between 1994 and 2000. More resources were
made available to build new schools and to rehabilitate old ones.

Nine Year and Twelve Year Basic Education was also introduced to
facilitate access to secondary education. For the first time parents
were directly involved in the construction of schools.

The government aimed at creating a highly skilled and productive

workforce that would drive Rwanda towards industrialisation and
development in the years to come.

The government has also established technical and vocational

training centres and a college of technology under one umbrella
called Rwanda Development Workforce Authority.

On the other hand, the Law No 44/2010 of 07/12/2010 establishing

Rwanda Education Board (REB) was published in the official
gazette No 4b of 24/01/2011. REB was created to combine
the following: institutions Rwanda National Examination Council
(RNEC), National Curriculum Development Centre (NCDC), Student
Financial Agency Rwanda (SFAR), General Inspection of Education
(GIE), and Teacher Service Commission (TSC).

Promotion of Gender Equality

Before 1994, women had limited rights not only to political power
but also to property. A woman or a girl could not inherit property
and few went to school.

Since 1999, with the National Land Reform, a woman is not

excluded from the process of family land inheritance. The
government also empowered and included women in all sectors.
For example, Rwanda’s constitution requires a minimum of 30 per
cent women representation in decision-making organs. Following

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the 2013 legislative elections, Rwanda has the highest women

representation (64 per cent) in parliament in the world.

The government has also made girls’ education a priority to enhance

women’s participation in various sectors of the nation. This has
strongly boosted girls’ desire to perform better at school. Gender
Monitoring Office (GMO) was established. Its main responsibility
is to monitor and carry out evaluation compliance with gender
indicators intended to respect gender in the context of the vision of
sustainable national development and to serve as a reference point
on matters relating to gender equality and equity.

Environmental protection
In order to protect the environment, in 2006 Rwanda enacted
a law banning the manufacture, importation and use of non-
biodegradable plastic bags. The main concern was to address the
disastrous environmental consequences linked with such plastic
material.

As a result, various delegations from across the globe have been

coming here on working visits to learn about the impact of banning
plastic.

For the implementation of its environmental policy, the government

set up the Rwanda Environment Management Agency (REMA).
REMA has the duty of carrying out the implementation of a number
of policies put forward by the Ministry of Environment. Some of
these policies are reforestation, using gas in cooking, building
terraces, creation of green spaces, planting bamboos along the
banks of rivers, and school green gardens.

Since 2003 Kigali has been described as Africa’s greenest and

cleanest city.

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 Consequences of the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi

Urban and rural settlement development

Kigali City Tower (Source: Google)

Based on its conviction that proper housing is a fundamental
right for every Rwandan, the GNU established Rwanda Housing
Authority in 2010 with a major mandate of organising the national
housing, urbanisation and construction plans.

This has led to rapid transformation and promoted urban growth

in different parts of the country since 2003, especially in, Kigali
city. Kigali is ranked among the most organised and cleanest cities
in the world.

Following the return of millions of refugees in mid-1996 with

unplanned rural settlements the GNU devised a settlement
programme known as Imidugudu. This programme was aimed at
providing decent housing to all Rwandans and also free land for
more organised agricultural use.

In urban and rural settlement development, Government has set

up a number of policies including the promotion of cities such as
Muhanga, Huye, Rusizi, Rubavu, Musanze, and Nyagatare; rural
electrification; and bye bye nyakatsi.

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 History and Citizenship for Rwanda Schools Book 3

Improving water and sanitation services

The provision of water and sanitation services have greatly improved
people’s livelihood and significantly reduced the incidence of water-
borne diseases, especially among children.

As a result of these efforts, Rwanda ranks among the first African

countries to achieve the Millenium Development Goals (MDGs) on
sanitation.

Implementing ICT
Due to the National Optic Fibre network that covers the whole
country and the highest mobile telephone penetration in the region,
Kigali city dwellers are now able to access free internet via Wi-FI
enabled devices through the new government-backed Smart Kigali
Project.

Owing to the availability of ICT infrastructure, a number of well-

known international mobile telecommunication companies
have entered Rwanda’s growing market. These include MTN-
Rwanda, Tigo and Bharti Airtel Ltd. Rwanda has above seven
million subscribers. ICT is used in agriculture, business, health,
governance, and other areas.

There are many services provided to the public based on ICT such as
money transfer via mobile money, E- procurement, Irembo, E- Library,
E- Payment for water, electricity, and taxes.

Offering assistance to needy people

Genocide survivors
From 2003, the Fonds d’Assistance aux Rescapés du Génocide
(FARG) [the Genocide Survivors’ Support and Assistance Fund]
was revamped. The Fund provides support to genocide survivors
by paying education and medical expenses, building houses and
providing direct financial assistance to the most vulnerable.

To achieve this, the government had decided to contribute 5 per

cent of Rwanda’s annual budget to the fund. The funding to FARG
has been growing.

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 Consequences of the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi

Poor families
In order to reduce poverty, the Government of Rwanda has set up
several social protection programmes including Vision Umurenge
Programme (VUP), Ubudehe and Girinka Munyarwanda (one
cow per poor family programme) in favour of poor families. These
programmes have successfully played a great role in the reduction
of poverty. From 2006–2011 more than one million people were
lifted out of poverty, thanks to such programmes.

Regarding the programme of Girinka Munyarwanda, in the

traditional culture of the Rwandans, a cow was a symbol of wealth.
Today, the cow remains a very important asset since it can provide
an avenue to break free from poverty.

The programme of Girinka Munyarwanda has been adapted from

the traditional Rwanda solidarity practice of giving each other a
cow as a pact of friendship and support in the event of misfortune
or when people were in need.

This programme was also initiated by the Government in 2000

so as to curb malnutrition among children and improve the living
conditions of thousands of Rwandans.

This programme has helped to break the social barriers, improved

agricultural outputs, supported reconciliation efforts and greatly
improved the welfare of hundreds of thousands of Rwandans.

Social security reinforcement

In 2010, the government merged the Social Security Fund of
Rwanda that had been created in 1962 with Rwanda Health
Insurance Fund to form Rwanda Social Security Board (RSSB).

The board has a range of products which include medical insurance

coverage, pension, and work related accidents compensation.

Under the board, workers from the public and private sector are
protected from social insecurity. They are provided with a range of
benefits. As a result, RSSB serves Rwandans better.

Healthcare for all

Rwandans are the fundamental resource on which Rwanda’s
future depends. The government has vowed to provide Healthcare

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 History and Citizenship for Rwanda Schools Book 3

to all Rwandans through the provision of preventive, curative and

rehabilitative healthcare, thereby contributing to the reduction of
poverty.

To achieve this target, several strategies have been put in place

since 2003.

The number of Rwandans covered by the community Based Health

Insurance (CBHI) increased from 7per cent in 2003 to more
than 80 per cent in 2015. Set up to provide medical insurance,
Mutuelle de Santé or Community Based Health Insurance, which
is available to most Rwandans, has greatly improved access to
healthcare.

Hospitals in the country increased from 30 in 1994 to 34. This

does not include four national referral hospitals: Centre Hospitalo-
Universitaire de Kigali (CHUK), Centre Hospitalo-Universitaire de
Butare(CHUB), King Faisal Hospital, and the Kanombe Military
Hospital.

The number of health centres also increased from 279 in 1994

to 385 in 2003. The government has also fought against HIV-
AIDS, malaria, tuberculosis, non-communicable diseases and
malnutrition. Thanks to the improvement of medical services, the
maternal infant mortality rate has considerably reduced.

International relations and cooperation

After 1994 the image of Rwanda was tarnished. Today, the country
stands as a credible partner on the international scene. Rwanda
has increased the number of diplomatic missions all over the world.
Rwanda became a member of the Commonwealth on November
29, 2009. Rwanda is still a member of the Communauté
Economique des Pays des Grands Lacs (CEPGL), and has again
joined the Commnauté Economique des Etats d’Afrique Centrale
(CEAC) and the East African Community (EA).

From 2004, Rwanda has been sending peace-keeping forces to

countries such as Sudan, South Sudan, Mali, Haiti, Liberia, Ivory
Coast and Central African Republic. The country is the sixth largest
troop and police contributor to UN peace-keeping operations across
the world. It is also the second biggest contributor of female police
peace-keepers globally.

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 Consequences of the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi

Government achievements in preventing genocide ideology

Activity 8

Imagine that you are promoted to a position to address genocide

ideology. Outline the various ways to prevent genocide and to
promote positive values.

The law related to the punishment of the crime of genocide ideology

has been put in place and has already been applied to punish the
culprits. This has greatly contributed to the discouragement of the
persons with intention to commit the crime of genocide ideology.

Apart from punishment, a campaign has been launched to sensitise

Rwandans about the evils of genocide ideology and denial, and its
negative impact on unity and reconciliation, which is a pillar in the
development of the country.

Rwandan and foreign scholars have already began to write to

combat genocide ideology and genocide denial which is spread in
different types of media, such as books and internet.

The conservation of memorials of genocide against Tutsi and the

construction of more memorials also constitute permanent evidence
to challenge the revisionists of the genocide against Tutsi. Visits
to such places have helped Rwandans and foreigners to provide
evidence on the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi.

Unit summary
The effects of the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi were numerous
and horrible. This tragedy, because of its ferocity, shocked the
world. Among its consequences, we can only cite some such as
a human disaster in which more than one million people were
killed in 100 days, destruction of the major part of infrastructures,
the decadence of the national economy, social wounds, and the
tarnishing of Rwanda’s image.

But after the chaotic situation created by the henchmen of Juvénal

Habyarimana, the Government of National Unity did what was
necessary to rectify the situation.

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 History and Citizenship for Rwanda Schools Book 3

Many efforts were made in rebuilding the country, restoring

peace and security, mobilising all Rwandans towards unity and
reconciliation, repatriating and resettlement refugees and promoting
good relations with other countries, assisting survivors of genocide
and poor families, and rebuilding, promoting and modernising
social and economic infrastructures.

Today, Rwanda is considered all over the world as a good example

of good relations among its citizens thanks to the efforts spared by
Rwandans to rebuild the country.

Glossary
Betrayal: aiding an enemy against the interest of one’s
country or a person
Bleak: offering little or no hope or providing no shelter
or sustenance
Jurisdiction: the right and power to interpret and apply the
law e.g. “Courts having jurisdiction in this
district, or the authority to make legal decisions
about somebody or something.
Legitimacy: lawfulness by virtue of being authorised or in
accordance with law; being genuine or valid,
not being fake or forged
Livelihood: the means by which one lives
Mitigate: lessen or try to lessen the seriousness or extent
of or make less severe or harsh
Overwhelming: so strong as to be irresistible or very intense
Scared: deeply affected or marked by mental or
physical pain or injury
Suspicion: doubt someone’s honesty or an impression
that something might be the case

Revision questions
1. Explain five consequences of the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi.
2. Identify five challenges met by the Government of National
Unity after genocide.
3. Evaluate five achievements of the Government of Rwanda.
4. Examine five ways to fight genocide ideology.

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 History for Rwanda Secondary Schools

Colonial
Unit Administrative
3 Systems and
Colonial Powers

Key unit competence

Identify different colonial administrative systems and colonial
powers

Introduction
This unit is about the colonial administrative systems and colonial
powers. It first of all focuses on the European colonial masters and
the respective colonies they possessed in Africa.

Secondly, this unit deals with different colonial administrative

systems such as indirect rule, direct rule, assimilation, association,
and paternalism that were used by Europeans to manage their
African colonies.

At the end of this unit, attention will be focused on Ethiopia and

Liberia to analyse different factors that helped them to escape
European colonisation.

Links to other subjects

This unit can be linked to other subjects like geography, general
studies, and economics.

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Main points to be covered in this unit

࿤࿤ Colonial masters and their colonies
࿤࿤ Different colonial administrative methods: indirect rule, direct
rule, assimilation, association and paternalism
࿤࿤ African states that were not colonised: Ethiopia and Liberia.

African Colonial Masters and their Colonial

Administrative Policies

Activity 1

Do activities 1 to 5 on your own before reading this unit

Do the following activities using the internet or an Atlas for

research.
1. Using different colours, draw a sketch map of Africa and
shade African countries according to their former colonial
masters. Then, each group hangs its map in the class to be
observed by all the class members and to make necessary
corrections. Note that the countries with the same colonial
master should be shaded in the same color.
2. Identify African countries and their former colonial masters
and the two countries that were not colonised.

Activity 2

Carry out research on the internet or in a library on colonial

administrative policies and find answers to the following
questions. Present the results of your findings to the class.
1. Write short notes to explain the following terms as they
were used during the colonial period.
࿤࿤ Assimilation policy
࿤࿤ Direct rule
࿤࿤ Indirect rule
࿤࿤ Association
࿤࿤ Paternalism

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 Colonial Administrative Systems and Colonial Powers

2. Why did the French abandon indirect rule to adopt

association?
3. Where was the assimilation policy successful in the French
colonies?

Activity 3

Discuss the features of indirect rule and different reasons that

led the British to adopt it. Present the results of your discussion
to the class.

Activity 4
Discuss the features of assimilation and different reasons that
led the French to adopt it. Thereafter, answer the following
questions and share your responses with the class.
1. Define the term “assimilation”.
2. Identify and explain the French system of federalism that
was used to rule African colonies.
3. Write short notes on the following:
࿤࿤ The Franco-Prussian war of 1870–1871
࿤࿤ Association
4. Describe the characteristics of French assimilation.
5. Account for three reasons that led the French to adopt the
colonial policy of assimilation.

Activity 5
1. Using the above research, reflect on the British and French
colonial administrative policies and find out the similarities
and differences between them. Thereafter, share with the
class the results of your findings.
2. Research on direct rule and the German colonial
administrative policy and find out the reason why Germans
adopted direct rule in her African colonies.

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 History and Citizenship for Rwanda Schools Book 3

By the turn of the 20th century, Africa had been invaded, occupied,
and colonised by several European nations. The following
map  shows how the scramble for Africa contributed to the
partition of the African continent among European countries. By
1914, European powers controlled the whole of Africa, with only
Abyssinia (now Ethiopia) and Liberia remaining independent.

Spanish Morocco
Tunisia
Morocco
Algeria Libya
Rio De Oro

Egypt
French West Africa

Gambia Eritrea
Anglo-Egyptian Sudan French Somalia
Port Guinea
Gold Coast Nigeria
Sierra Leone Ethiopia
Liberia British Somalia
Togoland Cameroon
Uganda
Spanish Guinea Italian Somaliland
Kenya
French Equatorial Africa
Key
Belgian Congo
Boundary German East Africa
Britain
Angola
France
Nyasaland
Northern Rodesia
Germany
Mozambique
Italy German Southwest Africa Madagascar
Southern Rodesia
Spain
Bechuanaland
Portugal
Swaziland
Atlantic Basotholand Indian
Belgium
Ocean South Africa Ocean
Independent

Colonial African empires in Africa in 1914 (Source: Google)

Colonial masters and their colonies

At the end of the 19th century some European countries, which
were mainly searching for raw materials and markets for their
manufactured goods, came to Africa and colonised it. These
European colonial masters dominated almost all of Africa except
Ethiopia (Abyssinia) and Liberia. The European countries were
Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Belgium, Portugal and Spain.

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 Colonial Administrative Systems and Colonial Powers

Britain colonised Uganda, Kenya, Sudan, Egypt, Ghana, Nigeria,

Gambia, South Africa, Botswana, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Sierra
Leone, Lesotho, Malawi, Swaziland, Zanzibar and Somaliland.

France dominated Senegal, Ivory Coast, Mali, Mauritania, Burkina

Faso, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Niger, Congo Brazzaville, Chad,
Madagascar, Central African Republic, Guinea, Djibouti, Benin,
Comoros and Mauritius.

Germany colonised Tanganyika, Togo, Cameroon, Namibia, Rwanda

and Burundi while Italy colonised Libya, Somalia and Eritrea.

Belgium colonised Congo. After the First World War, by the Versailles
treaty of June 28th, 1919 which was the basis of the creation of
the League of Nations. Belgium took control of the German ex-
colonies of Rwanda and Burundi. At the same time, the League
of Nations distributed the remaining German colonies to some
victorious countries of the First World War. France was given part
of Cameroon and Togo and the other parts of these countries were
offered to Britain which also received the colonies of Tanganyika
and Namibia.

Portugal possessed Mozambique, Angola, Guinea-Bissau and

Sao Tome and Principe whereas Spain had Western Sahara and
Equatorial Guinea.

Different colonial administrative policies

After the successful partitioning of Africa at the Berlin conference
of 1884–1885, different colonial powers developed means through
which they could administer their colonies. While the British used a
policy of indirect rule, the French, the Germans and the Portuguese
mainly applied direct rule in their respective colonies.

However, colonial administrative policies, whether practiced by the

British, the Germans, the French or the Portuguese, had almost
the same intention. They all aimed at strengthening colonialism at
the expense of Africans, they all aimed at political domination and
promotion of economic exploitation.

The colonial administrative policies refer to the theories of

administration used by colonialists in the management of their
control over African territories. Such theories included indirect rule,
assimilation, association, direct rule and paternalism.

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Assimilation
The French mainly used assimilation, which can be defined as a
system of administration where the colony was modeled on the
exact image of the colonial power. It aimed at creating people
similar to the French in all aspects of life except the skin color. The
culture, language, law, civilisation, religion and all aspects of life
were to be French and not African in nature.

Africans would learn to speak and write French, be converted to

the Roman Catholic faith, use the French, administrative laws,
adopt French habits of dressing, etc. Such Africans would qualify
to have full political rights as French citizens including the right to
send representatives to the French parliament in Paris.

When the French failed to use assimilation because of the problems

involved in it, they abandoned it and adopted association. The
advocates of association argued that neither assimilation nor direct
rule would work sufficiently on the African continent.

Association meant respecting the culture of African subjects,

leaving them develop in their own ways so long as they met the
demands of colonialists. This policy was used in all areas of French
influence outside Senegal. According to this theory, Africans would
be ruled through their own political systems with the advice of the
French overlords. Therefore, in theory, the association policy was
similar to the British indirect rule and this explains the existence of
local government systems in the rest of French Africa.

In all French colonies, France used either assimilation or association.

The assimilation policy was used in Senegal where it succeeded in
four provinces namely Dakar, Goree, Saint Louis and Rufisque. The
supporters of this policy were promoting the French revolutionary
ideas of liberty, equality and fraternity. Association policy was used
in other parts of Senegal and in the rest of French Africa such as in
Mauritania. Portugal also used assimilation policy in Mozambique
and Angola.

Indirect rule
This was an administrative policy adopted by the British in their
colonies. Traditional African chiefs and elders were used to rule
their subjects on the behalf of their colonial masters. In theory,
the system entailed the preservation of the existing institutions

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 Colonial Administrative Systems and Colonial Powers

and their gradual adoption under the direction of the British local
governance system.

African chiefs were left in their positions to implement colonial

policies. They were used to carry out basic functions of local
government, in particular collection of taxes, recruitment of labour
and control of potential African unrest.

Direct rule
This was an administrative policy that was mainly employed by the
Germans, Belgians and Portuguese. As a system of administration,
direct rule, in its pure form, had no room for the local rulers. For
instance, it was used in Tanganyika where they either employed
Europeans or imported other mixed cultures like the Jumbes and
Akidas. African leaders were removed from power and replaced by
people from Germany. Portugal also used direct rule in Mozambique
and Angola with the employment of “degradados”.This system was
very expensive and thus its application was very limited in Africa.

Paternalism
This was a colonial administration policy which was mostly used by
Belgian colonial authorities. It involved treating people like a father.
The paternalistic attitude attempted to consider adults as children.
This term was used in the political, economic and moral domains.
In their colonies, Belgians left the king and chiefs in their posts
but told them to respect instructions. In this way, the African royal
power was limited because the king could not take any decision
without the approval of Belgians.

This was the case in Rwanda where, in 1923, a law was passed
which prohibited Mwami Musinga from appointing or dismissing
chiefs and notables without the permission of the resident
representative of the Belgian Government. The heads of provinces
also could neither appoint nor dismiss their subordinates without
prior agreement of the resident.

The Belgian administration gradually became the final source of

authority. The chiefs and deputy chiefs were no longer subordinates
of Musinga, the king of Rwanda but those of the substitute Belgian
administration.

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British Indirect Rule

The British colonial system of administration was

a brainchild of Frederick Lugard. The method
he used to rule the African colonies became the
main system that the British used to administer
all their African colonies. It was called “indirect
rule”. Under this policy, the British used African
traditional rulers to work on their behalf and help
subjugate their fellow Africans. Although these
Africans were nominally “ruling, ” the actual
decisions rested with the British colonial officers.
Frederick Lugard, High
Commissioner (1900–06)
in Nigeria (Source: Google)

Frederick Lugard experimented with indirect rule at first in Northern

Nigeria where the Fulani had established the Sokoto caliphate. In
the following years, Lugard introduced the system in East Africa.

Characteristics of indirect rule

At the top of the administrative structure, was the secretary for
colonies who resided in London and was directly answerable for all
the colonial affairs to the British government.

Below the secretary for colonies, there was a government which

headed each of the British colonies.

Each colony was divided into provinces each divided into districts,
counties, sub-counties, parishes and villages.

Provincial commissioners were in charge of provinces and were

British nationals just like district commissioners who were in
charge of districts.

Below the above officials were county chiefs, sub-county chiefs

and village chiefs who were Africans and carried out the routine
work of administering of districts.

Indirect rule, agents or the local chief carried out tax revenue
collection. The taxes were used in developing roads, health
facilities, and education, and to pay the local administration staff
in a bid to facilitate further African exploitation.

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 Colonial Administrative Systems and Colonial Powers

Under indirect rule, the county chief was responsible to the British
official, resident in the district i.e. the district commissioner who
was in turn answerable to the governor of the colony.

Reasons why the British used Indirect Rule

Indirect rule was economically cheap. The British wanted to avoid
payment of high salaries to white staff or administrators in their
colonies. In addition, white staff required good accommodation
and troops to provide security.

The British lacked enough manpower to administer all their

colonies in Africa. The number of British citizens in Africa was
small compared to the number of colonies and, therefore, they had
no any other alternative in the place of that of using African chiefs.

The British also had the fear of resistance and hostilities from
Africans. In fact, they utilised indirect rule because they wanted to
avoid resistance and rebellions that would come after overthrowing
the local African Kings from power.

Another reason that led the British to use indirect rule was the
language barrier. Indeed at this time, the British ignored the
languages and customs of Africans. Therefore, African leaders
would be a better choice to solve the language problem as they
interpreted the rules in the local languages.

African kings and chiefs would act as shock absorbers in case of

any conflicts and wars. In fact, the African kings and chiefs would
be blamed if Africans revolted because of unpopular policies used
by the British.

Existence of well established tradional centralised systems of

administration in Africa encouraged the British to rely on such
existing systems of administration to implement their policies, for
example in Buganda and northern Nigeria.

The British adopted indirect rule as a way of training future African

leaders in case of eventual self-government. This could be achieved
by allowing African leaders to exercise their responsibility.

The success of indirect rule in other parts of the world like in India
also encouraged the British to apply it in Africa because they had
seen its good results. This encourages the British officer to adopt it
in northern Nigeria and Uganda.

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The British used indirect rule because they expected African loyalty.
They expected African leaders to work hard in order to please their
masters and this would bring good results to the British government.

Indirect rule was a favourable method for the exploitation of African

resources. It created peaceful conditions and gave the colonialists
enough time to engage in other activities like mining and trade.

Collaboration by African societies like Buganda also encouraged

the British to use indirect rule because it led to good relationship
between the two parties. If the African rulers cooperated, they
retained their power.

The physical difficulties in colonial Africa also favoured the use

of traditional chiefs. The thick forests, the tropical diseases; wild
animals, hostile tribes and lack of transport made it difficult for
Europeans to move around.

Indirect Rule was the best method of ruling the illiterate masses of
Africa. Since they could not be mobilised through the radio and the
press the use of African leaders seemed a workable solution.

French Assimilation
Assimilation comes from the French verb “assimiler” which means
cause to resemble or to look alike.

The assimilation policy refers to the French colonial administrative

method that intended to transform Africans into French citizens
and African territories into French territories by substituting their
indigenous culture, religion and customs with French culture,
language, laws, religion and civilisation. In so doing, Africans were
to resemble the French citizens in all spheres of life except the
colour of their skin.

Features of French administration in Africa

The French used a centralised system (federalism) in their
administration with its base at Dakar in West Africa. At the top,
there was a secretary for colonies resident in Paris followed by a
governor general whose headquarters was at Dakar, the capital of
the French federal system in west Africa.

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 Colonial Administrative Systems and Colonial Powers

The French federation was divided into different colonies each

under a lieutenant governor. Again each colony was divided into
provinces called “cercles” each under a French provincial ruler
called “commandant de cercle”.

Below him, there were the “chefs de subdivision” at distinct levels.

All these posts were exclusively reserved for French nationals. The
highest post an African could hold was that of canton leader. Below
these were the village chiefs of sub-locations.

It is generally believed that French rule was more repressive than

that of the British. Forced labour was more felt in French colonies
than in British ones and to many Africans this was a new form
of slavery. Because of this, the French were faced with far more
rebellions than the British.

The French regarded their colonies as overseas provinces. This

is the reason why their administration did not aim at creating
independent states but strong provinces of metropolitan France.

The kings in French Africa were seen as obstacles to colonial

despotism. The kings could only be maintained if they accepted to
work as agents of colonial administration. By using local leaders
in forced labour and collection of taxes, the African kings became
unpopular before their subjects and yet failure to serve the French
government led to arrests, flogging and imprisonment of the African
leaders.

The French worked as much as possible through chiefs, but they

eliminated any African leader who proved disloyal to their policies.
Kings were deposed or retired in French interest.

The French administrators had a lot of judicial powers in their

colonies. All criminal cases were tried by them and customary law
was ignored except in civil cases. French administrators used the
1887 “indignant” law which allowed them to arrest and punish
African subjects without any trial.

The French used a centralised system of administration with its

headquarters at Dakar in west Africa. This ensured and helped
France to pursue the control of all its territories.

The French believed that their culture and civilisation were the best
in the world. Her people, therefore, had a mission of admitting all

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 History and Citizenship for Rwanda Schools Book 3

the people especially those whom they said had no civilisation of

their own into the rich French heritage.

The administration language used in dealing with Africans was

French. The French administrators rarely became fluent in local
languages, as their counterparts did in British colonies.

Trade and finance were dominated by the French firms and were
consequently influenced by French economic institutions.

Reasons for adoption of assimilation policy by the French

At the end of the Franco-Prussian war of 1870–1871, France was
defeated. The French attributed their defeat by Germany to their
low population and so assimilation policy was intended to increase
her population which would support France in future conflicts and
international issues.
The French believed in the superiority of their culture and
civilisation. They considered it to be more developed and therefore
felt it was their duty to spread it among people with “backward”
cultures through assimilation.
The influence of the French revolutionary ideas of liberty, equality
and fraternity also made the French use assimilation policy because
they had a feeling that all people are equal. This made the French
to come up with the idea that all people, white or black, were equal
and hence, through assimilation, Africans would be civilised and
able to enjoy equal rights and freedoms with the French.
For the French, colonisation was a mere extension of French
boundaries, and thus people in the colonies had to be assimilated
into French citizens.
The French also used assimilation policy because they knew that the
assimilated people would produce raw materials which would be used
in French industries and offer markets for the French finished products.
They also used this method because its success would earn France
political glory and prestige.
This method was employed because it was considered to be cheap,
since the assimilated Africans would be employed as administrators.

Assimilation was adopted since it was considered as a way of

looking for allies from Africa, ever since the humiliation in the
Franco-Prussian war.

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 Colonial Administrative Systems and Colonial Powers

The French used assimilation because it could facilitate exploitation

of Africa, as Africans would learn French.

French humanitarians supported assimilation because it would

save Africans from oppression by the French since the Africans
would be the same as the French.

The French wanted to create a class of African French people who

would help in developing their colonies socially and economically.
Such a class would be employed in education, business and
administration for the benefit of metropolitan France. Therefore,
the French administration thought that the class of African French
men would help in the administration and easy exploitation of her
African colonial possessions.

Similarities and differences between British

and French colonial administrative policies
Similarities
In both cases, policy making was done in home countries by the
metropolitan governments. The parliaments passed their policies to
the colonies through the secretaries for colonies. Local authorities
only made policies related to minor issues.

Both systems established new laws based on home judicial

systems. For example, the French Code Napoleon and the British
judicial system were used in settling issues in the colonies. They
both undermined the local authorities and regulated punishments
to local authorities according to European statutes.

Both systems employed Africans at lower levels of administration.

For example, all posts from the district commissioner to the
governor general were filled by the British and pure Frenchmen.

In both systems, administration was centralised, especially through

the secretary of state who worked in the interest of the British
government while the French minister of colonies worked in the
interest of the French government.

Both systems had Legislative Councils and these institutions

were initially established by the British but later the French also

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 History and Citizenship for Rwanda Schools Book 3

developed them. They were meant to enact some laws and take
them for approval by metropolitan colonial offices.

The two systems undermined the position of traditional rulers in

African societies among their people.

Both assimilation and indirect rule trained some Africans

collaborators to help them in their administration.

Assimilation and indirect rule did away with resistors.

In both cases, European administrators were on top levels of

administration in the colonies.

The two systems of colonial administration survived on exploitation

based on taxation and forced labour. In both cases, African local
leaders were used to collect taxes and supervise forced labour.

Both assimilation and indirect rule considered colonisation as a

way of civilising Africans and recognised the superiority of the
white race and culture.

Differences
The French established a highly centralised and authoritarian
administration. French administered all their colonies as a
federation under the governor general at Dakar under whom was
a hierarchy of officials in each colony. The British on the other
hand established a separate administration in the colonies i.e. the
British colonies were administered independently and got their
orders from the secretary for colonies based in London.

The French used ex-servicemen (veterans) whereas British used

civilians.

The French eroded African culture and values while the British
preserved African culture and values.

Africans had representatives in the French parliament while

Africans were not represented in the British parliament.

Colonies were regarded as extensions of France while the British

regarded their colonies as separate entities.

The French centralised the 13 colonies under one governor, while

the British had a governor for each colony.

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 Colonial Administrative Systems and Colonial Powers

The French disregarded the traditional chiefs, law, courts and

institutions and paid no attention to legitimacy while the British
used traditional chiefs, laws and institutions.

The French used the elite class of the Africans to govern while the
British rejected the use of the elite class in administration.

Customary laws were disregarded by the French while the British

highly regarded or considered customary laws.

The French tried to assimilate the Africans but the British left
Africans to develop in their way as Africans.

German direct rule

Direct rule was a system of administration used by the Germans to
administer their colonies in Africa. To apply this system, Germans
removed African leaders and replaced them with Germans who
were usually soldiers.

Germans used direct rule because of the following factors:

࿤࿤ Germans used direct rule as a way to directly enforce their interests.
࿤࿤ Following her successful unification, Germany as a new state
wanted to prove the maturity of her nationhood by using a
different method of administration from that used by its rivals,
the British.
࿤࿤ Germans opted for this system of administration because
after 1870, their population increased and there was enough
manpower to manage all departments. Thus, they saw no need
to recruit or use Africans.
࿤࿤ They also believed the system would enable them to exploit
and benefit from African resources; for example, raise enough
revenue through taxation.
࿤࿤ Because of resistance that Germans had faced early in Africa,
they saw it better to exclude Africans from their administration
by using direct rule. In so doing, Germans had to bring in harsh
leaders and use soldiers as a way of avoiding more riots.
࿤࿤ Germans believed that direct rule was the only system through
which they could effectively administer their colonies. This
method would help them make Africans grow enough cash
crops to feed their home industries.
࿤࿤ In many German African colonies, there were no chiefs and
where they existed, they were not faithful or powerful enough.

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However, in some colonies such as Rwanda, Burundi and in the

province of Bukoba in Tanganyika, Germans decided to apply indirect
rule because there existed traditional centralised administration
which could match with the required conditions for indirect rule.

African States that were not Colonised:

Ethiopia and Liberia
Before you read this unit do the following activities:

Activity 6

Using the internet or library carry out a research on Ethiopia

and answer the following questions. Present the results of your
research to the class.
1. Give a brief biography of Menelik II, the leader of Ethiopia
during the period when the Italians attempted to annex this
country?
2. What kind of relationships had been established between
Ethiopia and Italy?
3. Why did Italy attack Ethiopia at Adowa?
4. What were the main factors that enabled Ethiopia to defeat
Italians at Adowa?
5. How did Ethiopia survive colonialism and why was Italy
unable to colonise her?

Activity 7

Conduct a study using the internet or library research on the

country of Liberia and answer the questions below. Afterwards,
present the results of your study to the class.
1. Describe the circumstances of the creation of Liberia.
2. Who was Joseph Roberts? What were the financial reforms
he launched in Liberia?
3. Describe the circumstances surrounding the attainment of
independence of Liberia.
4. Describe how Liberia escaped European colonisation.

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 Colonial Administrative Systems and Colonial Powers

Menelik II and Ethiopia

Menelik II was the son of Shoa and grew up
as an ambitious man. He was once captured
by Theodore’s men but later escaped and
declared himself King of Kings or Neguja
Negasha. He held this title throughout the
reign of Theodore II.

When John IV came to power, Menelik II

agreed with him that after the death of the
former, the latter would become the leader
of Ethiopia.
Menelik II of Ethiopia (17 August
1844–12 December 1913)
(Source: Google)
Menelik II was a military genius and used this quality to build a
strong military force for Ethiopia. He was a believer in Christianity
and defended it against other religions.

Menelik II was very intelligent and he used both diplomacy and

force against his enemies. He was also very ambitious and worked
hard to transform Ethiopia militarily, socially, politically and
economically.

As a diplomat he put his political skills to public utility when he

signed the treaty of Ucciali and when he reached a compromise
with John IV, following the death of Theodore II.

Menelik II came to power in 1889 after the death of John.

The relationship of Menelik II with Italians and

the 1896–1897 Italian invasion
The foreign policy of Menelik II was shaped as follows. On his
first contact with the Italians, he gave them the impression that
he would be a willing puppet to serve their interests. This led to
cooperation between him and the Italians which culminated in
the treaty of Ucciali in 1889. This was a treaty of friendship by
which the Ethiopian Emperor received huge supplies of arms and
ammunitions in return for his friendship. The treaty increased the
military strength of Menelik II. He later used the arms against the
Italians.

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The main clause of the Ucciali treaty was that, in return for heavy
payments (European goods and ammunition) by Italy, Ethiopia
consented to be used by Italy as her intermediary in foreign affairs.
Ethiopia was no longer an independent state but under Italian
protection, according to the Italian version. The Italians exploited
this to inform other colonial powers that they had established a
protectorate over Ethiopia and for sometime Ethiopia was deleted
from the world map and replaced by Italian East Africa.

When Menelik II received information on Italian claims over

Ethiopia, he acted quickly to show that he was not under any
obligation, according to the Amharic version. Menelik’s act made
the Italians realise that, they had been cheated by the Ethiopian
Emperor and it was now too late. Italy therefore was faced with
a prospect of fighting Ethiopia whose ruler they had armed and
strengthened with arms similar to those the Italian forces used.

Reflecting on how a British expedition of 1867 led by Napier

against Ethiopia had been successful, the Italians thought that
history would repeat itself. But this was a gross miscalculation.
They forgot that they had armed Menelik II with weapons as good
as those they intended to use against him.

The map of Ethiopia (Source: Google)

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Why was Ethiopia able to defeat the Italians?

The following reasons explain why Ethiopia was able to defeat the
Italians:

Unity
Menelik II instilled nationalism among his people and they realised
the importance of unity. Therefore, the Italians faced a united
Ethiopia which could not be defeated, unlike in the case of the
Napier expedition.

Courage
Menelik’s propaganda encouraged the people to give him much
support because he made it clear that he was ready to die for
Ethiopia. During his resistance against the Italians, he called for
the support of everyone with encouraging words such as “whoever
was strong could provide manpower and whoever was weak could
pray to God”. This morale boosted the Ethiopians.

Menelik’s cooperation with Rases

Unlike Theodore II, Menelik II had good relations with provincial
leaders, especially those of Gondar and Tigre, who contributed a
lot of manpower.

Presence of an able and large army

Italians thought, as a defeated African force, Ethiopians had a
weak army which could not fight a well trained and well equipped
army. They underestimated the military strength of Menelik basing
on the false impression created by the Napier expedition.

In addition, Italians thought that Menelik would assemble a small

number of soldiers as was the case during the Napier expedition.
Contrary to this, their invasion was opposed by all Ethiopians.

Timing of attack
Italians decided to attack on Sunday hoping to find all Ethiopians
in Churches which would disorganise them and make it impossible
for Ethiopians to resist. But because of their inferior numbers
and not being better armed than the Ethiopians, they lost the
war. Menelik’s spies had also leaked the information about the
imminent attack.

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Geographical problems
The Italians were greatly constrained by the geographical nature of
Ethiopia which made their advance difficult. Ethiopia’s topography
is made up of rugged mountains, deep valleys and gorges and the
Italians were not used to it. The topography acted as a military
barrier to the Italians, as it negatively affected their advances.

Rumours
Italians were also deceived for sometime by rumours circulated
deliberately by Menelik’s spies that the Ethiopian Emperor had
died suddenly of snakebite. Thus they hoped to find a disorganised
country without a leader. Instead at their invasion, they found
Menelik himself commanding the battle.

Lack of expected help

The Italians had hoped to get help in the form of water, food and
information but unfortunately, all the Ethiopians were hostile to
them. The wells were destroyed and Italians were denied any food.
Because of underestimating the campaign, the Italians did not
carry enough food and other supplies.

Communication problem
The breakdown of the Italian communication system also weakened
the Italian side. They did not have effective maps and would get
lost, only to be fought separately by the Ethiopian troops.

Weakness of Italian commander Oreste Baratieri

Oreste Baratieri the Italian commander never

realised the weakness of maintaining the
same positions, which the Ethiopian spies had
noted. A number of Ethiopian spies crossed
back to Menelik and leaked the information
about the positions of Italian troops.

Oreste Baratierii (13 November 1841–7

August 1901) (Source: Google)

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 Colonial Administrative Systems and Colonial Powers

With all the circumstances favouring the Ethiopian forces, the

Italians were completely and disastrously defeated and most of
them died. The survivors were taken as prisoners of war. Large
amounts of arms and ammunitions were captured. This was the
most humiliating defeat a European force had ever suffered on the
African soil at the hands of Africans.

The victory at Adowa placed Ethiopia on the world map and

changed the attitude of the powers of Europe over her. Britain and
France signed treaties in 1897 recognising the independence of
Ethiopia.

Why Ethiopia was able to escape European colonialism

Ethiopia, like Liberia, is one of the unique countries which survived
colonialism. Many factors explain the escape of Ethiopia from
colonialism. They include the following:

Influence of Christianity
Ethiopia was among the African countries which received Christian
civilisation around 350 ad when Emperor Ezana was converted
to Christianity. Since then, Christianity was firmly established in
Ethiopia and it helped to strengthen their unity against colonialists.
Many Europeans spread Christianity in the process of colonising
African countries but fortunately, Ethiopia was already a Christian
country.

Ethiopian unity
Menelik II had total support of the local populace whose patriotism
was intensified by the invasion of the Italians. The situation then
was different from that of 1868 when ordinary Ethiopians assisted
Napier, the leader of the British expedition, against Emperor
Theodore II. In the 1896 battle, those who were not at war were at
home praying and spying on the Italians.

Ethiopian nationalism
Surprisingly, the Italians did not exploit the disunity of the Ethiopian
masses who had over long been unhappy. But Ethiopia after
Theodore II was different. Rivalries over the throne had ended so
that even John IV and Menelik who were competing for the throne
were friendly and supporting other. This nationalistic spirit was

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spread in the whole empire. Nationalism was strong among the

Ethiopians. This made it difficult for the Europeans to divide and
rule them as they did in other parts of Africa.

Civilisation
From 350 ad Ethiopia adopted Christianity as the official state
religion. The whole of Ethiopia adopted the Church as the main
guardian of Ethiopian culture. Thus, the Emperor was believed to
be divine in authority.

Menelik’s diplomacy
Menelik used diplomatic tactics of signing the tricky Ucciali treaty
in 1889 and then he was not blamed by any nation in the war
against Italy and he instead won strong support. By the Ucciali
treaty, he received a lot of arms from the Italians and successfully
used these arms against them. This was a serious miscalculation.
From 1889 up to 1896 Menelik imported sophisticated arms from
the Italians.

Underestimation of Menelik’s government

The success of Napier’s expedition made the Italians believe
that the conquest of Ethiopia would be a relatively easy task for
a modern European army. They forgot that they had themselves
supplied arms to the Emperor.

Weakness of Italy
Italians were weak compared to other European colonisers. Italy
had just been unified and not yet powerful enough to defeat such
a highly organised resistance.

Geographical advantage
Ethiopia has flat topped mountains ranging from 1500–3500
metres high with great valleys and gorges and semi-desert vegetation
that surround them. This made Ethiopia a land very difficult for
foreign aggressors to attack and succeed. The Italians also lacked
the topographical maps to guide them in the mountaineous terrain.

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Economic weakness
Ethiopia was agriculturally poor and had very limited minerals. The
Italians would have fought tooth and nail to win the war if they had
more resources. On the other hand, other African countries with a
few resources like Chad and Mali had been colonised. Therefore,
the Italians tried their best to win but they were defeated.

In short, the escape from colonialism by Ethiopia hinges on the

personality of Menelik II plus other natural factors, because in
1868 the poor personality of Theodore II made him lose against
the Napier expedition but in 1896 the Italians failed to defeat the
Ethiopians mainly because of Menelik is strong personality.

Foundation of Liberia
Voinjama

Lofa Cote Guinêa

Sierra Yahun
Leone

Gbarpolu

Grand Cape
Mount
Bopolu Bong Cote d’ivoire
Nimba

Cap Bomi
Mount

Monrovia Grand Bassa

River Cess Grand Gcoch

Atlantic Sinoe River Gee

Key Ocean
International Greenville
Boundary
Grand Kru
Town 0 10 20 Barclayville Maryland
Miles
Water
Harper

Map of Liberia (Source: Google)

Liberia was founded in 1821 by the American Colonisation Society
as a new home for former slaves who were no longer needed in the

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United States following the spread of the anti-slavery campaign

by the British in the 1780s. Its formation followed the successful
story of Britain’s effort in resettling her freed slaves from America.

By 1800 around 108,000 slaves had gained their freedom in

the USA and the freed slaves posed a grave social problem to
the American community. They became redundant; negro
slaves suffered discrimination of all sorts; some of them became
malnourished and highly susceptible to crime.

As a solution, some clergymen and southern state slave owners

founded the American Colonisation Society (ACS) in 1816. Its duty
was to ensure the repatriation of unwanted and redundant slaves
to resettle them on the west coast of Africa.
An African ex-slave colony was to be established
on the model of the British colony that had been
established in Sierra Leone in 1792.

The ACS fulfilled its task by purchasing a strip

of land at Cape Mesurado on the mouth of Saint
Paul river in 1821. It shipped in the freed slaves
in 1822. Between 1822 and 1824 more freed
slaves were brought in from USA. These included
both the pure negroes and Mulatoes.
Joseph Roberts (March 15,
1809–February 24, 1876)
(Source: Google)

In 1824 this colony was renamed Liberia

meaning “the land of free people”. An old site
of the pioneer settlement, Cape Meserado, was
renamed Monrovia in honour of James Monroe,
the President of USA. From 1825 up to 1836, the
colony expanded both in size and population and
new settlements were founded. These included
Grand Bassam, Cape Palms, Sinoe, Harper,
James Monroe (April Green Ville, and Maryland. The populations
28, 1758–July 4, 1831) of the freed slaves, the Americo-liberians, also
(Source: Google) greatly increased.

Until 1841, Liberia was under the American Colonisation Society,

which governed the colony through its white agents. Nevertheless,
agitation for independence followed, and in 1841 an American negro,
Joseph Roberts, was appointed as the first governor of Liberia.

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 Colonial Administrative Systems and Colonial Powers

He was an experienced administrator and he became very important

in Liberian history. His major reforms included the following:

Financial reform
He established a system for collection revenue collection to suppport
the colony’s administration by imposing customs duty on ships
trading in Liberia’s ports. He met stiff opposition from some circles
who agreed that Liberia was not an independent state. It was due
to the need to remove this abnormality that European governments
and Liberian leaders negotiated and won independence from the
American Colonisation Society in 1847. Thus on July 26th, 1847,
Liberia was declared an independent state and a republic, with
Joseph Roberts as the first President. It was soon recognised by
Britain and other European countries. America only recognised
Liberia’s independence in 1862.

Reasons why Liberia was not colonised

Different factors contributed to the preservation of the independence
of Liberia and they include the following:

Liberians were already westernised

Liberians were already westernised, Christianised, democratised
and spoke English. Therefore, there was no need for Europeans to
colonise Liberia under the cover of introducing the above aspects.

Support from American colonisation society

The American Colonisation Society was independent of the USA
government. Its American origins created an impression that
America was the godfather of Liberia. As a result, countries feared
to colonise Liberia to avoid clashing with USA.

Economic support from America

Unlike other countries such as Morocco, Tunisia and Egypt which
lost their independence as a result of failure to clear European
debts, Liberia preserved her independence because USA rescued
her in similar circumstances. In 1906 Britain almost took away her
independence but USA came to her rescue.

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Lack of interest in colonies by USA

The European colonial powers left Liberia to the USA just like
they left Sierra Leone to Britain. But unlike Britain, USA was not
interested in colonies, especially in Africa. In Liberia itself, people
preferred to be ruled by the USA; the members of the True Whigs
party, for example, were against the declaration of independence in
1847. Thus, if USA had wanted to colonise Liberia nothing would
have stopped her.

Liberian Leaders
Liberian leaders were able to defend their independence. For
instance, Roberts, Johnson and Roye provided guidance and
leadership during the hard times. They signed various agreements
with European colonial powers such as Britain and France tot reject
colonialism.

Liberian political system

The Liberian political system helped protect the country’s
independence. Liberians copied the American system of the house
of representatives, presidential system, political parties, judiciary
and many others. The system was democratic and liked by the
majority of Liberians. This created unity among them. Therefore,
their system did not produce collaborators to work with colonialists.

The rivalry between European powers

The rivalry between European powers, especially between Britain
and France over the Niger, diverted their attention from Liberia and
this helped it survive colonisation.

Poor location
European countries rushed for places like Suez canal, the
Mediterranean Sea, the Nile River, Congo and Niger Rivers,
Mombasa, and the Cape of Good Hope, which were strategically
useful. Liberia was not endowed like any of these.

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Unit summary
By 1914, European powers had conquered almost all African
countries except the two territories of Abyssinia (Ethiopia) and
Liberia. After this conquest, European colonial powers initiated
different colonial policies to administer their colonies. The main
policies that were employed to colonise Africa included the
British indirect rule, German direct rule, French assimilation and
association, and Belgian paternalism.

All these administrative policies were utilised for different reasons.

These included the number of European administrators a colonial
master could mobilise; the exploitation of African resources, and
accessing African markets for European manufactured commodities.
In general, all the European colonial powers aimed to dominate
and exploit their colonies.

Whereas most of African was colonised, Ethiopia and Liberia

preserved their independence. Ethiopia under Menelik II defeated
Italian troops at Adowa in 1896 and this victory combined with
many other reasons put an end to the Italian ambition of colonising
Ethiopia. Liberia’s independence was preserved mainly due to the
circumstances of its creation. Liberia was founded in 1821 by the
American Colonisation Society and acquired her independence in
1847. From that time, Liberia was feared by European colonial
powers because they did not want to antagonise USA.

Glossary
Ambitious: having a strong desire for success or
achievement or requiring full use of your
abilities or resources
Ammunition: projectiles to be fired from a gun
Brainchild: a product of your creative thinking and work
Caliph: the civil and religious leader of a Muslim state
considered to be a representative of Allah on
earth. Many radical Muslims believe a Caliph
will unite all Islamic lands and people and
subjugate the rest of the world.
Caliphate: the territorial jurisdiction of a Caliph

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Despotism: dominance through threat of punishment and

violence or a form of government in which the
ruler is an absolute dictator (not restricted by a
constitution, laws or opposition etc.)
Diplomacy: skillful handling of a situation or wisdom in the
management of public affairs
Entity: that which is perceived or known or inferred
to have its own distinct existence (living or
nonliving)
Genius: someone who has exceptional intellectual
ability and originality; unusual mental ability
or exceptional creative ability
Impending: close in time; about to occur; imminent
Indigenous: characteristic of or relating to people inhabiting
a region from the beginning e.g. “Indigenous
Americans”
Inheritor: a person who is entitled by law or by the terms
of a will to inherit the estate of another
Jeopardise: pose a threat to; present a danger to e.g. The
pollution is jeopardizing the crops or put at risk
e.g. “I will Jeopardise my good reputation for
this”
Nationhood: the state of being a nation
Oppression: the state of being kept down by unjust use of
force or authority; the act of subjugating by
cruelty
Partitioning: the act of dividing or separation by the creation
of a boundary that divides or keeps apart
Pioneer: someone who helps to open up a new line of
research, technology or art
Protectorate: a state or territory partly controlled by (but not
a possession of) a stronger state
Puppet: a person who is controlled by others and is
used to perform unpleasant or dishonest tasks
for someone else

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 Colonial Administrative Systems and Colonial Powers

Redundant: more than is needed, desired, or required

e.g. “Skills made redundant by technological
advance” or laid off work because the job
position was no longer needed
Repressive: restrictive of action e.g. “A repressive regime”
Scramble: rushing about hastily in an undignified way
Spy: a secret agent hired by a state to obtain
information about its enemies or by a business
to obtain industrial secrets from competitors
Subjugate: make subservient; force to submit or subdue
Susceptible: a state of agitation or turbulent change or
development

Revision questions

A. Multiple choice questions

1. Two African countries that were not colonised were:
a) Togo and Egypt
b) Botswana and Cameroon
c) Ethiopia and Liberia
d) None of these
2. The French used two colonial administrative policies namely:
a) Indirect rule and assimilation
b) Assimilation and direct rule
c) Assimilation and association
d) Paternalism and association
3. Britain colonised the following countries among others:-
a) Libya, Cameroon, Egypt, Rhodesia
b) Togo, Kenya, Tanzania, Somali land
c) Uganda, Zanzibar, Sudan, Sierra Leone
d) None of these
4. Before its independence, Liberia was managed by the following
company:
a) British South African company (BSAC)
b) Germany East African company (GEAC)
c) Imperial British East African company (IBEAC)
d) American Colonisation Society (ACS)

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5. The following Emperor played a great role in helping Ethiopia

escape colonialism.
a) Ezana
b) Theodore II
c) Menelik II
d) Menelik I

B. Open questions
1. Compare and contrast direct and indirect rule.
2. Describe the features of the French assimilation.
3. Describe the features of indirect rule.
4. Explain the colonial system that the Germans used in Rwanda.
5. Why did British utilise indirect rule?
6. Examine the reasons why Liberia was not colonised.
7. Which colonial administrative system did the Belgians use in
their colonies? Explain it.
8. During the colonial era in Africa, Ethiopia was not colonised.
Give reasons for this.
9. Discuss how indirect rule were employed by Belgians in
Rwanda.
end of unit 3

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 History for Rwanda Secondary Schools

Colonial Reforms and

Unit their Consequences
4 on African Societies

Key unit competence

To evaluate political, economic and socio-cultural colonial reforms
and their consequences on African societies.

Introduction
Just after their coming to Africa, Europeans introduced the different
reforms which would help them to colonise and exploit African
economic resources and Africans themselves. Africans were
exploited through the taxation system and forced labour. Africa’s
resources were exploited especially through the massive extraction
of minerals.

Such reforms had both negative and positive effects on African

societies. Where Africans provided free labour to Europeans or
were forced to pay taxes, Europeans benefited. However, African
benefited from colonial education.

Links to other subjects

This unit can be linked to units in other subjects like colonial
economy, and cash crops in agriculture.

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Main points to be covered in this unit

࿤࿤ Different colonial reforms introduced in Africa
࿤࿤ Consequences of colonial reforms on African societies

Activity 1

Use internet or the library, to carry out research on the reforms

introduced by the European colonialists in Africa. Thereafter,
prepare a document to submit to the teacher and present the
results of your research to the class.

Colonial reforms introduced in Africa by

Europeans
After scrambling for Africa, partitioning and imposing colonial rule
on the continent, the Europeans introduced colonial reforms, which
helped them to effectively exploit Africa.

Political reforms
During the colonial period, different political reforms were
introduced. Most of them aimed at weakening the power of African
leaders. New laws were made to respond to this necessity. In
Rwanda, for instance, the Belgian colonial government carried out
the reforms as discussed below.

On April 28th, 1917, Mwami Musinga was stripped of the power

to condemn his subjects to death but he kept the power to hear
appeal cases. The chiefs who traditionally had the power to hear
and resolve differences in their areas of jurisdiction and had the
right to administer punishments, saw their power removed. The
Belgian Resident representative or administrator was given the
right to hear appeals from such cases.

In 1923, Belgians introduced a law by which Mwami Musinga

was prohibited from appointing or dismissing chiefs and notables
without the permission of the resident representative of the Belgian
Government. In the same way, the heads of provinces also could
neither appoint nor dismiss their subordinates without prior
agreement of the resident.

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 Colonial Reforms and their Consequences on African Societies

Other changes introduced by the colonial governments are, for

example, the suppression of local armies and the introduction of a
colonial police and army, and the application of European political
and judicial systems. In preparation for independence, Britain set
up the parliamentary and government system in her colonies. In so
doing, the British formed councils of government and parliament
to engaged the nationals in administration and to train them to
work in the European democratic system. In addition, the electoral
system was also adopted and African political parties were formed
in order to implement these reforms.

Economic reforms

Taxation
Taxation was the main method of generating revenue needed to
run colonial administration. The commonest taxes were the hut
and gun taxes. The methods of collection were brutal and harsh,
consequently making taxation a cause for African resistance and
wars. An example was the hut tax war of 1898 in Sierra Leone.

Africans were forced either to grow cash crops or to work on

European farms in order to get money for paying taxes. In some
areas like the Congo Free State and Angola, taxes were paid in form
of agricultural products and animals. Failure to pay taxes in these
areas would result in the confiscation of property and sometimes
mutilation.

Forced cash crop growing

To achieve the economic exploitation of Africa, cash crop growing
had to be boosted. Some crops such as pyrethrum were grown by
whites while others like coffee and cotton were grown by Africans
under the supervision of Europeans. These cash crops were
important forth supply of raw materials to industries in Europe
where the industrial revolution had reached its climax by 1880.

However, there were no attempts made by Europeans to encourage

the production of food, hence forced labour undermined the
production of food crops. This led to famine in African societies
which traditionally had been self sufficient in terms of food. African
economies were developed as producers of raw materials in the
form of cash crops, and minerals, and consumers of European

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 History and Citizenship for Rwanda Schools Book 3

manufactured goods. For instance, in Rwanda vast spaces had to

be used to grow cash crops at the expense of food crops. New cash
crops such as coffee, tea, cotton and pyrethrum were introduced.
Coffee was a colonial crop because it was meant for export and the
colonial power promoted it seriously. It was in this context that in
1931, the cultivation of coffee was made compulsory in Rwanda.
Each peasant farmer had to possess at least 54 trees of coffee,
sub-chiefs 250 and chiefs 1000 trees.

The introduction of cash crops was one way of building an import

and export economy. This new type of economy started with
the coming of colonial agents in Africa. Africans who previously
practiced subsistence farming for home consumption changed
and started producing what they could not eat like coffee, and
consumed what they could not produce like sugar which they had
to buy. This led to the exploitation of Africans.

Land alienation
This was the most evil form of African exploitation in colonial Africa.
Africans in settler colonies like Kenya, South Africa, Rhodesia,
Algeria, Angola and Mozambique were hit hardest by land alienation
this practice. In some areas of Africa, Africans were forced to settle
in reserve camps, leaving their fertile land to Europeans.

Note that this policy was one of the causes of African resistance
in many areas of Africa because the Africans would not allow
Europeans to occupy their fertile lands.

Development of legitimate trade

After realising the benefits the slave trade and its abolition, the
Europeans did not want to leave Africa. Instead they developed
another kind of trade known as “legitimate trade”. This new trade
is said to have brought peace and stability as it eliminated the raids
and the accompanying miseries of slave trade. However, this trade
was monopolised by Europeans who transferred all the profits to
their mother countries.

Legitimate trade was characterised by unfairness in terms of

exchange. Europeans paid low prices for African exports while
they sold their exports to Africa at high prices, hence unfavourable
terms of trade and subsequent underdevelopment in Africa. Worse
still, legitimate trade involved the exchange of high valued African

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 Colonial Reforms and their Consequences on African Societies

products like gold, copper, diamonds, cotton, coffee, rubber, and

palm oil for less valuable European products like beads, used
clothes, bangles, spices and glassware.

Discouraging of industrialisation
To ensure the monopoly of raw material sources and market for
their manufactured goods, Europeans discouraged the setting up
of manufacturing industries in Africa. For instance, in Egypt, Lord
Cromer established processing plants for cotton raw material while
the production of cotton cloth remained a monopoly of metropolitan
Britain. He imposed tariffs on locally manufactured goods and on
imported coal. He also set up heavy fines on smokers to kill the
tobacco industry.

In Senegal, the French never set up any processing industries to the

extent that even the groundnuts produced were exported in shells.
The only industries set up were primary processing industries
which were aimed at reducing bulky raw materials.

Development of road and railway transport

For the development of legitimate trade, the establishment of road
and railway transport network became important. This network
linked African colonies to the coast.

The roads were mainly established in resource rich areas where

colonialists had direct control and their main purpose was to
facilitate the effective exploitation of African raw resources. For
example, in Togo, Germany constructed railway lines and named
them according to the produce they were meant to carry such as
cacao nut line, cotton line, palm oil line and iron ore line.

Massive exploitation of minerals

The explorers located places with minerals and fertile soils. This led
to the coming of many white settlers who embarked on excessive
exploitation of these resources. Examples of excessive exploitation
were in Kilembe mines in Western Uganda, Witwatersrand and
Transvaal in South Africa, in Congo and Togo. As a result minerals
were exhausted in many parts of Africa.

In Rwanda, mining started in 1923. The main minerals were tin,

colombo-tantalite or coltan, niobium, tungsten, gold, wolfram,
and other minerals associated with tin. The mines were located in

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 History and Citizenship for Rwanda Schools Book 3

Gatumba, Musha, Rwamagana, Rwinkwavu, Rutongo, Nyungwe,

Gifurwe, and other areas.

Socio-cultural reforms

Promotion of education
The colonial education system was largely left to Christian
missionaries. In the colonial schools, Africans were trained in
skills to serve as lower cadres or “colonial auxiliaries”. The main
products of these schools best suited the posts of clerks. They did
not train engineers, doctors and other high ranking professionals.

This education system trained people in European ways of life, and

as a result they became of colonial agents of exploitation.

In Rwanda, the priority in education services was offered to the

sons of chiefs. In French, Portuguese and Italian colonies, education
served the policy of assimilation.

Social subjects such as psychology, political science, literature and

history were neglected in order to keep Africans away from forming
revolutionary movements against exploitative, oppressive and
suppressive policies of the colonialists. To colonialists, the subjects
best fit for Africans were Bible study, and literacy in European
languages.

Promotion of medical services

During the colonial period, the modern medical system was
introduced to replace the traditional one. Hospitals, health centres
and dispensaries were built and campaigns of vaccination against
killer diseases like polio, measles, pneumonia, and others were
launched.

Activity 2

Using textbooks and/or the Internet, research on the reforms

introduced in Africa during the colonial period and analyse
the economic, social and cultural consequences resulting from
these reforms in African societies. Then prepare a written
document to present to the class.

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 Colonial Reforms and their Consequences on African Societies

Consequences of colonial reforms on African

societies
Political consequences
African leaders who resisted colonialism were exiled or banned and
replaced by others deemed to be more loyal. For instance, Mwami
Musinga was first dismissed from his post and replaced by his son
Rudahigwa before being exiled at Moba in the Democratic Republic
of Congo. Kabaka Mwanga of Buganda and Omukama Kabalega of
Bunyoro, were exiled to Kismayu and later to the Seychelles.

As a result of colonial reforms some societies or individual leaders

picked up arms to fight to the colonialists.

Another effect of colonial reforms in Africa was the growth of African

nationalism which culminated in the recovery of independence in
the 1960s.

Economic consequences
Resettlement of Africans
Africans were forced by colonial governments to move from their
areas with fertile soils to allow construction of economic facilities
and social infrastructure. As result, many Africans were resettled
in other areas, most of them infertile. For instance, the Nama and
Herero were forced into the Kalahari Desert, the Kikuyu in Kenya
were moved from their fertile highlands and settled in other regions
of their country so as to enable British farmers to establish vast
plantations.

Another cause of resettlement was the creation of new job

opportunities. People preferred to migrate to areas where wages
were paid to workers. For example, some Rwandans migrated to
Uganda, which was under British control, where they could find
a job with a salary or wages. In other cases, people could leave
their former region of residence because of the colonial obligation
of working in mines. This policy was adopted by the Belgians in
Rwanda, where some Rwandans were taken to the Democratic
Republic of Congo in mineral regions like Katanga, and Kasai.

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Overexploitation of Africans
Many methods which were used in the implementation of colonial
economic policies resulted in over exploitation of Africans. Such
methods included; for example, the taxation system and forced
labour.

Dependence of African economies on Europe

The colonialists made African economies dependent on Europe. The
Europeans did not build industries in Africa; they even destroyed
local African factories. The African economy was reduced to
a market for European goods in order to gain more commercial
profits. Europeans got the raw materials at low prices while their
manufactured goods were sold at high prices in Africa.

Modernisation of agriculture
African agriculture was modernised through the introduction of
new modern techniques of farming such as planting selected seeds
of food crops, crop rotation, and application of organic manure.
Besides, schools teaching modern agriculture were introduced.
Particularly in Rwanda, the colonial administration put a lot of
attention on anti-erosion activities by encouraging the digging of
ditches and planting and maintenance of trees. The colonial power
also put in place agricultural research stations with the aim of
selection and experimentation.

Socio-cultural consequences
Westernised African elites
Europeans constructed schools through which they started
initiating and educating Africans in European “civilisation”. This
colonial education had an aim of training Africans to be colonial
collaborators. Africans were taught to write, read and count in
European languages.

In addition, a new class of assimilated Africans emerged. In

French colonies and in other African countries under Belgian and
Portuguese colonial rule, this class enjoyed more privileges than
their compatriots. For instance, they could live in or visit European
places, and study in schools for European children.

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 Colonial Reforms and their Consequences on African Societies

The conditions required to become assimilated were not easy in

French colonies. In order to be assimilated, Africans would learn
to speak and write French, be converted to the Roman Catholic
faith, use French, observed administrative laws, and adopt French
dressing habits.

Unit summary
During the colonial period, Europeans introduced and implemented
reforms that would enable them to exploit Africans and their
resources. This was after gaining territories and being successful
in the implementation of colonial administrative systems. These
reforms included economic reforms like taxation, land alienation,
and forced labour, among others.

Colonial reforms had both negative and positive consequences on

African societies. This was due to the exploitation of the African
economy by Europeans in order to enhance their economies.
However, these reforms had positive effects such as the introduction
of formal education.

Glossary
Alienation: (law) the voluntary and absolute transfer of
title and possession of real property from one
person to another
Harsh: unkind, cruel or uncivil
Metropolis: a large and densely populated urban area; may
include several independent administrative
districts
Metropolitan: relating to or characteristic of a metropolis
Mutilation: an injury that causes disfigurement or that
deprives you of a limb or other important body
part
Undermine: destroy property or hinder normal operations

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Revision questions
1. Examine the different economic reforms introduced in Africa by
colonial masters.
2. Analyse the social reforms undertaken by Europeans in Africa.
3. Assess the effects of colonial reforms on African societies.
end of unit 4

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 History for Rwanda Secondary Schools

Causes of
Unit Decolonisation in
5 Africa with Case
Studies of Ghana
and Kenya

Key unit competence

Examine the causes of decolonisation in Africa with two case
studies of Ghana and Kenya.

Introduction
This Unit 5 puts emphasis on the definition of the term
“decolonisation” and analyses different factors that helped African
countries recover their independence.

The causes of decolonisation in Africa are various. They include

effects of the Second World War; the demystification of the
colonisers; the role played by the African elite; continuous
opposition to the colonial system and to exploitation; creation of
United of Nations Organisation (UNO) in 1945 and its; activities
anti-colonialist attitude of the superpowers — USSR and the USA;
rise of independent Churches in Africa, role of Christian Churches;
oppressive and exploitative colonial policies of colonialists;
development of mass media; formation of political parties; activities

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of the Organisation of African unity (OAU) as a continental body to

promote African nationalism; western education; independence of
Asian countries, and others.

After the examination of the different causes of the decolonisation

of Africa, attention will be placed on the various steps that were
taken by two African countries, Ghana and Kenya, in the process
of achieving their sovereignty.

Links to other subjects

This unit can be linked to other subjects like general studies and
geography.

Main points to be covered in this unit

࿤࿤ Causes of decolonisation of Africa
࿤࿤ Case studies of decolonisation in Africa: Ghana and Kenya

Do the following activity before you read this unit

Activity 1

Using the internet or the library carry out a research on the

decolonisation of Africa. Then, define the term “decolonisation”.
Explain the first four factors that led to the decolonisation of
Africa. Afterwards, present your findings to the class.

Account for the remaining factors that led to the decolonisation

of African. Afterwards, present your findings to the class.

Definition of decolonisation
Decolonisation is the act of withdrawal of colonialists, granting
independence to a colony. Decolonisation was a mass movement
for emancipation of the colonised people which characterised the
history of the world in the second half of the 20th century.

Causes of decolonisation in Africa

A combination of factors contributed to the decolonisation in Asia
and Africa, and to the rise and growth of African nationalism. These
factors are discussed below.

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 Causes of Decolonisation in Africa with Case Studies of Ghana and Kenya

Continuous opposition to the colonial system and to exploitation

The colonised people started and continued to oppose colonial
policies. This was manifested in passive resistance which was
expressed through different ways. These included the refusal to
be subjected to the laws of whites and to pay taxes, the refusal
to work as porters; orders, declining to give information or giving
misleading information; fleeing, or indifference.

The growth of African nationalism

African nationalism was characterised by the strong desire for
self-determination and desire for political, economic and cultural
independence by Africans in Africa supported by Africans in the
diaspora. It was influenced by independent African states like
Ethiopia and Liberia as well as colonial exploitation.

To prepare the African elite, colonial masters awarded scholarships

to Africans to study abroad and these students came into contact
with the white liberals and socialists who were against colonisation.
They also witnessed democracy at work in European countries
and America, and wondered why such democracy was denied to
Africans. On returning to Africa, the elites demanded for democratic
governments and an end to colonisation.

The African elite played a paramount role in the growth of

nationalism. The elite seriously engaged in the decolonisation
process, especially after the Second World War. They founded
trade unions and political parties locally or in European and
American universities and became privileged cadres with writings
and associations. The elites started the negritude movement that
glorified Africa. The glorification of Africa through negritude was
nothing else but a violent rejection of European imperialism.

Effects of the Second World War

Africans who participated in the Second World War witnessed the
weakness of Europeans, sometimes as cowards, retreating and
dying during battles. They also learnt that Europeans were not as
special as they believed them to be, since they could also die of
bullets like Africans. When they returned to Africa, they organised
and trained their fellow Africans to fight against colonisation.

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The 1941 Atlantic charter

Franklin Roosevelt (January 30, Winston Churchill (November

1882–April 12, 1945) (Source: 30, 1874–January 24, 1965
Google) (Source: Google)

The 1941 Atlantic Charter was a document signed by American

President Franklin Roosevelt and the British Prime Minister
Winston Churchill. It stated that all people of the world had a right
to choose a form of government best suited to them and all people
under colonial rule were to be given to self-rule. This charter later
inspired Africans to demand for self government.

Effects of the creation of UNO in 1945

The flag of the United Nations (Source: Google)

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 Causes of Decolonisation in Africa with Case Studies of Ghana and Kenya

The United Nations Organisation (UNO) was formed in 1945 after

World War II. This was a new international peace keeping body
that replaced the League of Nations. UNO set up a Decolonisation
Committee charged with the responsibility of granting political
freedom to all colonised people. The UN Trusteeship Council partly
prepared African countries to get their independence. UNO was
based on the principle of equality and the right of the people to
decide for themselves.

The UNO became the spokesperson for colonised people and put
pressure on former colonial masters to grant them self rule. It also
organised conferences where sensitisation on the need for self rule
was done.

The anti-colonialist attitude of the super powers

The two super powers of the world were United States of America
(USA) and Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). They both
had anti-colonial attitude. The Americans were aware of negative
impact of colonisation. For the Soviets, colonisation meant
exploitation of colonies by powers. Besides, the socialist Revolution
of 1917 in Russia aimed at combating all forms of exploitation,
especially labour. With such a background, the two super powers
exerted pressure on the colonial masters to decolonise. They
also provided both military and financial assistance to African
nationalists to enable them fight for self-rule.

The 1935 invasion of Ethiopia by Italy

Ethiopia had survived the 19th century European colonisation only
to be attacked by Mussolini in 1935. This made Africans mobilise
funds, soldiers and weapons to liberate Ethiopia from Italian
colonialism. Africans learnt that armed resistance was the only
way to push colonialism out of Africa.

The pan-African movement 

Pan-Africanism is a worldwide intellectual movement that aims
to encourage and strengthen solidarity between all people of
African descent. The movement has support among Africans in
the Caribbean, Latin America and the United States. It is based on
the belief that unity is vital economic, social, and political progress
and aims to unify and uplift people of African descent. The ideology
asserts that the fate of all African peoples and countries are

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intertwined. Pan-Africanism is “a belief that African peoples, both

on the continent and in the diaspora, share not merely a common
history, but a common destiny”.

The founders were Marcus Garvey, who was a proponent of Black

Nationalism in Jamaica and the United States; William Edward
Burghardt “W. E. B.” Du Bois, an American sociologist, historian,
civil rights activist, Pan-Africanist, author, writer and editor; and
George Padmore, from Trinidad who was a leading Pan-Africanist,
journalist, and author.

The movement contributed to the sensitization of Africans against

colonialism, and the formation of a united voice of Africans to
pressurize UNO to speed up the process of decolonisation. Pan-
Africanism stressed that “Africa is for Africans”.

Some leaders of Pan-Africanism

Doctor W. E. Dubois (February Marcus Garvey (17 August

23, 1868–August 27, 1963) 1887–10 June 1940) (Source:
(Source: Google) Google)

George Padmore (June 28, 1903–September 23, 1959) (Source:

Google)
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 Causes of Decolonisation in Africa with Case Studies of Ghana and Kenya

The formation of Organisation of African Unity (OAU) in 1963

The Organisation of African Unity was a continental body that
aimed at promoting African unity. It set up a Liberation Committee
based in Dar-es- Salaam. Through the Liberation Committe, OAU
provided military, financial and moral assistance to liberation
movements in Angola, Algeria, Mozambique, apartheid in South
Africa; and elsewhere to fight against colonialism. This increased
the pace of decolonisation.

The of African Union flag (Source: Google)

Independence of Asian countries

The independence granted to Asian countries since 1945,
encouraged African countries to reclaim their independence. The
independence of Indonesia in 1945 and India in 1947, showed
African leaders that it was possible to win independence for their
respective countries.

After of regaining their independence, the new Asian nations

identified with countries which were still under colonial rule. The
“Afro-Asiatic movement” was born in 1947 during the conference in
New Delhi. The movement was based on the refusal to be affiliated
to any ideological bloc; fighting against imperialism; support to
national movements; and the search for economic renewal.

This movement was strengthened during the famous Afro-Asiatic

conference which met in Bandung, Indonesia from April 18th to 24th,
1955. It was considered as the birth of the third world. It brought
together representatives from 28 Asian and African states who
condemned colonialism.

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Formation of political parties

Nelson Mandela one of the ANC leaders while in jail (Source: Google)
African elites formed politcal parties in their respective countres.
These political parties included African National Congress (ANC)
in South Africa, Convention Peoples Party (CPP) in Ghana, and
Tanzanian African National Union (TANU) in Tanzania. All these
helped in mobilising fellow Africans to struggle against colonial
rule. They also petitioned the United Nations and super powers
about the need to decolonise Africa.

Case Studies of Decolonisation in Africa: Ghana and Kenya

Before reading this unit do the following activities

Activity 2

Using internet and the library, carry out a research on the

decolonisation of Ghana:
1. Explain the factors that aided the decolonisation of Ghana.
2. Examine the different steps taken by the nationalists in
Ghana to achieve independence. Afterwards, present your
findings to the class.

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 Causes of Decolonisation in Africa with Case Studies of Ghana and Kenya

Activity 3
1. Research on the decolonisation of Kenya. Explain the
factors that aided the decolonisation of Kenya.
2. Examine different steps that the nationalists in Kenya took
to achieve independence. Present your findings to the class.

Decolonisation in Ghana
Ghana, formerly known as Gold Coast (due to many gold deposits),
was colonised by the British and so remained a British colony up to
1957 when she obtained her independence under the leadership
of Kwame Nkrumah.

BURKINA Bolgatanga
FASO

BENIN
Volta

Roti

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Wh
Key
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International
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Capital City olta
kV
ac
Bl

COTE
D’IVOIRE

Lake
TOGO
Volta

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Asamankeso lta Keta
Nsawam

Tarkwa ACCRA 0 50 100km

Ankobra

Tema
Cape 0 50 100km
Coast
Gulf of Atlantic
Takoradi Guinea Ocean
Map of Ghana (Source: Google)
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 History and Citizenship for Rwanda Schools Book 3

Ghana was one of the earliest African countries

to get self-rule granted by Britain. This was after
pressure by Ghanaians led by Kwame Nkrumah.
In his independence speech, Kwame Nkrumah
stated that “the independence of Ghana alone
would be meaningless if the rest of Africa was
still under colonial rule”. He went ahead to
give moral, financial and military assistance to
African nationalists to aid their struggle against
foreign rule. He also allowed nationalists to use
Radio Accra as a voice to transmit nationalistic
ideas.
Kwame Nkrumah (1909 –1972)
(Source: Google)

Kwame Nkrumah was the leading nationalist in Ghana who

spearheaded the independence struggle. He formed the Convention
Peoples Party (CPP) which led Ghana to her independence on
March 6th, 1957 and the name was changed from Gold Coast to
Ghana.

Factors that helped the decolonisation of Ghana

Unity of the population

Ghana had a fairly homogeneous population and so did not suffer
from ethnic differences compared to other countries that were
characterised by a lot of tribal differences. Most people were Akan
speakers and non Akan speakers were cooperative. This led to easy
mobilisation for decolonisation.

The people of Ghana hated colonial rule. For example, the Asante
fought and defeated the British twice in the 19th century.

The size and population of Ghana was small. In the 1950s it had
around 5 million people which made it possible to mobilise for
early independence and decolonisation.

Influence of elites
Unlike other African countries, Ghana had a developed education
system. By the 1950s, it had produced a big number of intellectuals
such as lawyers, doctors, business people, and teachers. They included
William Ofori, Francis Awoonor, and Kwame Nkrumah. These provided
the required leadership for early independence and decolonisation.

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 Causes of Decolonisation in Africa with Case Studies of Ghana and Kenya

Influence of Second the World War

A big number of Ghanaians who participated in the war on the side
of Britain found life hard upon coming back. They formed political
parties and taught people western democracy. This increased
nationalistic feelings among Ghanaians and led to early struggles
for independence and decolonisation.

The formation of political parties

The early formation of political parties like Convention Peoples Party
(CPP) United Gold Coast Convention (UGCC) in Ghana facilitated
mobilisation and sensitisation on the need for independence which
led to early decolonisation from the grass roots.

Role of the press and mass media

The press and media also favoured early independence of Ghana.
Newspapers like Accra Evening News, Cape Coast, and Daily Mail
helped to spread awareness to the people in the country side and
equally exerted pressure on the British to decolonise Ghana.

The role played by Kwame Nkrumah

Kwame Nkrumah was a gifted speaker with good organisational
ability, and friendly to people from all walks of life. He gave new
life to the politics of Ghana and mobilised people which led to early
independence and decolonisation of Ghana.

British rule was introduced in some places by force. Africans

hated the British oppressive institutions such as the army, police,
and prisons. Some of the African leaders for example, Dr Kwame
Nkrumah were detained without trial. The rural peasants were not
happy with their situation and hence joined Nkrumah’s struggle for
independence.

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 History and Citizenship for Rwanda Schools Book 3

Decolonisation in Kenya

Map of Kenya (Source: Google)

Kenya became a British colony in 1895 until 1963

when she attained independence. Nationalism in
Kenya took both peaceful and violent means. The
Kikuyu used armed resistance while other tribes
negotiated. This led to Kenya’s independence in
1963. Jomo Kenyatta played a great role in this
struggle.

Jomo Kenyatta (1891–1978) (Source: Google)

Causes for decolonisation in Kenya

Exploitative Colonial policies
The British, grabbed the Kenya Highlands and Rift Valley areas
for cash crop production. This was followed by forced labour on
plantation farms and homesteads.
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 Causes of Decolonisation in Africa with Case Studies of Ghana and Kenya

The British dominated Kenya’s political, social and economic

sectors and deprived African local rulers of their powers. All top
government positions like governors, and commissioners were
held by the British, excluding Africans who were given lower level
posts only. This was widely resented by Kenyans and it raised
nationalistic feelings.

After the Second World War, many white settlers came to Kenya,
grabbed land and settled permanently Kenya almost became a
white man’s country. This made Africans suspicious and they rose
against the British.

The formation of political parties

In order to unite and mobilise the masse, nationalists like Jomo
Kenyatta, Tom Mboya and Eluid Mathu formed Kenya African
National Union (KANU) and Kenya African Democratic Union
(KADU). These spread nationalistic ideas which led to decolonisation
in Kenya.

Jomo Kenyatta, attended the 1945 Pan African Coference in

Manchester which adopted slogans like “self government now”,
and “mass action now”. He introduced these slogans in Kenya and
they inspired demand for decolonisation.

Kenyan elites founded newspapers like Muigwithania, magazines

and writings which were used to circulate nationalistic feelings and
demand for self rule. This, in addition to Radio Cairo in Egypt and
Radio Accra in Ghana, spread nationalistic ideas among Kenyans.

Many Kenyans like Jomo Kenyatta, Tom Mboya and Oginga Odinga
acquired missionary education which exposed them to many ideas.
They also studied about wars of independence like the American
Revolution and democracy which encouraged them to fight for
independence.

The role of MAU-MAU rebellion

This armed struggle was started by Kenyans against the British. It
began in areas dominated by the Kikuyu and it was under Kikuyu
leadership. It acted as an eye opener to the British to speed up
independence for Kenya. Though independence was not granted
immediately, it contributed to decolonisation in Kenya by 1961.

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Independence of other African countries

The independence of Libya in 1951, Morrocco and Tunisia in
1956, Ghana in 1957 and Congo in 1960 inspired Kenyans to
rise against the British oppressors.

Role played by Trade Unions

The formation of labour organisations played a big role in sensitising
and creating awareness among workers about their rights. For
example in 1939 Trade Unions organised strikes against colonial
employers. In 1947 Chege Kibachia the Trade union leader led
a strike in Mombasa. Though he was later imprisoned his role
contributed to decolonisation process in Kenya.

The process of decolonisation in Kenya

In 1944, Sir Philip Mitchell was appointed the Governor of Kenya
and he elaborated, among other things, the objective of building
a multiracial society in Kenya. There were Arabs, Indians, and
British. The different races had to participate equally in the politics
of Kenya.

However, this process failed totally and after the end of the Second
World War, a big number of Kenyans could no longer tolerate being
excluded from the administration of their country.

Kenya was the most difficult area to deal with because of the
presence of 66,000 white settlers who were strongly opposed
to black majority rule. They refused to negotiate with the African
nationalist leader, Jomo Kenyatta, and his political party KANU
and were determined to prolong white settler rule. The British
government was under pressure from both sides. First, they
provoked a confrontation, hoping that violence would destroy
KANU. However, KANU was able to make little progress, only to
be allowed six positions for Africans in the legislative council of
fifty-four members.

African carried out terrorist attacks on European farmers and their

African workers. It was organised by the MAU-MAU secret society,
whose members, mainly from the Kikuyu tribe, had been deprived
of much of their land by the white settlers. MAU-MAU stands for
Mzungu Arudi Ulaya, Mwafrika Apate Uhuru.

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 Causes of Decolonisation in Africa with Case Studies of Ghana and Kenya

A state of emergency was declared in 1952 and Kenyatta and other

nationalists were kept in jail for six years (1953–1959) although
he had publicly condemned terrorism. The British deployed 100,
000 troops to flush out terrorists. For eight years some 10, 000
people (mostly Africans) were killed, and about 90, 000 Kikuyu
imprisoned in very bad conditions.

The terrorists had been defeated by 1960. The British, under

pressure from the wind of change and the huge expense on the
anti-terrorist campaign, realised that Kenyatta was, after all, a
moderate, and allowed him to become prime minister when Kenya
became independent. In spite of his treatment by the British,
Kenyatta favoured reconciliation. Whites who decided to stay in
Kenya after independence were fairly treated and they took Kenyan
citizenship. Kenya became independent on December 12th, 1963.

Unit summary
The recovery of independence of African countries was favoured by
different factors. The effects of the Second World War were one of
the overriding factors in the decolonisation of Africa. Africans who
fought during the Second World War managed to discover who the
white people were. They noticed that the white people were not
different from them. They, therefore, decided to fight them when
they found out that it was possible to defeat them.

Many other factors also contributed to the decolonisation of

Africa. These included the continuous opposition to the system
of exploitation and the role played by the elite. The creation of
UNO in 1945 and the anti-colonialist attitude of super powers,
the growth of African nationalism, the formation of OAU in 1963,
the independence of Asian countries, and the formation of political
parties, contributed to decolonisation.

The unit also focused on recovery of independence for two African

countries; Ghana and Kenya. Ghana was colonised by the British
and she obtained her independence under the leadership of Kwame
Nkrumah in 1957.

On the other hand, also colonised by the British, Kenya obtained her
independence in 1963. Nationalism in Kenya took both peaceful
and violent means.The Kikuyu nationalists, led by Jomo Kenyatta
used armed resistance while other tribes negotiated.

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Glossary
Bulk: the main part or the property of something that
is great in magnitude
Charter: a document incorporating an institution and
specifying its rights; includes the articles of
incorporation and the certificate of incorporation
Demystification: make less mysterious or remove the mystery from
Diaspora: the dispersion or spreading of people or
language or culture from the original homeland
Discrimination: unfair treatment of a person or group on the
basis of prejudice
Emancipation: freeing someone from the control of another
person or from legal or political restrictions
Gun barrel: a tube through which a bullet travels when a
gun is fired
Negritude: an ideological position that holds black culture
to be independent and valid on its own terms;
an affirmation of the African cultural heritage
Overriding: having superior power and influence e.g.
“The overriding mood among policy-makers is
optimism”
Petition: a formal message requesting something that is
submitted to an authority
Pressurize: put pressure on someone (to do something)
Prestige: a high standing achieved through success,
influence or wealth, etc.
Spearhead: be the leader of or someone who leads or
initiates an activity (attack or campaign etc.) Or
(military) the leading military unit in an attack
Trade union: an organisation of employees formed to bargain
with the employer
Trusteeship: a dependent country; administered by another
country under the supervision of the United
Nations

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 Causes of Decolonisation in Africa with Case Studies of Ghana and Kenya

Revision questions

Multiple choice questions

1. The following were Kenyan nationalist leaders:
a) Tom Mboya, Oginga Odinga and Jomo Kenyatta
b) Tom Mboya, Oginga Odinga and Kenneth Kaunda
c) Tom Mboya, Oginga Odinga and Kwame Nkrumah
d) None of these
2. Ghana was decolonised in:
a) 1958
b) 1957
c) 1965
d) 1847
3. The following political parties fought for the independence of
Kenya
a) KANU, KADU and ANC
b) KANU, KADU and KAU
c) KANU, KADU and CPP
d) None of these
4. The organisation of African unity (OAU) was formed in:
a) 1960
b) 1963
c) 1965
d) 2000
5. The famous Afro-Asiatic conference which is considered as an
act of the birth of the third world met from 18 to 24 April 1955
in the town of:
a) Bandung
b) Jakarta
c) Bombay
d) Mombasa

Open questions
1. Define the term decolonisation.
2. Identify and explain different factors that led to the
decolonisation of Africa.
3. Explain the major steps of the decolonisation in Ghana and
Kenya
4. Evaluate the main actions carried out by political parties and
their leaders during the struggle for independence of Kenya and
Ghana.

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5. Discuss the common factors for decolonisation in both Kenya

and Ghana.
6. Portray the main nationalist leaders in both Kenya and Ghana
during the struggle for independence of the two countries.
end of unit 5

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 History for Rwanda Secondary Schools

Analyse the 1789

Unit French Revolution
6

Key unit competence

Explain the origin, causes and consequences of the 1789 French
revolution.

Introduction
The French revolution was a major transformation of the social and
political system of France, from 1789 to 1799. This revolution
transformed France from an absolute monarchy, where the king
monopolised power, to a republic of free and equal citizens. The
effects of the French revolution were widespread, both inside and
outside of France, and the revolution ranks as one of the most
important events in the history of Europe.

During the ten years of the revolution, France dismantled the old

political and social system, and replaced it with a series of different
governments. Although none of these governments lasted more
than four years, the initiatives they took permanently changed
France’s political system. These initiatives included the drafting of
several bills of rights and constitutions, the establishment of legal
equality for all citizens, introduction of representative democracy,
incorporation of the Church into the state, and the reconstruction
of state administration and the law code. All these have had far
reaching effects on the whole World.

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Links to other subjects

This unit can be linked to other subjects like human rights,
constitution, and democracy in general studies.

Main points to be covered in this unit

࿤࿤ Causes of the French revolution of 1789
࿤࿤ Effects of the French revolution of 1789

Causes of the 1789 French revolution

Before reading this unit do the following activities

Activity 1

Using the internet or the library research on the 1789 French

Revolution and describe the characteristics of the Ancient
regime before 1789. Prepare a written document to submit to
your teacher.

Activity 2

Referring to the era of enlightenment you studied in Senior Two,

analyse the role of the French great thinkers to the outbreak of
the French Revolution in 1789 and other causes of the French
Revolution in general. Write down the results of your analysis
to share with your classmates.

The French Revolution of 1789 refers to social, economic, political

and religious changes that took place in France. The changes
included the removal of the ancient regime and the establishment
of a new social order that was based on liberty, equality, and
fraternity. The causes of the revolution are discussed below.

Unfair political system of ancient regime

The ancient regime in France was led by despotic kings. The
administration was characterised by dictatorship, nepotism and
abuse of human rights. The King’s powers were absolute and could

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not be questioned. He was the law and the law was himself, and
that is why he once boasted “the thing is legal because I wish it to
be”, “the state is myself!”

There was no written constitution, no democracy, and no fair

representation in the parliament. Even the King’s ministers had
unlimited powers through ”lettre-de-cachet” (arrest warrant with
imprisonment without trial), which caused a lot of suffering to the
French people, forcing them to think of change and work towards
it.

Social class struggle

French society was divided into three social classes; the clergy, the
nobles and middle class with the peasants.

The clergy and nobles enjoyed a lot of privileges. They owned

large tracts of land, dominated the key government posts, and
were exempted from taxes and military conscription. They were
promoted in the army; were entitled to education and were judged
by special courts. They could collect tributes from the peasants,
had the right to get pensions; the right to enjoy all forms of freedom;
to stay in the King’s palace and the right to move with weapons in
public.

The peasants and the middle class were 23 million out of 25

millions, but were denied all sorts of freedom, subjected to forced
labour, to unfair taxation, were imprisoned without trial, were
denied promotion in the army and higher education.

The middle class (bourgeoisie) was composed of teachers, lawyers,

doctors, scientists and industrialists. Despite their education, they
were excluded from top posts in the government and in the army.
They also had to end money to the government and were not sure
of recovering that money. By 1789, they had read and interpreted
the work of philosophers, which opened the eyes of French people
and forced them to fight against the ancient regime.

Role of the French philosophers

The philosophers were great thinkers who were highly educated
in world affairs and put their ideas in writing, condemning the
social, political and economic situation in France. They attacked
and exposed the wrongs of French society and created the French
revolutionary spirit among the peasantry and middle classes.

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Unfair land ownership

The land was unfairly distributed among the nobles and the clergy
at the expense of the majority peasants. The Church also owned
20 per cent of the land that it rented to the peasants. The peasants
lived as tenants on the estates, landlord’s who also exploited them.
This is why they demanded for reforms in the revolution of 1789.

Unfair taxation system

Before 1789, the taxation system of France was unfair. The poor
peasants were forced to pay a lot of taxes like salt tax, property
tax, road tax, tithe and customs duty; while the rich nobles and
the clergy were exempted from taxation. The peasants were tired of
this unfair taxation system rose up against the regime of the time.

Bankruptcy of the throne

By 1788, the French treasury was alarmingly empty. This financial
crisis was caused by corruption, embezzlement of funds and
sponsoring the American war of independence. On top of that,
Louis XVI and his wife Marie Antoinette lived in luxury. By 1789
the government was in financial crisis which forced them to borrow
money from the middle class and at the end they failed to pay back.
In an attempt to recover their money the middle class advocated
for the overthrow of the government. This financial crisis led to the
French revolution in the following ways:
a) People lost confidence in the government and wished that it
could be removed.
b) When the government failed to pay back the money to the
middle class, the people decided to remove the government.
c) That crisis led to inflation and unemployment which forced
people into the revolution.
d) It forced the King to call the Estates General meeting in which
the revolution started.

Dismissal of the financial reformers

Capable financial controllers, Turgot and Necker, were dismissed.
This worsened the financial crisis in France. They had suggested
reforms such as taxing the wealth of the nobles and the clergy, but
the Queen advised the King to expel them because they criticised
the financial mismanagement at the royal palace. This led to the
revolution against Louis XIV in 1789.

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Character of Louis XVI

He was the last King who ruled France from 1774 to 1793.
He contributed to the occurrence of the French revolution in the
following ways:

Louis was responsible for the financial crisis that hit France due to
corruption, embezzlement and extravagance that characterised his
reign. This created a revolutionary mood among the masses.

He confined himself in the royal palace, which made him unpopular

and he was always asleep or hunting during crucial meetings.

He married a beautiful but less intelligent, arrogant and proud

Marie Antoinette from Austria, a traditional enemy of France.
Besides, she poorly advised the King hence committing blunders
that resulted in the French revolution.

He signed a free trade treaty with Britain to allow her to sell her
goods in France untaxed. This led to the collapse of local industries
and generated a lot of hatred from the middle class who also joined
the revolution against him.

He lacked firmness and often shed tears during hot debates. He

was inconsistent and that is why he was ill-advised by the Queen.
To Frenchmen, Louis XVI was king in name but not in character.

He involved France in the American War of Independence which

led to the bankruptcy of his regime and he failed to pay back the
money borrowed from the middle class.

Louis XVI of France was the grandson of

king Louis XV and was married to Marie-
Antoinette. Louis was considered a well-
intentioned but weak king. A heavy tax
burden and court extravagance led eventually
to a popular revolt against him and paved
the way for the French revolution. Louis was
guillotined by the revolutionary regime in
1793.

Louis XVI (August 23, 1754–January 21, 1793)

(Source: Google)

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Influence of Marie Antoinette

Marie Antoinette was a daughter of an Austrian Empress called
Marie II Thérèse. She was hated by Frenchmen, more especially
among the middle class, because she represented Austria which
had supported Britain in the “Seven Years War” which led to the
loss of French colonies in Canada and India.

She was very insensitive to the problems of the French and that
was why she, at one time, arrogantly told the peasants that: “let
them eat cakes if bread is expensive” which angered the peasants
during the French revolution.

She was also busy wasting taxpayer’s money on luxurious parties,

giving a lot of gifts, employing about 500 servants and buying four
pairs of shoes per week. This contributed to the financial crisis and
led to the outbreak of the revolution.

Marie Antoinette was the Queen of France who

died on the guillotine in 1793 during the French
revolution. Her lavish life-style made her unpopular.
Paying no attention to her country’s financial crisis,
she refused to make any concessions to hungry mobs
who marched on the palace in Versailles. Instead,
she called out troops. Violence followed, and she and
her husband, King Louis XVI, were imprisoned by
revolutionaries and later executed.

Marie Antoine (November 2, 1755–October 16, 1793) (Source: Google)

Influence of England
England provided an example to French society. By 1750, she had
modernised and had the best parliament, a good constitution and
an independent judiciary as well as freedom of religion. In addition
to a better political environment, England became a reference for
political philosophers who based their arguments on Britain. Many
Frenchmen desired the life of England and this fuelled the 1789
French revolution.

Effects of American revolution

France participated in the American War of Independence to
revenge against Britain. The French government, therefore, sent
troops to America to fight the British. In 1776, the Americans

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defeated Britain. However, the war worsened the already alarming

financial crisis in France and also provided a practical example to
the French that “if success could be obtained by the Americans, it
could be obtained by the French as well”.

Politically, the French soldiers who fought on the side of America

came back with new revolutionary ideas and they were shocked
to find out that the very conditions that America was fighting were
present in France. General Marquis de Lafayette who was the
commander of the French troops in America took the commanding
role in the French revolution.

Natural calamities
To make matters worse, from 1788 France experienced natural
calamities which led to the untold misery. In 1788 there was
famine caused by poor harvests, and the poor taxation system
which prevented easy transportation of food.

In early 1789 severe winter hit Europe leading to the freezing

of many rivers in Europe; hence no fishing, transportation and
employment. On top of that, in 1786 France had signed a free trade
treaty with Britain which caused suffocation of French industries as
cheap goods from Britain flooded the French market.

As a solution to the problems faced by the French, a revolution was

looked at as an alternative.

The estates General meeting of May 5th, 1789

The above factors created a fertile environment for the revolution.
It only needed an incident to spark off a great revolution. King
Louis XVI decided to call a meeting for all the three classes on
Sunday May 5th, 1789 in order to resolve the economic crisis. In
attendance were 1,224 delegates, including 308 clergy, and 295
nobles. Jacques Necker advised the King that the number of the
third class members should be double because they represented
the majority. That was why the third class members were 621.

Trouble came when they failed to agree on the voting procedures

where the King wanted the voting to be on class basis and their
opinion was for one man one vote. The king being very weak,
failed to control the situation and the third class members declared
themselves the National Assembly. This marked the beginning of
the French revolution.

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Effects of the French revolution

Activity 3

Using the internet or library research, identify and analyse the

positive effects of the French revolution in France and Europe.
Thereafter, prepare a document to present to the class.

Activity 4

Examine the negative effects of by the French revolution of 1789.

Write down your findings and share with your classmates.

Positive effects
The 1789 French revolution destroyed the Bastille and this
symbolised the end of despotism on 14th July 1789.

It revived the French parliament (National Assembly or General

meeting on May 5th, 1789) which had last sat 175 years before
in 1614.

The revolutionaries succeeded in spreading the French revolutionary

principles of equality, liberty and fraternity beyond French borders.

The French revolutionaries passed a radical law known as “civil

constitution of the clergy” which allowed freedom of worship in
France and ended Catholic Church dominance.

The national assembly produced a new constitution in November

1791.

The French revolution ended feudal privileges on August 4th, 1789

in the assembly at Versailles. Land that belonged to the Catholic
Church and the nobles was nationalised and given to the landless
peasants at cheaper prices.

It led to the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the citizen on

August 27th, 1789. The document abolished the social class
divisionism which had existed in France during the Bourbon
monarchy (ancient regime). This led to equality among French
citizens, as it declared that all men were equal before the law.
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Multiparty politics was achieved in France with various political

parties or clubs like Jacobins, Girondins, Feuillants, Montagnards
and Cordoliers.

The royalist guards were replaced by the national guard after the
storming of the Bastille on July 14th, 1789.

It ended dictatorship/despotism in France after the formulation of

a new constitution.

The revolutionaries introduced reforms in the education system.

Polytechnic schools were built to train and produce skilled labour;
secondary schools were built and old ones rehabilitated. This
promoted efficiency in the education sector.

Negative effects
The French revolution resulted in loss of lives and destruction of
properties.

The July 1790 the Civil Constitution of the Clergy passed during
the made the Catholic Church and the state enemies.

It damaged the diplomatic relations between France and her

neighbours like Prussia, Austria, Russia and Britain due to the
mistreatment of Louis XVI.

The revolution inspired the outbreak of other revolutions like the

1830 and 1848 revolutions in Europe that left a lot of lives and
properties destroyed.

It led to the disorganisation of the map of Europe. This was done by

France in her expansionist policy when it conquered Spain, Naples,
German and the Italian states.

It led to financial collapse and decline due to numerous wars that

France fought with the rest of Europe. The reign of terror also led
to financial collapse.

It led to loss of lives. Many people died, mostly during the reign
of terror as well as during wars between revolutionary France and
her neighbours. People like Louis XVI, Marie Antoinette, and many
others were killed by guillotine.

It forced many people into exile in Austria, Russia, Prussia and Italy
where they came to be known as the émigrés.

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Unit summary
The French revolution broke out in 1789 against the ancient
regime of King Louis XVI and his wife Marie Antoinette. It lasted
about ten years, ending in 1799 with the rise to power of Napoleon
Bonaparte.

This revolution was mainly against the nature of the political

regime under King Louis XVI. The revolutionaries were fed up with
the social injustices under the ancient regime and all kind of unfair
policies like unfair land distribution, unfair taxation, unfair political
system, among others.

The French revolution of 1789–1799 had both negative and positive

affects on French society, in particular and Europe in general.

Glossary
Bankruptcy: inability to discharge your debts
Blunder: an embarrassing mistake
Conscription: compulsory military service
Dismantle: tear apart into pieces
Guillotine: instrument of execution that consists of a
weighted blade between two vertical poles;
used for beheading people
Lavish: very generous or characterised by extravagance
Tithe: a levy of one tenth of something or an offering
of a tenth part of some personal income
Warrant: summons from a court commanding police to
perform specified acts

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Revision questions
1. Describe the characteristics of the ancient regime in France
before 1789.
2. Analyse the role of the French great thinkers in the outbreak of
the French revolution of 1789.
3. Describe the social structure of the French society by 1789.
4. Identify and analyse the positive effects brought by the French
revolution to France and Europe.
5. Examine the negative effects caused by the revolution which
broke out in 1789 in French society.
6. To what extent were economic and financial factors responsible
for the outbreak of the 1789 revolution in France?
end of unit 6

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Causes and
Unit Effects of the
7 First World War
(1914–1918)

Key unit competence

Explain the causes and effects of the First World War.

Introduction
For a long time, trouble had been developing in Europe. It was
centred in the Balkans, an area which both Russia and Austria-
Hungary wanted to control. A small nation in the Balkans called
Serbia hoped to unite the Slavs in the area and expand its territory.
Since many Slavs lived in Austria-Hungary, Serbia knew that it
would have to defeat Austria-Hungary and hoped to get help from
Russia.

The First World War broke out on July 28th, 1914 after the
assassination of the Archduke of Austria-Hungary, Franz Ferdinand
with his wife his Sophia, by a Serb student Gavrilo Princip in an
incident known as “Sarajevo double murder”. The First World War
was a global war centred in Europe. African countries got involved
in this war by fighting on behalf of their colonial masters, while
countries in other continents participated directly or indirectly. It
has also been regarded as a World War because its effects were
felt world over.

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It was predominantly called the World War or the Great War until
the outbreak of a similar World in 1939, when it became known
as the First World War. It involved all the world’s great powers,
which were assembled in two opposing alliances: the Allies (based
on the triple entente: Britain, France and Russia) and the Central
Powers (The triple alliance: Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy);
but, since Austria–Hungary had taken the offensive against the
agreement, Italy did not join the war.

The war ended in 1918 with the defeat of the triple alliance
member countries by the allies. This war involved people at home
as well as soldiers at the front and for the first time, weapons of
mass destruction were widely used, including the machine gun,
tank, airplane and submarine.

Links to other subjects

This unit can be linked to other subjects and extended to units
such as human rights in general studies and economic depression
in economics.

Main points to be covered in this unit

࿤࿤ Long term and immediate causes of the First World War
࿤࿤ The effects of the First World War
࿤࿤ The aims/objectives of the 1919 Versailles Peace Treaty
࿤࿤ The achievements/strengths of the 1919 Versailles Peace Treaty
࿤࿤ Failures/weaknesses of the 1919 Versailles Peace Treaty
࿤࿤ Effects of the 1919 Versailles Peace Treaty on Germany

Causes of the First World War

Activity 1

Work with your classmate and do the following activities:

1. Explain the two concepts “conflict” and “war”.
2. Examine the causes of the First World War
Present your results to the class.

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Activity 2

Discuss the immediate causes of the First World War. Do you

think the Sarajevo incident could have triggered off the First
World War? Present your views to the class.

࿤࿤ There was lack of an international peace keeping body because

the Congress System, which would have solved a local affair
between Austria and Serbia had collapsed by 1914.
࿤࿤ There was lack of diplomatic statesmen in the World; for
example, Von Bismarck of Germany. Kaiser William II, who
replaced Bismarck, was an aggressive leader.
࿤࿤ The Alliance System which was initiated by Bismarck was
composed of the Triple Alliance and Triple Entente. They were
formed for defensive purposes but later became hostile to each
other.
࿤࿤ Economic competition among European countries mostly
between Germany, France and Britain, led to situations like
the Moroccan Crises in 1906 and 1911 when Germany lost
Morocco to France. This left the spirit of revenge on the side of
Germany.
࿤࿤ The arms race which had been characterised by the growth
of militarism between France and Germany. This led to the
manufacture of the most dangerous weapons in preparation for
war.
࿤࿤ There was growth of nationalism in Italy and Germany which
emerged as strong states, and the great Serbian movement
which resulted in the Sarajevo incident.
࿤࿤ The Franco–Prussian war of 1870–1871 resulted in the defeat
of France. The fear of French revenge, made Bismarck start the
alliance system and arms manufacture.
࿤࿤ The Aggressive character of Kaiser William II of Germany
who started the arms race forced Britain to also join the race,
eventually leading to the war.
࿤࿤ Newspapers like The London Times played a big role not only to
publicize the preparation for war but also to dramatize the war
situation.
࿤࿤ The Sarajevo incident of June 28th, 1914 was the immediate
cause of the First World War. The assassination of Franz
Ferdinand, the heir to the Austrian throne, with his wife Sophia
at Sarajevo by a Serbian student, Gravrilo Princip, forced Austria-

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Hungary to plan an attack on Serbia because it was believed

that Serbia supported the killers. Germany promised support
to Austria-Hungary; as Russia, Belgium, France and Britain
supported Serbia. On July 28th, Austria-Hungary declared war
on Serbia and World War I began.

Archduke Franz Ferdinand (December 18, 1863–June 28, 1914) with

his wife, Sophie Chotek, and their three children (Source: Google)

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 Causes and Effects of the First World War (1914-1918)

Sarajevo incident of June 28th, 1914 (Source: Google)

Course of the First World War

Activity 3

Watch a movie or a film about the causes of the First World

War. Write down the major phases of World War I. Discuss your
findings with the rest of the class.

Before the outbreak of the First World War, the great powers in
Europe such as Germany and France had already made their war
plans.

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The German Schlieffen Plan: Alfred von Schlieffen, chief of

the German general staff from 1891 to 1905, formulated the
original plan not to fight on two fronts (France on the west and
Russia on the East) at the same time. Since Germany assumed
that France would automatically join Russia, she planned to
first attack France which could be defeated in six weeks. The
German forces would then be switched rapidly across to face
Russia whose mobilisation was expected to be slow.

The plan called for German armies to invade Belgium and

sweep into France, moving south and west to capture Paris
before pushing the French armies east toward the German
border. However, when the German armies invaded France in
1914, they did not follow the plan and instead drove north
and east of Paris. As a result, they did not go far enough West
to capture Paris. Because of failure to carry out the Schlieffen
Plan, Germany did not quickly defeat the French, and the war
lasted for four more years.
Antwerp
BELGIUM
Ypres BRUSSELS Liege

Somme

LUXEMBOURG

Oise Aisne
GERMANY
Marne
PARIS German trop movements
Seino
FRANCE
Widest sweep of schlieffen Plan
Schlieffen Plan and Actual Troop Movements (Source: Google)
The legend French General Joffre’s Plan: Joseph Jacques
Césaire Joffre was a French commander during the first two
years of First World War. By his plan, France planned and wanted
to lead an offensive against Germany in order to recapture its
territories of Alsace-Lorraine that France lost during the Franco
- Prussian war of 1870–1871.

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 Causes and Effects of the First World War (1914-1918)

After the Sarajevo incident and with the promise of German

support, Austria sent an impossible ultimatum to Serbia which
stated that Serbia must “allow Austrian officials and police
to investigate the assassination and ordering the Serbian
government to condemn any propaganda against Austria-
Hungary and demanding a satisfactory reply with in 48 hours”.

Serbia rejected this ultimatum which it regarded as a loss

of independence and Austria got a chance to declare war
on Serbia on July 28th, 1914. On July 29th, 1914 Russia
mobilised support for Serbia and Germany demanded that
Russia should demobilise, which Russia refused. On August
1st, 1914 Germany declared war on Russia.

Germany again demanded France to declare her neutrality and

which France refused, consequently Germany declared war on
France on August 3rd, 1914. German troops invaded Belgium
thus violating the 1839 London Treaty that had granted
independence and neutrality to Belgium. This attack forced
Britain to join the war against Germany on August 4th, 1914.
On August 6th, 1914 Austria-Hungary declared war on Russia.

Greece, Bulgaria, Italy and Romania temporarily kept their

neutrality, but later also declared war. Italy declared war on
Germany on May 24th, 1914 (after promises of territories of
Trentino, Triest and Dalmatia through a secret treaty signed in
London on April 26, 1914 with the Allies). Romania declared
war on Austria on August 27th, 1915; Bulgaria on Serbia
on October 13th, 1915; and Greece on Germany on August
27th, 1917.

The conflict extended to other continents and almost all nations

outside of Europe joined war. On August 23th, 1914 Japan
joined the war by occupying German territories in China. On
April 2nd, 1917 USA joined the war after staying neutral from
August 1914. The following reasons partly made USA to join
the war:
࿤࿤ The Germany U–boat campaign or German Submarine campaign:
On January 31st, 1915 Germany announced “Unrestricted
submarine warfare” against the Allies. This affected the ships
of USA.

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The German U-Boat, that sank the USA liner RMS Lusitania on 7th May,
1915. (Source: Google)
Germany destroyed an American ship that was carrying
passengers which was suspected of carrying weapons to the
the Triple Entente. The attack caused a loss of 128 Americans
out of almost 200 on board which forced USA to join the war.
࿤࿤ The discovery that Germany was trying to persuade Mexico to
declare war on the USA, promising her Texas, New Mexico and
Arizona in return made USA to join the war.
࿤࿤ USA wanted to support the loans it had given to Triple Entente
members.
࿤࿤ The withdrawal of Russia from the war removed one obstacle
as Americans had hesitated about siding with the autocratic
Russian government.
࿤࿤ The USA also wanted to safeguard the liberty of the seas and to
keep solidarity with Western countries, her debtors.
Beginning in June,  the first troops of the American Expeditionary
Force (AEF), under General John J. Pershing, arrived in France.
However, US intervention in the First World War did not have
an immediate impact on the fighting in Europe. When Congress
declared war, the United States had a small volunteer army that
had no experience in the kind of warfare that was being waged
on the western front. In May 1917 Congress enacted conscription
through the Selective Service Act to draft men into the armed
forces. Within a few months over 10 million American men had
registered for military duty.

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 Causes and Effects of the First World War (1914-1918)

At first the Central Powers were more successful than the Allied
Powers. The German army captured parts of France. But neither
side was able to completely defeat the other. In 1918, the Germans
drove Russia out of the war. Finally, on March 3rd, 1918, the
Central Powers and Russia concluded the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
which ended Russia’s participation in the war. The price that the
Russia’s Bolshevik government had to pay for peace was a heavy
one. Russia was forced to cede to Germany the Baltic States,
Russian Poland, and Ukraine, which briefly became part of a vast
satellite of the German empire. After Russia withdrew from the war,
German military planners were able to transfer forces to France to
prepare for a massive offensive against the British, French, and
new USA troops there.

When the USA joined the war, they sent 2 million troops to Europe
and they helped to turn the war in favour of the Allies in April
1917. On November 11th, 1918 an armistice was signed between
France, Germany and Britain, in a railroad carriage, at Compiègne
outside the French town of Rethondes. At 11 am on 11th November
1918 a ceasefire came into effect ending the First World War.

Signing the Armistice on November 11th, 1918 (Source: Google)

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The end of the war prompted relief and jubilation in all of the
belligerent countries. The murderous struggle that had dragged on
for over four years had finally ended. Political leaders then took up
the task of trying to transform the military armistice into a durable
peace.

A formal state of war between the two sides persisted for another
seven months, until the signing of the Versailles Peace Treaty also
known as Paris Peace Treaty, with Germany on June 28th, 1919.
Later treaties with Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria, and the Ottoman
Empire were signed. However, the negotiation of the latter treaty
with the Ottoman Empire was followed by strife (the Turkish War of
Independence), and a final Peace Treaty between the Allied Powers
and the country that would shortly become the Republic of Turkey
was not signed until July 24th, 1923, at Lausanne.

The Central Powers were defeated by the members of Triple Entente

because of the following factors:
࿤࿤ The entry of USA into the war in April 1917 brought vast
resources that led to the defeat of Central Powers.
࿤࿤ The Allied political leaders of the time like George Clemenceau
in France and Lloyd George in Britain were more capable leaders
than those of the Central Powers.
࿤࿤ Germany was let down by the Allies like Italy and Bulgaria who
withdrew from the war.
࿤࿤ The continuous heavy losses on the side of Germany robbed her
of the best troops and by 1918 the country had new troops who
were young, lacked experience and were easily defeated.
࿤࿤ The German submarine campaign brought USA into the War,
which contributed to the defeat of Germany.
࿤࿤ The Allied sea powers enforced a deadly blocked which led to
food shortage for the members of the Triple Alliance while the
Triple Entente were fully supplied.
࿤࿤ The failure of the Schlieffen Plan removed all hopes of a quick
German victory over France.

The role of African soldiers in the First World War

Africans played a paramount role in the First World War. In fact,
European colonial powers resorted to Africans in many ways. On
one hand, they recruited at the same time Africans in their troops,
Africans contributed material resources which were greatly needed
during this period of hostilities. For instance, the Britain conscripted

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subjects to fight her battles on a massive scale. Contributing

African countries included Nigeria, the Gambia, Rhodesia (now
Zimbabwe), South Africa, Sierra Leone, Uganda, Nyasaland (now
Malawi), Kenya, and the Gold Coast (now Ghana). The conscripted
soldiers from British East Africa were known as the King’s African
Rifles.

Since European colonial masters had been militarily supported

by African colonies, the demands of the war meant their forces
increasingly relied on the economies of the colonies to feed them
and provide many of the raw materials such as munitions, timber,
cotton, meat, fruit and vegetables.

Over two million people in Africa made huge sacrifices for the
European Allies. 100,000 men died in East Africa and 65,000
men from French North Africa and French West Africa lost their
lives.

African troops also fought in the Middle East. During The First World
War 55,000 men from Africa fought for the British and hundreds
of thousands of others carried out the vital roles of carriers or
auxiliaries. It is estimated that 10,000 Africans were killed.

France also drew troops from all over her African colonies. These
soldiers had the name of ‘Tirailleurs Sénégalais’. With the start
of the War, many Tirailleurs Senegalais soldiers were brought to
the frontline in France and fought several important battles, like
Vimy Ridge and Somme. French West African troops serving in the
War comprised about 170,891 men, and approximately 30,000
of them were killed.

The Belgians also recruited Africans as soldiers mainly in Democratic

Republic of Congo known as Forces Publiques. The Germans, on
the other hand, used Askari troops. Germans also recruited from her
colonies soldiers known as Rugaruga who served as merceneries.

The role played by African soldiers, was to help their colonial masters
to fight against their enemies. For instance, German soldiers had
been defeated in their African colonies and the participation of the
Kings Rifles and Tirailleurs Sénégalais was of great assistance on
the side of British and French. Although, the Germans were beaten,
they had also been helped by African soldiers. For instance, in
Rwanda, ‘Indugaruga’, was the name given to Rwandans that had
been recruited into the German army to fight against the Belgians
from Democratic Republic of Congo.

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In summary, the role played by Africans in the First World War

was huge. They gave up their lives, money and time to help the
Allies defend their freedom. The support provided to European
Governments caused scarcity of money and this led to the shortage
of food and water, and in some cases famine.

Consequences of the First World War

Activity 4

Make research on the internet or the library on the consequences

of the World War I and thereafter present your results to the
class.

࿤࿤ The First World War led to the loss of lives with an estimated 9.7
million combatants dead. About 21 million were wounded while
7.7 million soldiers went missing. An estimated 6 million civilians
died due to direct military action, and famine, or diseases.
࿤࿤ Women were employed in factories, shops and public offices
replacing men who were fighting in the war. This contributed to
the emancipation of women.
࿤࿤ The war was partly responsible for the first peasant revolution in
Russia, also known as the 1917 Russian revolution.
࿤࿤ The League of Nations was formed as an international peace
keeping body in 1920.
࿤࿤ The war caused changes of governments in Europe. In Italy a
fascist regime under Mussolini emerged. In Germany, Kaiser
William II fled into exile in Holland and was replaced by the
Weimar Republic under president Hinderburg.
࿤࿤ It contributed to the decline of the German and Ottoman empires.
࿤࿤ Dictators like Benito Mussolini in Italy and Adolf Hitler in Germany
came to power.
࿤࿤ Japan and USA emerged as super powers. Some countries like
Canada, Brazil, Mexico and Argentina experienced growth in their
economies.
࿤࿤ New independent states like Poland, Romania, Yugoslavia and
Czechoslovakia were formed.
࿤࿤ There was massive displacement of people in Europe. Over 21
million people were displaced from their homes and became

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refugees or internally displaced persons. After the war these

people were resettled in camps, mainly in Western Europe.
࿤࿤ There was territorial re-adjustment whereby France regained her
territories of Alsace-Lorraine and some African states changed
their colonial masters; for example, Rwanda, Burundi, Togo,
Tanganyika and Cameroon among others.
࿤࿤ It led to the calling of the Paris conference and the signing of the
Versailles Peace Treaty which sowed the seeds of world war II.
࿤࿤ It led to the formation of the League of Nations in 1920 as an
international peace keeping organisation. This was supported by
European statesmen who claimed that the absence of a strong
international body made a strong contribution to the outbreak of
the War.
࿤࿤ The war resulted in economic depression in Europe.

Effects of World War I on Africa

The First World War affected all countries that directly or indirectly
participated in it. The war impacted Africa economically, socially
and politically.

Economic consequences
Firstly, Africa experienced economic hardship, due to the exclusion
of Germany from trade. Germany was regarded as a major trading
partner of Africa before the First World War, and when she was
completely excluded from the continent and her merchandise
confiscated by the victors, there was a decline in African exports
to Germany.

Secondly, the War had a general negative impact on the trade and
development of Africa. The prices of all commodities increased, the
economies stalled, and the poverty rate increased.

The armies needed food supplies and African colonies were tasked
to provide the food. This led to food scarcity, starvation, and death.

Africans were recruited to fight in European armies. Others were

recruited to carry heavy weapons and supplies which exhausted
their bodies.

The need to raise troops and carriers and to produce crops for
export reduced the supply for manpower in many areas of Africa.
For example, the recruitment of carriers from Katanga for the

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campaign in Eastern Africa led to a decrease in incomes of both the

men and women who were recruited as carriers and food suppliers.

Social and political consequences

The First World War changed in the relationship between Europe
and Africa. Over two million people from Africa made huge sacrifices
for the European Allies. In East Africa 100,000 men died while
65,000 men from French North Africa and French West Africa also
lost their lives many others were disabled as a result of war.

Through combat experience and social cohesion with the

Europeans, Africans discovered the realities of European society.
This gave confidence to Africans to play a role in the administration
of colonies. In the territories, which had contributed heavily to the
war effort, the population hoped for social and political reforms.
In Senegal, for example, the reforms promised by France to Blaise
Diagne (Mayor of Dakar) were not fulfilled after the war, which
made its people to withdrew their confidence in him.

The First World War marked a clear evolution of the international

opinion with regard to colonialism. Before the war, the colonial
powers did not have to report to anybody. Afterwards, in 1919,
the conference of Versailles examined the colonial past of Germany
and considered it not being in conformity with the new rules of
morality, which were to govern the administration colonies. It is
one of the reasons, that made colonialists to withdrew the colonies
from Germany.

The First World War also had consequences in Rwanda. These

included the famine “Rumanura”, the end of German rule and the
beginning of Belgian rule. “Rumanura” famine was felt most in
Bugoyi because throughout the First World War, this region was
the principal theatre of military operations in Rwanda. Bananas
were cut down, and cultivation of sorghum was suspended by the
German command in order to deny cover to the enemy. Moreover,
people had fled their homes and left their land for fear of bombs and
to run away from the and burden of carrying war materials. There
was also demolition and vandalism of homesteads by soldiers who
were looking for food and people to help carry the war supplies.

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The 1919 Versailles Peace Treaty

Activity 5

Discuss the reasons why the Versailles Peace Treaty was signed
and make a presentation of your reasons to the class.

At the end of the First World War, the leading statesmen were left
with the task of making peace and creating order out of the chaos.
The post-war peace was made at Versailles near Paris from January
to June 1919. The Versailles Peace Treaty was signed between
Germany and the Allied powers. On June 28th, 1919, exactly five
years after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. The
other central powers on the German side of World War I signed
within separate treaties.

The Versailles Peace Treaty was a document that was signed in

the hall of mirrors at Versailles between the victorious powers and
defeated Germany. The terms and conditions of the treaty were
manipulated by the Allied Powers against Germany. This made the
aim of the treaty questionable in making peace.

From left: Vittorio Orlando, David Lloyd George, Georges Clemenceau and

Woodrow Wilson at the First World War peace negotiations in Versailles
(Source: Google)

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The conference was dominated from the beginning to the end by:
࿤࿤ Georges Clemenceau: “the old tiger,” the Prime Minister of France;
࿤࿤ Lloyd George: Prime Minister of Britain;
࿤࿤ Woodrow Wilson: President of the USA;
࿤࿤ Vittorio Orlando: Italian Prime Minister .

The architects of the Versailles Treaty (Source: Google)

Until March 1919, the most important role for negotiating the
extremely complex and difficult terms of the peace fell to the regular
meetings of the “council of ten”, which comprised the heads of
government and foreign ministers of the five major victors (Britain,
France, the United States, Italy, and Japan). As this unusual body
proved too formal for effective decision-making, Japan and for most
of the remaining conference the foreign ministers left the main
meetings, so that only the “big four” remained. After his territorial
claims to Fiume (today Rijeka) were rejected, Italian Prime Minister,
Vittorio Orlando left the negotiations and only returned to sign in
June.

The final conditions were determined by the leaders of the “big

three” nations: British Prime Minister David Lloyd George, French
Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau, and American President
Woodrow Wilson. Even with this smaller group it was difficult to
decide on a common position because their aims conflicted. The
result was called the “unhappy compromise”.

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Aims of the Versailles Peace Treaty

Activity 6

Write in your exercises book or elsewhere the objectives of the

Versailles Peace Treaty. Present your findings to the class.

The aims of the Versailles Peace Treaty included the following:

࿤࿤ Maintain lasting peace in the world;
࿤࿤ Look for ways to punish Germany and her allies;
࿤࿤ Promote the political integrity of independent states;
࿤࿤ Reduce the production of dangerous weapons;
࿤࿤ Redraw the map of Europe;
࿤࿤ Set up a body to maintain international peace.

Terms of the Versailles Peace Treaty

The document containing the terms of the Treaty of Versailles
consisted of15 parts and had about 440 articles.

Cover of the English version of the Versailles Peace Treaty (Source: Google)

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The parts related to Germany:

࿤࿤ She was entirely blamed as the sole cause of the First World War.
࿤࿤ She was forced to reduce her soldiers from 4,000,000 to
100,000 soldiers.
࿤࿤ She was stopped from having submarines.
࿤࿤ She was forced to pay war reparations of about 6.5 billion pounds.
࿤࿤ She lose her overseas territories like Rwanda, Burundi, Togo,
Cameroon, Tanganyika and Namibia in Africa.
࿤࿤ She lost Alsace-Lorraine to France.
࿤࿤ She was not allowed to have tanks and was restricted to only 6
second-hand battle ships.

Achievements of the Versailles Peace Treaty

Activity 7

With the help of the internet discuss the achievements of the

Versailles Peace Treaty. Make a presentation to the class.

The 1919 Versailles Peace Treaty ended the First World War and
created relative peace in Europe during the inter-war period from
1919 up to 1939.

It granted independence to some states like Yugoslavia, Serbia,

Montenegro, Poland, and Czechoslovakia.

It made France to regain her territory of Alsace-Lorraine from

Germany.

It destroyed the German arms and reduced her army to 100,000

soldiers so as to check her military aggression.

It came up with a disarmament policy and although it was only

applied on defeated powers, it helped in maintaining world peace
for sometime.

It declared neutrality on international water bodies which reduced

the possibility of conflicts that would cause another war.

It made arrangements for the exchange of war prisoners between

the defeated, especially Germany and victorious powers.

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It reduced the strength of Germany by taking away German overseas

territories such as Togo, Cameroon, Tanganyika, Rwanda, Burundi
and Namibia.

Poland, a land locked State, was provided with a corridor of land

that passed through Germany to the part of Danzig on the Baltic
Sea. Serbia was also granted access to the Sea.

The Treaty led to the formation of the League of Nations on January

10th, 1920 which registered some success in political, social and
economic aspects the inter-war period.

However, the Versailles peace treaty was very unrealistic in its

attempt to bring lasting peace as defined through its aims.

Failures of the Versailles Peace Treaty

Activity 8

Identify the failures/weaknesses of the Versailles Peace Treaty.

Present your findings to the class.

The terms of the 1919 Versailles peace settlement were unrealistic

and unfair to the defeated powers. In implementing the aims of the
Versailles Peace Treaty, there was a lot of injustice which made it
unable to maintain lasting peace in the world.

This settlement had the following weaknesses:

࿤࿤ It was imposed on Germany without consultation because
Germany was only invited to sign without participating in
negotiations.
࿤࿤ It was too harsh on Germany in terms of disarmament which
encouraged Adolf Hitler to rise up and begin an arms race that
led to the Second World War.
࿤࿤ Germany was forced to pay huge sums of war reparations
in form of physical goods like ships, chemicals, cattle and
agricultural products, plus 6, 600, 000, 000 pounds. This
led to unemployment in Germany and economic depression in
Europe.
࿤࿤ The composition of parties to the treaty was also unfair because
the treaty was written by the Triple Entente members only while

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the Triple Alliance members were not invited to participate in

negotiations.
࿤࿤ The selfish interests of the leading diplomats (George Clemenceau
desired to humaliate Germany, Lloyd George wanted German
territories and Vittorio Orlando who also desired territorial
rewards) rendered the viability of the treaty questionable.
࿤࿤ The distribution of the Germans to different states (3 million
to Czechoslovakia, 2. 5 million to Poland and about 2 million
to Yugoslavia) violated the principle of nationalism and made
future trouble inevitable. Hitler used this problem to invade
Poland which led to the Second World War.
࿤࿤ The blaming of Germany as the sole cause of the First World
War by a guilty clause also made the viability of the Versailles
Peace Treaty questionable from its start.
࿤࿤ The confiscation of German territories in Africa was seen as a
way of making victorious powers rich which made Germany
discontented, leading to Second World War.
࿤࿤ Japan invaded Manchuria in 1933 and Italy under Mussolini
invaded Ethiopia in 1935 mainly because they were not fairly
rewarded by the Versailles treaty.
࿤࿤ The treaty led to a very weak foundation for the League of
Nations as an international peace keeping body. But it did not
provide the League of Nations with an army to fight against
future aggressors.

The signing of the 1919 Versailles Peace Treaty (Source: Google)

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Germany rejected the Versailles peace settlement due to the

following reasons:
࿤࿤ The treaty was simply dictated on Germany which had no chance
for explanation since she was excluded from peace negotiations.
࿤࿤ The treaty only condemned and blamed Germany for the
outbreak of the First World War.
࿤࿤ The war reparations of 6.6 billion pounds was impossible for
Germany to pay alone with her colonies taken by other countries.
࿤࿤ The disarmament policy was also unfair because it was only
Germany to be disarmed while other European powers were
busy manufacturing weapons.
࿤࿤ The loss of territories in Europe and in Africa was rejected by
the Germans because it was their source of raw materials and
markets, hence leading to their economic decline.
࿤࿤ The Germans rejected the Versailles peace treaty because it
was monopolised by three leaders who had intense hatred for
Germany.
࿤࿤ The Versailles Peace Treaty distributed German nationals to
different states of Poland, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia. This
violated the principle of nationalism which later encouraged
Hitler to build the German empire by starting from Austria and
Czechostorakia, Poland which led to the outbreak of the Second
World War.
࿤࿤ The venue where the treaty was signed, in the Hall of mirrors
was where the German empire was proclaimed in 1871. For
this reason, the treaty was considered as the French revenge by
most Germans.
࿤࿤ The treaty was signed under the chairmanship of George
Clemenceau of France who had been Germany’s enemy since
the 1870–1871 Franco-Prussian war.
࿤࿤ The treaty was signed on June 28th, 1919 on the exact
anniversary of the Sarajevo double murder. It was a clear
indication that the Versailles diplomats blamed Germany for the
assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophia.

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Effects of the 1919 Versailles Peace Treaty on Germany

Activity 9

Discuss the consequences of the 1919 Versailles Peace Treaty

on Germany. Do you think this treaty was fair towards Germany?
Present you discussion to the class.

The 1919 Versailles Peace Treaty signed on June 28th, 1919 in

the Hall of Mirrors at Paris politically, socially and economically
affected Germany in the following ways:
࿤࿤ The 1919 Versailles peace diplomats forced Germany to
denounce the war and accept defeat unconditionally which
made the Weimar Republic unpopular among the Germans.
࿤࿤ Germany was obliged to pay the heavy war indemnity of about
6. 6 billion pounds and this left her economy shattered and
gave rise to severe unemployment, inflation and abject poverty
in Germany.
࿤࿤ The landlocked Poland was granted a corridor to Port Danzig in
the Baltic sea through Germany.
࿤࿤ The Germans who were greatly inspired by Adolf Hitler attacked
and opposed the Weimar Republic leaders for having accepted
the treaty whose terms were unfair and harsh.
࿤࿤ It demilitarised the region of the Rhine lands and all the
fortifications that Germany had already made on the banks of
the Rhine were destroyed beyond repair.
࿤࿤ The treaty forced the defeated Germany to give back Schleswig
to Denmark, and Alsace-Lorraine to France.
࿤࿤ The 1919 Versailles peace treaty forced Germany to cancel the
treaty of Bucharest signed with Romania and the Brest-Litovsk
treaty signed with Russia under which Russia had surrendered
Poland, Latvia, Estonia and Lithuania to Germany.

Unit summary
The First World War started on July 28th,1914 after the
assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir of the Austria
throne with his wife Sophia and ended on November 11th,1918. It
started in Europe and spread afterwards to involve many countries
all over the world. The causes of this World War included lack of
an international peace keeping body, lack of peaceful statesmen,

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the growth of nationalism, economic imperialism among European

countries. It led to negative consequences like loss of lives, and
destruction of property and infrastructure.

The African soldiers participated in this war; the Tirailleurs

Sénégalais helped the French and the Kings African Rifles the
British. The Indugaruga helped the Germans to fight against the
Belgians in Rwanda during the First World War. The war also had
negative effects in Africa. For Rwanda, it led to a famine called
Rumanurimbaba.

Glossary
Armistice: a state of peace agreed to between opponents
so they can discuss peace terms
Belligerent: Someone who fights (or is fighting)
Ceasefire: a state of no fighting agreed to between
opponents so they can discuss peace terms
Drag on: last unnecessarily long or proceed for an
extended period of time
Ultimatum: a final demand or statement of terms, the
rejection of which causes a breakdown in a
relationship

Revision questions
1. The First World war (1914–1918) was fought between two
camps (blocs); name them?
2. Examine the main causes of the First World War.
3. What were the economic consequences of the First World War
in Europe?
4. Discuss the objectives of the Versailles Peace Treaty in Europe.
5. Assess the achievements of the League of Nations.
end of unit 7

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Between Two Wars

Unit
8
1

Key unit competence

Explain the causes and effects of the 1929 economic crisis and the
rise of totalitarian regimes in Europe (Fascism and Nazism)

Introduction
Events during the period between two wars led to the Second World
War. First, the League of Nations which was an international peace
keeping organisation was formed. The objectives of the League
of Nations were to promote international peace, and to prevent
aggression between countries.

During this period, the world witnessed a heavy economic crisis

in 1929 which was a result of the destruction of industries,
communication lines, airports and cities during the First World
War. Measures were taken to overcome the effects of this crisis, the
major one being the “new deal programme” by the new American
President Franklin Delano Roosevelt in 1932. However, the effects
were serious and this led to the rise of totalitarian regimes like
Fascism under Benito Mussolini and Nazism under Adolf Hitler.

Links to other subjects

This unit can be linked and extended to other units like human
rights in general studies, and economic depression in economics.

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Main points to be covered in this unit

࿤࿤ The League of Nations
࿤࿤ The causes of the 1929–1933 economic depression
࿤࿤ The effects of the 1929–1933 crisis
࿤࿤ The rise of totalitarian regimes in Europe
࿤࿤ Factors for the downfall of Fascism and Nazism

The League of Nations

Origin of the League of Nations

Activity 1
Using internet or library research identify the origin and
objectives of the League of Nations. Present your findings to
the class.

The League of Nations (LON) was an international peace keeping

body formed after the First World War. It officially came into
existence on January 10, 1920 with its headquarters in Geneva,
Switzerland.

It originated from the famous “Fourteen Points” of Woodrow Wilson,

former President of USA, on how the world could achieve national
and international peace after the First World War. According to those
points, the victorious powers formed an international organisation
which came to be known as the League of Nations (LON).

Headquarters of the League of Nations, Geneva Switzerland

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Objectives of the League of Nations

The League of Nations (LON) was formed for
the following social, political and economic
objectives:
࿤࿤ To preserve, maintain and promote
international peace which had been
destroyed by the 1914–1918 World War by
resolving international conflicts peacefully;
࿤࿤ To prevent aggression;
࿤࿤ To defend and promote territorial integrity Eric Drummond (1876–1951):
and independence of the League member The first Secretary General of
states against aggression of any kind; the League of Nations (1920–
1933). (Source: Google)
࿤࿤ To enforce disarmament of both victorious and defeated countries
and limit the production of disastrous weapons;
࿤࿤ To defend and protect the achievements of the 1919 Versailles
Peace Treaty and put them into practice;
࿤࿤ To resolve the refugee problem by resettling the people displaced
in the First World War;
࿤࿤ To promote the social welfare of member states by solving
problems created by the First World War;
࿤࿤ To ensure efficient administration of the mandate territories like
Rwanda, Burundi, Cameroon, Togo, Tanganyika and Namibia.

Organs of the League of Nations

Activity 2

Research on the organs of the League of Nations. Present them

to the class.

The LON had 48 member states at the beginning and 55 by

1925. It was composed of permanent members–France, Britain,
Italy, Japan, and later Germany and the Union of Soviet Socialist
Republics (USSR)–and several non-permanent members elected
by the assembly. Its main organs were the following:

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General Assembly
This was a council of all member states that annually met to
consider political disputes, reduction of armaments and to decide
on the general policy. Each member state had one vote.

Council of the League

This consisted of four permanent members: Britain, France, Italy
and Japan, at the beginning. The USA was to be a permanent
member but refused because of her isolationist policy.

There were four other members elected by the assembly for a

periods of three years, but the number increased from four to nine
by 1926. It was the council’s task to deal with specific political
disputes as they emerged.

Secretariat
This was in charge of all the paperwork, preparing agendas and
writing resolutions and reports for carrying out the decisions of the
League.

Permanent Court of International Justice

This consisted of 15 judges of different nationalities and it was
based at the Hague in Holland. It dealt with legal disputes between
states as opposed to political ones.

Commissions and committees

The main commissions handled the mandates, military affairs,
minority groups and disarmament. There were also committees for
international labour, health, economic and financial organisation,
child welfare, drug problems and women’s rights.

Achievements of the League of Nations

Activity 3

Identify the achievements of the League of Nations. Your group

reports to the class. Compare your work with that of other
groups.

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 Between Two Wars

The League of Nations (LON) registered political, social and

economic achievements as discussed below.

In 1925 the Larcano conference was held and the Larcano treaty
signed by Germany, Britain, Belgium, Italy and France. By this
treaty, Germany was admitted to the LON in 1926 and this restored
world peace.

The international court of justice was set up at the Hague and

by 1939 had mediated the signing of about 400 agreements and
settled 70 cases of international concern.

The LON succeeded in preparing Iran, Yugoslavia, Turkey, Hungary,

Romania and Czechoslovakia, among others, for independence by
1932.

It established the International Labour Organisation (ILO) which

improved the general living conditions of employees in several
countries.

In 1926 the LON solved border conflicts between Greece and

Bulgaria by asking the Greeks to withdraw and pay compensation.

The LON settled the First World War refugees and the internally
displaced people by providing various forms of assistance to them.

In 1924 the LON set up a slavery commission that declared slave

trade and slavery illegal and antisocial internationally.

The health organisation of the LON organised for medical assistance

and the distribution of vaccines to combat epidemics like syphilis,
cholera, dysentery, and malaria which had swept Europe.

The LON set up a mandate commission for effective administration

of the former German colonies in Africa.

The League member states set up a committee responsible for

monitoring and discouraging the production, transportation, selling
and consumption of harmful drugs like opium, marijuana and cocaine.

Weaknesses of the LON

Activity 4

In your view, what were the weaknesses of the League of

Nations. Present your findings to the class.

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After scoring many achievements, the first LON also registered the
following failures:
࿤࿤ It failed to ensure world disarmament when it was unable to
disarm victorious powers like France, Britain, USA and Russia
but only disarmed Germany, a defeated power.
࿤࿤ It failed to form a joint international army that would be used in
checking the activities of dictators and aggressors.
࿤࿤ It failed to prevent the 1931 Manchuria crisis whereby
Japan invaded the Chinese province of Manchuria and went
unpunished.
࿤࿤ It failed to prevent the economic depression of 1929–1935
which had many negative effects like inflation, unemployment,
famine, etc in many countries.
࿤࿤ It failed to win USA membership and the absence of USA in the
LON weakened the organisation economically and militarily.
࿤࿤ It failed to establish a strong organisation with clear membership
principles and thus, a state would join and leave the LON with
a lot of ease i.e. Italy, Japan, Germany and Russia had left by
1936.
࿤࿤ It failed to follow up the payment of the war indemnity imposed
on Germany which Hitler stopped paying immediately after
rising to power in 1933.
࿤࿤ It failed to establish financial sources of its own and depended
on handouts from its member states which sometimes delayed
consequently delaying its activities and interventions.
࿤࿤ It failed to stop Italy’s invasion of Ethiopia in 1935. Italy under
Mussolini invaded and occupied Ethiopia but the LON never
took steps to punish Italy.
࿤࿤ The invasion of Poland by Hitler from Germany that resulted in
the outbreak of 1939–1945 World War was mainly due to the
weakness and the failure of the LON which was not able to stop
it and negotiate peaceful solutions.

Activity 5

Use the internet to get information about the reasons which

made the League of Nations fail to preserve peace during the
inter-war period of 1920–1939. Make a presentation to the
class.

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Because of its weaknesses, the League of Nations also failed to

preserve peace during the inter-war period of 1920–1939 due to
the following reasons:
࿤࿤ It was linked to the unpopular 1919 Versailles Peace Treaty.
࿤࿤ It lacked an international army that would have been used to
fight dictators like Mussolini and Hitler.
࿤࿤ The USA refused to join the LON although its foundation was
proposed and supported by the US president.
࿤࿤ The great economic depression of 1929–1935 made it difficult
for most of the member states to meet their financial obligations
to the League.
࿤࿤ It lacked enough finances of its own which made it hard to
execute its duties properly and impartially.
࿤࿤ It had a weak administrative set up. For example, the secretary
general had limited power.
࿤࿤ It was very slow in decision making.
࿤࿤ It had no mechanism to control the entry and exit of the state
members.
࿤࿤ Its member states promoted national rather than international
interests.
࿤࿤ The appeasement policy of France and Britain from 1935 which
allowed Adolf Hitler to expand German territory undermined the
league’s operations and made it impossible to succeed.

World Economic Depression 1929–1935

Activity 6

Research on the internet or in the library and state the causes of

the economic depression or crisis of 1929. Thereafter, present
your results to the class.

The world economic depression was an economic stagnation which

was experienced globally from 1929 to 1935. It was characterised
by total breakdown in the production processes, unemployment,
low incomes, and general lack of effective demand, low prices, low
investment and low economic activities in general.

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It began from the Canadian agricultural sector but the most

disastrous period started from the USA after the “Wall Street
crash” or stock market crash, on October 24th, 1929 and spread
to Europe and the whole world.

Wall street crash of 1929 in New York (Source: Google)

Causes of the great world economic depression

The consequences of the First World War: These include
destruction of industries, communication lines, airports and cities
and loss of lives, which had a negative effect on production and the
ability to purchase goods, hence leading to the depression.

The Rise of economic nationalism and isolationist/protectionist

policy led by USA: This policy was used by USA to protect infant
industries at home and it was adopted by other countries mainly in
Europe. This eventually worsened the international trade situation,
leading to the economic depression.

General reduction in the level of international trade during and

after the First World War: The world trade remained low because
nations were unable to import in large quantities. This was due
to the low level of consumption and that was why the depression
started in America whose manufactured goods could not be
brought.

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Payment of the war indemnity by Germany: This was imposed

by the victorious powers during the signing of the 1919 Versailles
Peace Treaty and it greatly affected the German economy; they
printed many bank notes leading to inflation. This contributed to
the outbreak of the economic depression.

Overproduction mainly in the agricultural sector: This was

experienced by various capitalists during the inter-war period in
USA, Britain and Canada. However, when international trade was
paralyzed and there was “no buying and no selling” this resulted in
the economic depression.

System of high taxation in order to escape from “after war

situation”: This policy was adopted by many countries to help
their economy recover from the after effects of the First World War.
However, these heavy taxation policies were too harsh and distracted
investment which also led to the increase of unemployment, low
circulation of money and inflation, leading to economic depression.

Poor trading policy adopted after the First World War: The
defeated powers were not allowed to export to victorious powers
and, worsestill, the victorious powers started selective trade as
punishment to defeated ones which led to the economic depression.

Unfair income distribution: This existed especially in USA where

between 1923 and 1926 big companies were owned by a few
capitalists. They provided employment to the few people who
also earned low salary. This led to low purchasing power and lack
of effective demand which contributed to the world economic
depression.

Gold standard system operating in world economies by 1929:

Under this system each economy was supposed to have money in
circulation that was equal to the total value of gold in its reserves.
This system limited money supply for some countries that had
small gold reserves and caused low aggregate demand, leading to
the world economic depression.

The Crash of the world stock exchange in USA, October 24, 1929:
This led to the closure of 4,200 banks and people who had kept
their money in these banks suffered great losses. The industries
could no longer secure loans, yet their products could not sell and
eventually they also closed down. This led to huge unemployment,
surplus products, low purchasing power and, consequently to the
world economic depression.

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Measures to overcome the world economic depression

After the occurance of the economic depression, different countries
started to look for various measures to control and fight it.

Germany, on her part, attempted to solve the economic depression

by violating the 1919 Versailles Peace Treaty terms when she
stopped paying the war indemnity and also started serious
industrialisation.

USA fought the economic depression by using the “new deal”

programme introduced by President Franklin Delano Roosevelt in
1932. By this programme, new laws were made to regulate the
stock market and protect bank depositors’ savings. Other steps
included creation/establishment of programmes which created jobs
for the unemployed like the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), and
construction of schools and hospitals. The USA also set up a social
security system and depreciated the value of her dollar so as to
increase the purchasing power of the Americans.

Basically, Roosevelt had three aims:

࿤࿤ Relief: To give direct help to the poverty-stricken millions who
were without food and homes
࿤࿤ Recovery: To reduce unemployment, stimulate the demand for
goods and get the economy moving again
࿤࿤ Reform: To take whatever measures necessary to prevent a
repeat of economic disaster
The gold standard system was stopped since this played a role in
the outbreak of the world economic depression.

A world economic conference was held at Geneva in 1933,

Switzerland and was attended by 66 countries that worked out
different solutions to end the economic depression. These solutions
included removing obstacles to free trade, and implementing a
uniform tax on imports and exports.

World powers attempted to solve the economic depression by

invading weak states so as to solve the problem of lack of raw
materials and markets for their goods. For example, in 1935 Italy
invaded Ethiopia, in 1936 Germany invaded Czechoslovakia and
in 1939, Poland.

Different countries formed regional economic integration as a

solution to end the economic depression. The Scandinavians formed

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the Oslo Block, USA and South American states also formed an
economic block.

Unemployment relief schemes were adopted by various countries

such as USA, Britain and France to benefit the unemployed citizens
above 18 years.

Most European countries made efforts to improve on their agricultural

and industrial sectors in order to increase the level of production as
a way of addressing the problem of low supply and inflation.

Dictatorship was resorted to by most of the European leaders to

suppress demonstrations and strikes.

Some countries restricted borrowing and lending of money on

grounds that the money borrowed for investment ended up being
consumed. This reduced on the debt burden in various countries.

Effects of the world economic depression

Activity 7

Work with a classmate and identify the effects of the world

economic crisis of 1929. Make a presentation to the class.

Content

The unemployment rate in the US 1910–1960, with the years of the

great depression (1929–1939) highlighted. (Source: Google)

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࿤࿤ The world economic depression led to human suffering due to

unemployment, low incomes, and lack of basic facilities.
࿤࿤ The economic depression led to the rise of dictators in Europe
such as Adolf Hitler in Germany, Benito Mussolini in Italy and
General Franco in Spain.
࿤࿤ The economic depression contributed to the weakness of the
League of Nations as various member states could not meet the
financial obligations of the League.
࿤࿤ The economic depression led to international aggression by
powerful countries against the weak ones as a way to solve
their economic problems; For example Japan and China, Italy
and Ethiopia and Germany and Austria.
࿤࿤ The economic depression led to the decline in world trade as the
affected countries started trade protectionism; for example, USA.
࿤࿤ The economic depression led to the formation
of regional economic integration as a way of
promoting trade among the different countries.
࿤࿤ The economic depression led to the end of the
use of the gold standard system.
࿤࿤ The economic depression caused a severe fall
in the standards of living of people as the cost of
living became higher after the closure of many
businesses and this affected production levels.
Herbert Hoover (1874–1964): President of USA during the economic
depression of 1929 (Source: Google)

Slums developed in USA because of economic depression (Source:

Google)

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࿤࿤ The economic depression increased the popularity of some

economists such as John Maynard Keynes who introduced
an economic theory popularly known as “Keynesian theory of
unemployment” after analyzing the causes of the economic
depression.
࿤࿤ The economic depression led to the outbreak of the Second
World War because of the rise of dictators, and weaknesses of
the League of Nations which failed to check aggression.

Effects of the Economic Depression in Africa Between 1929

and 1932
The Economic Depression of 1929 had greatly impacted African
continent. For example, the world prices for sisal, coffee, maize
and hides fell by 70 per cent while cotton prices fell by over 60
per cent.

In addition, to some extent the region benefited from efforts elsewhere

to counter the depression. From 1932, the British Empire provided
shelter to the producers of coffee and sisal. The abandonment of
the gold standard by Britain in 1931 and by the USA in 1933
caused the price of gold to rise by two-thirds between 1931 and
1935. This stimulated the exploitation of East Africa’s scattered
deposits and by 1938 gold was the second largest export from
both Kenya and Tanganyika.

Meanwhile, some imports became cheaper. Despite imperial

preference, East Africa was prevented by the Congo Basin treaties
from discriminating against cheap Japanese manufactured goods,
and these became available in large quantities.

In the course of the 1930s, Japan captured much of the East

African market for cotton and silk goods, and for the great mass
of consumers this was clear gain. Government revenues, between
1929 and 1932, fell on average by 15 per cent but they too had
fixed debt charges to pay, such as pensions. So there were cut-backs
in administration and social services. On reduced incomes, most
Africans had to pay as much tax as before, while most European
farmers had large debts to service. Financial constraints reinforced
the political arguments against any comprehensive scheme for
closer union in East Africa.

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In East Africa, Tanganyika suffered most from the depression.

Between1929 and 1931 exports slumped from £3.8m to
£1.7111, and government revenue fell by a quarter from 1925 to
1929). The government already spent one-quarter of its revenue
on debt charges, but it had to borrow heavily in 1932 from the
British Treasury, which enforced stringent policies.

At the same time, the railway lost its share of the Katanga copper
traffic (which in 1930 supplied half its freight earnings) to the
new Benguela railway. In 1930 the Tanganyika Sisal Growers
Association was formed, mainly to reduce wages; its president
was the unofficial leader in the legislative council, and in 1937
British settlers dominated a government commission on labour. In
1932 the government launched a ‘plant more crops’ campaign,
but it was chiefly directed at those areas in the north and north-
west where export crop-production was already established. The
persistent decline in coffee prices aggravated tensions between
chiefs and other farmers.

Totalitarian regimes in Europe

Activity 8

In your exercise book do the following activities:

1. Define a totalitarian regime
2. Name the totalitarian regimes in Europe between the two
World Wars.

Most western countries were governed by elected representatives.

From the 1900s some people began to feel that a government made
up of such a large body of people spent too much time debating
and wondered if was not better to have one strong leader who
could make decisions for them. A single leader could act quickly
to solve a country’s economic problems during world economic
depression. These regimes were known as “totalitarian regimes”.
In Italy it developed under Benito Mussolini and was known as
Fascism. In Germany it developed under Adolf Hitler and was
known as Nazism.

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Benito Mussolini (left) and Adolf Hitler (right) (Source: Google)

Totalitarianism (or totalitarian rule) is a political system where the
state recognises no limits to its authority and strives to regulate
every aspect of public and private life wherever feasible. Totalitarian
regimes stay in political power through an all-encompassing
propaganda campaign, which is disseminated through the state-
controlled mass media, a single party that is often marked by
political repression, personality cultism, control over the economy,
regulation and restriction of speech, mass surveillance, and
widespread use of terror. It is not synonymous with dictatorship, as
authoritarian regimes also exhibit dictatorial features, but do not
create an ‘all-controlling, all-politicised’ society.

Characteristics of Nazism and Fascism

Activity 9

State the characteristics of dictatorship regimes. Compare your

work to other groups. Present your answers to the class.

Two totalitarian regimes, Nazism and Fascism, developed in

different countries and were led by different leaders but had the

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same and common characteristics or principles such as:

࿤࿤ Extreme nationalism i.e. emphasis on rebirth of the nation after

a period of decline with an implication that one’s own state is
superior to all.
࿤࿤ Dislike of the importance of human rights (abuse of human
rights).
࿤࿤ Identification of enemies or scapegoats as a unifying cause in
order to divert the people’s attention from other problems.
࿤࿤ Supremacy of the military or avid militarism because the ruling
elites were always identified closely with the military and the
industrial infrastructure that supported it.
࿤࿤ Rampant / extensive sexism where males dominated and these
regimes inevitably viewed women as second class citizens
࿤࿤ Over-control of mass media through the control of licensing and
access to resources, economic pressure, appeal to patriotism,
and implied threats.
࿤࿤ Obsession with national security, that was under direct control
of the ruling elite. It was usually an instrument of oppression,
operating in secret and beyond any constraints.
࿤࿤ Defence and protection of religion because fascist regimes
attached themselves to the predominant religion of the country
and wanted to be considered as militant defenders of the religion.
࿤࿤ Suppression of intellectuals and artists because intellectual
and academic freedom were considered subversive to national
security and the patriotic ideal. To these regimes, art and
literature should either serve the national interest or they had
no right to exist.
࿤࿤ Fraudulent elections in form of plebiscites or public opinion
polls which were usually bogus. When elections with actual
candidates were held, they would usually be perverted by the
elite to get the desired result.

Rise of Fascism and Mussolini in Italy

Activity 10

Use your own knowledge and think about factors which can
help a dictator to rise to power. In your view, what were the
circumstances which helped Benito Mussolini to rise to power
in Italy? Present your findings to the class.

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The term Fascism is derived from the latin word fasces. The
fasces, were a bundle of rods tied around an axe, as a symbol of a
magistrate’s authority in ancient Rome. They were carried by his
agents and could be used for corporal and capital punishment at his
command. The word fascismo also relates to political organisations
in Italy known as fasci, groups similar to guilds or syndicates.

Mussolini’s personal standard Fascist symbol (Source: Google)

(Source: Google)

The symbolism of the fasces suggested strength through unity: a

single rod is easily broken, while the bundle is difficult to break.

Background of Mussolini
Benito Mussolini: was an Italian politician who led the
national fascist party, ruling the country from 1922 to
his ousting in 1943, and is credited with being one of
the key figures in the creation of Fascism.

Mussolini was born in a small town of Romaginia in

Italy on July 29th, 1883. His father was a blacksmith
and a socialist, while his mother was a devout Catholic
schoolteacher. Owing to his father’s political leanings,
Mussolini was named Benito after Mexican reformist
President Benito Juárez, while his middle names were
from Italian socialists. Mussolini was the eldest of his A young Mussolini (July 29th,
parents’ three children. 1883–April 28th, 1945)

At the age of 9, Mussolini began his education and graduated as a

teacher with a diploma in education in 1907. He later abandoned
his education career and joined journalism as a newspaper editor.
Mussolini fought for Italy in the First World War and was wounded.
In March 1919, at Milan city in Italy, he formed a political movement
called the fasci italiani di combattimento (Italian combat leagues or
squad) whose members became known as fascists. It was composed
of frustrated jobless youth, industrial capitalists and the middle class.

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In 1922, Italy witnessed a successful fascist revolution that led to

the rise of Mussolini supported by the black shirts or army guards.
On October 28th, 1922 he organised a “March to Rome” and when
King Victor Emmanuel III was convinced by the parliament to
suppress the marchers and he refused, the cabinet under Prime
Minister Luigi Facta resigned without firing a shot.

Mussolini and fascist blackshirts during the March on Rome in 1922

(Source: Google)
King Victor Emmanuel then handed over power to Mussolini by
inviting him to form a new government on October 28th, 1922 and
the fascist party took control of Italy. Mussolini was supported by
the military, the business class, and the liberal right-wing.

Factors for the rise of Mussolini and Fascism in Italy

Mussolini rose to power due to strong support from the Italian
peasants by exploiting the bad social and economic conditions
of the time. Through his speeches to the Italians, he promised
them better conditions and employment for all; and as a result, the
majority of Italians supported him as a promising leader.

Mussolini had a strong personality and it was very instrumental in

his rise to power. He was a good orator who spent most of his time
broadcasting his ideas to the Italians. This made his fascist party
attractive to many sections of the Italians like the middle class, the
unemployed, ex-soldiers and industrialist capitalists.

The influence of the communists and socialists in Italy forced

the middle class and industrialist capitalists to support Mussolini
who was anti-communist. With this support, he overthrew the
government of Victor Emmanuel III.

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World War I had weakened the Italian economy and the King failed
to carry out the necessary socio-economic reforms. Mussolini used
this to denounce the government and mobilised a lot of support
that helped him to rise to power.

Corruption and embezzlement of public funds by the officials in the

democratic government of Victor Emmanuel III also paved the way
for Mussolini’s rise to power in 1922 because these officials were
not interested in solving the problems of the time.

King Victor Emmanuel III was very weak in maintaining order in

Italy and this assisted Mussolini to come to power. When he used
violence as a means to end the political chaos he was supported
by the young people.

The formation of a Fascist terrorist group known as “black shirts”

helped Mussolini to attain power. This group used a lot of violence
throughout Italy and killed many people who opposed Mussolini
and the king failed to control the situation. To avoid prolonged
violence Italians supported Benito Mussolini to overthrow the
government of Victor Emmanuel III.

The parliamentary elections in May 1921 increased the number

fascist MPs from 2 to 35. They increased propaganda against the
regime of Victor Emmanuel III.

The 1919 Versailles Peace Treaty which unfairly rewarded Italy

made the democratic government of Victor Emmanuel II unpopular
and this contributed to the rise of Mussolini to power.

The king was politicaly inefficient and refused to use force against
Mussolini. Handed over power to him in 1922.

Mussolini’s internal policy and his methods to consolidate himself

in power

Activity 11

Discuss ways used by Mussolini to consolidate himself in power

in Italy. Present your results to the class.

After Benito Mussolini rose to power on October 28th, 1922; his

regime from 1922–1945 was built on the principles of Fascism

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that centred on extreme nationalism and totalitarianism. Mussolini

did not believe in any form of democracy.

In order to consolidate his power in Italy Mussolini used the

following methods:

He employed force and violence to get rid of any form of opposition.

The socialist newspaper offices were attacked and closed down.
Hundreds of anti-fascist elements were arrested and killed on
his orders and others were sent exile on Lipali islands in the
Mediterranean Sea. Strict censorship of the press was imposed
from 1925 onwards for the purpose of controlling public opinion.

Mussolini banned all political parties and this left the fascist party
unchallenged. He put an end to free election rights in Italy in order
to maintain the fascist party’s domination in parliament.

He created the fascist army, spies and “ovra” or secret police and
encouraged the black shirts to terrorise and control the opposition
leaders.

Mussolini entered an agreement known as Lateran pact in

1929 with Pope Pius XI. His target was to solve the long term
problems between the Catholic church and the state. By this
treaty, the prisoners of the Vatican were set free and Catholicism
was recognised as the state religion. The Vatican became an
independent state within Italy and in return the Papacy recognised
the Italian state and the fascist government of Mussolini.

He abolished intellectual freedom, institutions were to teach

according to fascist ideologies and teachers and university
professors had to swear that they would never teach materials
not in line with the fascist government. Whoever disobeyed his
principles was automatically dismissed. This system of intimidating
especially the university professors, ensured minimal opposition to
the fascist government.

Mussolini undertook public programmes which created jobs for

the unemployed. This was propaganda to prove that the fascist
government was providing employment to all, thus capturing
majority support from the Italians.

Mussolini went ahead to form an all-inclusive government by

including members of the opposition in his government. He did
this to make it easy to eliminate them and their influence. This in

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a way eased the tension from the opposition and led to the success
of Benito Mussolini and his fascist regime.

In 1923 Mussolini acquired the town of Fiume from Yugoslavia

with the signing of the treaty of Rome which made the Italians
happy and in turn increased support for Mussolini’s regime.

Mussolini carried out fundamental reforms in the industrial sector

whereby old industries were rehabilitated and new ones were
built. These included FIAT (Fabrication Italienne Automobile à
Turin) company, oil refineries, and iron and steel industries which
increased Mussolini’s fame.

Failures of Benito Mussolini

Activity 12

Analyse and write down the causes of the failures of Benito

Mussolini. Present the outcome of your analysis to the class.

Mussolini established the fascist state in Italy based on dictatorship

and leadership by decree. This inflicted a lot of suffering on
the Italian masses. He denied Italians their democratic rights.
Leadership through elections came to an end with his coming to
power and referendums were introduced.

He made Fascism the only political system. Political pluralism was

suffocated and in 1925 the party system was abolished. This was
brought about by repressive measures on communist supporters
many of whom were imprisoned.

Mussolini denied Italians all freedom. There was censorship of

the press, no freedom of speech, association and worship, among
others. Injustice was widespread and majority of Italians lived like
prisoners.

Mussolini failed to control malpractices within the government.

There was rampant corruption and embezzlement of government
funds. By 1930, the Italian economy had deteriorated by all
standards.

He failed to stabilize the exchange rate and he devalued the Italian

currency. Italian wages and standards of living were the lowest in
Europe at the time.

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Discrimination was rampant in all sectors of the society. Even

social services were not extended to the poor in the rural areas.

He promoted anti-semitism, which was the negative attitude, hatred

and segregation against the Jews. The union between Mussolini
and Hitler and their ideology were hated throughout Europe and
this forced European communities to unite and fight against them
and eradicate their ideologies of Nazism and Fascism.

Mussolini followed aggressive policies when he involved Italians

in hostilities and military confrontation with other Europeans,
leading to the outbreak of the Second World War. He was therefore
responsible for the disastrous war between 1939 and 1945.

Rise of Adolf Hitler and Nazism in Germany

Activity 13

Visit the library and read a history book or use the internet to
find out factors which favoured the origin of the rise of Adolf
Hitler to power. Thereafter, present your results to the class.

Background of Adolf Hitler and Nazism

Adolf Hitler (1889–1945) was an Austrian-born German politician
and the leader of the National Socialist German workers party,
commonly referred to as the Nazi Party. He was Chancellor of
Germany from 1933 to 1945 and dictator of Nazi Germany from
1934 to 1945. Hitler was at the centre of the founding of Nazism,
the start of Second World War, and the holocaust.

Adolf Hitler was born on 20 April 1889 in Austria-Hungary. He

was the fourth of six children. When Hitler was three, the family
moved to Passau in Germany.

After his father’s sudden death on 3 January 1903, Hitler’s

performance at school deteriorated. His mother allowed him to
quit in autumn 1905.

From 1905, Hitler lived a casual life in Vienna, financed by

orphan’s benefits and support from his mother. He worked as a
casual labourer and eventually as a painter, selling watercolors.

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In May 1913, Hitler moved to Munich in Germany

and at the outbreak of the First World War, Hitler was
a resident of Munich and volunteered to serve in the
Bavarian army as an Austrian citizen.

After the First World War Hitler returned to Munich.

Having no formal education and career plans or
prospects, he tried to remain in the army for as long as
possible. In July 1919, he was appointed intelligence
agent to influence other soldiers and to infiltrate the
German workers’ party. While monitoring the activities
of the Germany Workers’ Party, Hitler became attracted
to the founder Anton Drexler’s anti-semitic, nationalist, Adolf Hitler (April 20th,
anti-capitalist, and anti-marxist ideas. 1889–April 30th, 1945)
(Source: Google)
To increase its appeal, the Germany Workers’ Party changed its
name to the National socialist German workers party, known as
NAZI. Hitler designed the party’s banner of a swastika in a white
circle with a red background.

NSDAP’s banner (Source: Google) Hitler’s personal standard

(Source: Google)

Like Mussolini, Hitler organised his supporters into fighting

squads, the Nazi storm troopers who battled in the streets against
communism and others they saw as enemies. On November 8th,
1923, Adolf Hitler attempted a coup d’état against the Bavarian
government, but the police foiled it.

Hitler was arrested on April 1st, and sentenced to five years’

imprisonment.

While in prison, Hitler dictated most of the first volume of Mein

Kampf (My Struggle). The book, was an autobiography and an
exposition of his ideology. The book laid out Hitler’s plans for
transforming German society into one based on race.

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Mein Kampf reflects Hitler’s obsessions, extreme

nationalism through the concept of lebensraum
(living space), racism and anti-semitism. He said
that the Germans belonged to a superior “master
race” of Aryans or light-skinned Europeans, whose
greatest enemies were the Jews.

The Bavarian supreme court issued a pardon

and he was released from jail on December
20th, 1924. Hitler had served just over one year
in prison. Thereafter, he became the “principle
The most common cover leader” of the Nazi party.
of Mein Kampf

By 1933, the strength and the threat of Hitler’s Nazi party forced the
president to appoint him as a chancellor, which favoured his rise to
power. When President Hindenburg died on August 2th, 1934 Hitler
became führer (leader and chancellor) and supreme commander of
the armed forces.

Factors for the rise of Adolf Hitler to power in Germany

In order to achieve his goal of building Germany and uniting all
Germans in one great nation, Hitler realised that Germany needed
a strong and able leader or führer. He was determined to become
that leader. The following factors helped him to rise to power:

Weakness of the Weimar Republic: This republic was unpopular

as it failed to secure better terms from European powers in the
1919 Versailles treaty. It lacked able leadership that could suppress
violence which Hitler exploited to rise to power.

Effects of World War I and unfair terms of the 1919 Versailles

settlement over Germany: The First World War left Germany
economically weak and the Versailles settlement imposed heavy
war reparations that caused socio-economic problems to the
Germans. Hitler based his ideas on this to blame the government,
promising to liberate the Germans from such misery through
Nazi leadership. This attracted the middle class, the jobless, and
industrialists making his party strong by 1933.

Effects of the world economic depression of 1929: During this

economic depression the Nazi party became popular with more
followers as Hitler emphasized that problems like unemployment

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with 6 000 000 unemployed Germans was due to the Versailles

settlement; and Germans looked at Hitler as their saviour.

Role of the Nazi Storm Troopers: This Nazi terrorist squad was
organised by Hitler’s supporters. In the 1932 parliamentary
elections their presence at polling stations intimidated many
voters who ended up by voting for Nazi representatives. The Storm
Troopers also threatened President Hindenburg that he either
appoints Hitler as a Chancellor or risks countrywide violence. And
then Hindenburg resigned in 1933 which helped Hitler to rise to
power.

Hitler’s personal talent: Hitler was a gifted demagogue with rare

skills; a propagandist and a man who knew what he wanted and
had the ability to know how to get it. He was a great orator and
many people supported him.

Hitler’s own writings and the Nazi 25 manifesto: While in prison in

1923, he wrote his book Mein Kampf in which he set out his ideas
about the future Nazi party, thus convincing the middle class and
the jobless to support the Nazi party. By their 25 point-programmes,
the Nazi party called for German nationalism, elimination of Jews
and improving the social life conditions of the poor, which attracted
massive support to the Nazi party;

Role of the Nazi party: The Nazi members accused the Jews of
betraying Germany in the First World War. The Nazi also defeated
communism. As a result, Hitler was supported by the majority
Germans, most especially middle class, industrialists and large
landowners.

Traditions of Germans: The Germans had no respect for

democratically elected governments like the Weimar republic. They
had a strong tradition for authoritarian governments led by powerful
army officers like Otto Von Bismarck, who gave them security
and military glory more than political freedom and democracy.
Therefore, Hitler was the best choice and the Germans supported
him.

Unpopulality of communists and socialist in Germany: This forced

the middle class and industrial capitalists to support Adolf Hitler
who was anti-communism.

Death of President Hindenburg: This created a fertile ground for

Hitler’s rise to president by making the post of president vacant
which Hitler added to himself as the new German ruler.
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Consolidation of Adolf Hitler in power in Germany from 1933 up to

1945

Activity 14

Discuss or examine how Adolf Hitler strengthened his power

from 1933 up to 1945. Report what you discussed to the class.

Adolf Hitler became Chancellor of Germany on January 30th, 1933

and assumed full authority after the death of Hindenburg on August
2nd, 1934. To retain or consolidate his power, Hitler took a number
of steps as discussed below.

He imposed a strict ban on all other political parties. He dissolved

the Socialist Democratic party on May 22nd, 1933, the Communist
Party on May 26th, 1933 and the Catholic Democratic and
Nationalist party in June 1933. The last political party to be
dissolved was the People’s Party on July 4th, 1933. Hitler declared
those political parties unconstitutional and only promoted the Nazi
party.

On March 23rd, 1933 the Nazi Grand Council passed an “enabling

act” in the German parliament, transferring law-making powers from
the parliament to cabinet, thereby suspending the parliamentary
government.

He centralised all powers and changed the administrative structures

in Germany. He passed the special laws of April, June and July
1934 by which the Jews and socialists were removed from the
civil services. He created new ministries for propaganda, culture,
agriculture and labour. He rewarded the Nazis with white collar
employment and dissolved the trade union movement in June
1933.

He used suppressive policies like Geheime Staatspolizei/ the Secret

state police (Gestapo) and special spies to eliminate his political
enemies. During the night of the long knives alone, the regime
executed at least 85 people for political reasons.

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He suppressed the press, broadcasting, literature, drama, music,

painting, public films and only publications reflecting Hitler’s tastes
were allowed in Germany. This was intended to keep the masses
ignorant of his failures. All books which had anti-Nazi ideas were
collected and burnt in a huge fire in Berlin in 1935.

The clergy and professional teachers had to sign an oath promising

never to teach materials that were against the Nazi Party. He
controlled the Catholic Church through the concordat of 1933 with
the Pope.

He built a strong army that was used against internal and external
enemies. He transformed the Storm Troopers into a highly
disciplined and equipped army.

Hitler overcame the pre-1933 economic problems which earned

him more support from Germans and no one would think of fighting
or opposing him.

He created a system of the youth movements of boys and girls of

14 years called the “Hitler youth” and “league of German maids”
respectively who were taught that Hitler was ever right and were also
told to report their parents if they were anti-Nazi to the secret police.

He violated the Versailles Treaty and used an aggressive foreign and

revenge policy, re-armed Germany, withdrew Germany from the
League of Nations ,and expanded Germany by attacking Austria,
Czechoslovakia and Poland. This earned Hitler more support from
the Germans, although it contributed to his downfall in 1945.

Factors for the downfall of Adolf Hitler and Nazism in 1945

Activity 15

Together with your friends carry out a research on the factors

which led to the downfall of Adolf Hitler and Nazism in 1945.
Present your findings to the class.

Adolf Hitler eventually met his downfall largely because of World

War II which we will study in Unit 9. In addition he had other
problems as discussed on the next page:

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Dictatorship coupled with excessive oppression like the banning of

political parties, and harassing and killing of his political opponents,
caused Germans to turn against him.

The size and heterogeneous nature of the German Empire

which by 1942 included Germans, Austrians, Poles, Dutch and
Czechoslovakians, became too big and diverse for Adolf Hitler to
control.

Hitler had a poor political agenda and weak principles. He allowed

the radical ex-service men of the First World War who were not
politically informed to dominate the Nazi Party.

Hitler’s withdrawal of Germany from the League of Nations isolated

him from global affairs, making him unpopular.

The aggressive foreign policy of Hitler especially in Austria,

Czechoslovakia and Poland contributed to the outbreak of the
Second World War that eventually led to his downfall.

The decline of the Germany economy due to the bombardment of

factories and industries by the allied forces of Britain, France and
USA during the Second World War harmed Hitler’s popularity.

As we will see later, the Germans were eventually defeated in

Second World War and Hitler committed suicide in Berlin as his
enemies advanced on him. It is necessary to note that before Hitler
committed suicide, senior army officers had made several attempts
on his life.

Unit summary
The period between two wars was marked by the creation of the
League of Nations, the 1929 economic depression and the rise of
totalitarian regimes like the Fascism of Benito Mussolini and the
Nazism of Adolf Hitler. The League of Nations had good objectives
but it failed to implement them. However, it registered important
political, social and economic achievements. The rise of Fascism in
Italy and Nazism in Germany compromised peace in Europe due to
effects the 1929 economic crisis. This situation led to the outbreak
of the Second World War which lasted five years.

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Glossary
Banner: Symbol or emblem of an organisation.
Censorship: the suppression or prohibition of any parts of
books, films, news that are considered a threat
to security or unacceptable.
Demagogue: a political leader who seeks support by
appealing to popular passions and prejudices
Disdain: lack of respect accompanied by a feeling of
intense dislike
Fraudulent: intended to deceive
Indemnity: a sum of money paid in compensation for loss
or injury
Inflict: cause of something unpleasant or painful to be
suffered by someone
Ousting: the act of ejecting someone or forcing them out
Pervert: distortion or corruption of what was first
intended
Plebiscite: a vote by the electorate determining public
opinion on a question of national importance
Rampant: unrestrained or unchecked
Subversive: a radical supporter of political or social
revolution or in opposition to a civil authority
or government
Suicide: the act of killing oneself

Revision questions
1. What does “world economic depression” mean?
2. Explain the causes of the world economic depression of 1929
3. What were the consequences of the economic crash on USA
and world economies?
4. Examine the factors for the rise of Benito Mussolini in Italy.
5. Account for the rise and fall of Adolf Hitler and Nazism in
Germany.

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 History for Rwanda Secondary Schools

Causes and
Unit Effects of the
1
9 Second World War
(1939–1945)

Key unit competence

Explain the causes and effects of the Second World War.

Introduction
The Second Great War, also known as Second World War, took
place from 1939 up to 1945 and many countries of the World
participated. The two sides that fought were the Allied Powers
including Britain, France, USA and later Russia, against the Axis
Powers including Germany, Italy, and Russia.

This Second World War period witnessed intensification of military

conflicts all over the World. It also witnessed the use of dangerous
weapons and ended with weapons of mass destruction such as
atomic bombs. Modern technology was applied during the war and
it was also during this war that the World experienced the untold
catastrophe of genocide which claimed the lives of about 6 million
Jews under the so-called “Final Solution” of the Nazis under Adolf
Hitler of Germany.

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The war started with Germany’s invasion of Poland on September

1st, 1939 and ended with the surrender of Japan on September
2nd, 1945, after the defeat of Germany.

Links to other subjects

This unit can be linked to subjects and extended to other units like
human rights in general studies, use of maps in geography, and
economic depression in economics.

Main points to be covered in this unit

1. Causes of the Second World War.
2. Course of the Second World War.
3. Responsibility for the outbreak of the Second World War.
4. Consequences of the Second World War.

Causes of the Second World War

Activity 1

Work in pairs and do the following activities:

1. Based on the causes of the First World War, make a research
on the internet or in the library about the causes of the
Second World War. Present the results to the class.
2. Explain how the First World War is different from the
Second World War.

The Second World War was caused by a combination of the

following factors:

࿤࿤ The weaknesses of the Versailles Peace Treaty: The peacemakers

at Versailles were unrealistic and instead of creating peace they
prepared the ground for outbreak of the Second World War as
already explained.
࿤࿤ The Alliance System or military alliances: These were the three
Axis Powers (Italy, Germany and Japan) and Allied Democratic
Powers formed by Britain, France, USA and later Russia among
others. The Alliance System divided the World into two hostile

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camps which created enmity, fear, mistrust, and suspicion

leading to the war.
࿤࿤ The appeasement policy: This was adopted by France and Britain
in order to appease Hitler when he occupied the Rhineland
and Czechoslovakia. This encouraged Hitler to invade Poland
and when he refused to withdraw as demanded by Britain and
France war broke out.
࿤࿤ The weaknesses of the League of Nations: It failed to effect
peace since its formation. It failed to put an economic embargo
on the countries which violated peace. It also failed to condemn
and react against the aggressors of the time, hence resulting in
war.
࿤࿤ The effects of the World economic depression of 1929–1933:
The dictators became aggressive by attacking other countries
partly as a solution to the economic depression. For instance,
the invasion of Poland by Germany.
࿤࿤ The rise of the dictators: The period between wars saw the
rise of dictators such as Mussolini in Italy, Hitler in Germany,
Franco in Spain and Hirohito in Japan. The dictators formed
the Axis Alliance and started an aggressive foreign policy. The
Allied Democratic Powers waged the war to stop the influence
of dictators which created fear, panic, and hatred.
࿤࿤ The rise and growth of nationalism: Hitler used nationalistic
feelings to demand the occupation of Poland, leading to the
Second World War;
࿤࿤ Influence of the press: This exaggerated the military capacities
of the countries, especially of Germany and the Allied powers,
creating a war atmosphere among the World powers;
࿤࿤ The Spanish war of 1931–1939: This was a civil war between
the members of the Republican Government supported by
Britain, Russia and France and General Franco supported by
Italy and Germany. After his victory, Franco established a fascist
regime in Spain. The war created enmity between Allied and
Axis powers, increased prestige for Italy and Germany and gave
confidence to Hitler to attack Poland.
࿤࿤ Germany’s invasion of Poland on September 1st, 1939: After
the invasion, Britain and France gave Germany an ultimatum
of 48 hours to withdraw from Poland Hitler neglected the
ultimatum, leading to the outbreak of the war.

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Responsibility for the outbreak of World War II

The blame for the outbreak of the Second World War can be
apportioned to Germany, USA, Italy, Poland and the Versailles
Peace Treaty.

Germany’s responsibility

Activity 2

Summarise the responsibility of each country involved in the

Second World War. Then, name the first country to cause the
Second World War. Present your result to the class.

࿤࿤ Germany started the arms race in order to challenge the

disarmament policy of the Versailles Peace Treaty, which created
hostility, fear and mistrust.
࿤࿤ Hitler created the Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis to oppose and
destroy the influence of Western powers, which also created the
opposing Democratic Alliance.
࿤࿤ Germany under Hitler withdrew from the League of Nations.
This weakened the League of Nations, making it fail to prevent
the Second World War.
࿤࿤ Hitler misinterpreted the appeasement policy as a sign of
weakness of the Allied powers and became aggressive. He
invaded Poland which was the immediate cause of the World
war.
࿤࿤ Germany rejected the ultimatum of 48 hours to withdraw from
Poland and the Allied powers intervened.

Responsibility of Britain
࿤࿤ The British appeasement policy towards Germany was a great
mistake. Hitler regarded it as a sign of weakness which made
him aggressive.
࿤࿤ Britain was a champion of the Allied powers which conflicted
with the Axis powers in the Spanish war.
࿤࿤ Britain was behind the unfair settlement of Versailles that forced
Hitler to become so aggressive and finally invading Poland.
࿤࿤ Britain was also involved in arms manufacture. This encouraged
Hitler to also join the arms race, creating a war atmosphere.

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Responsibility of France
࿤࿤ France supported Neville Chamberlain’s policy of appeasement
that encouraged Hitler’s aggressive policy.
࿤࿤ France, under George Clemenceau, played a big role in the
designing of the unfair Versailles Peace Treaty which was one of
causes of the Second World War.
࿤࿤ France was involved in the arms race and the military alliance
system.
࿤࿤ France collaborated with Britain to declare war on Germany on
September 3rd, 1939.

Responsibility of USA
࿤࿤ USA refused to be a member of the League of Nations, although
the idea of forming this was initiated by US President Woodrow
Wilson. This contributed much to the weakness of the League.
࿤࿤ USA’s policy of isolation and protectionism caused the World
Economic Depression which caused enmity, fear and suspicion
among countries. This led to the rise of dictators who caused
the war.
࿤࿤ USA was involved in the arms race, and manufactured weapons
like atomic bombs that were finally used to defeat Japan during
Second World War.

Responsibility of the Versailles Peace Treaty

࿤࿤ It was signed in the Hall of Mirrors where the German Empire
had been proclaimed in 1871 after the Franco-Prussian War.
This was a humiliation to Germany.
࿤࿤ It was signed in a vengeful mood on the part of the Allied powers
against Germany, and it was unfair to Germany.
࿤࿤ It was a dictated treaty on Germany which had no chance to
negotiate.
࿤࿤ It entirely blamed Germany for causing the First World War.
࿤࿤ It only disarmed Germany and not the Allies.
࿤࿤ It imposed unfair penalties on Germany in the reparations.
࿤࿤ It denied Germany her territories in Europe and in Africa, which
caused economic hardships in Germany.
࿤࿤ It created weak states around Germany that became vulnerable
to German aggression.
࿤࿤ It gave rise at a weak League of Nations which could not keep
world peace.
࿤࿤ It neglected the neutral and other small states like Armenia
which were left to the mercy of Turkey.

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Course of the World War II

Activity 3

Watch a documentary film about the Second World War. In

turn, identify the major events of the Second World War. Your
group secretary will present your answers to the class.

War on the Eastern front

Hitler launched the war by invading Poland on the Eastern front
on September 1st, 1939. The attack has been called Blitzkrierg
or Lightning war. Within four weeks, Poland surrendered and the
conquered people were recruited to increase the size of the German
army. After conquering the countries to the East, Hitler turned the
war to the western front.

The British expected Hitler’s bombers any moment and prepared

for this. They gave masks to civilians, and evacuated children from
the big cities to the countryside. But for around eight months,
nothing happened and this was nicknamed a “Phoney War”.

War on the Western front

The Western front was the war between Germany and Britain and
was called “Operation Sea Lion”. Before attacking the west, Hitler
signed a Non-aggression Pact with Russia for the following reasons:
࿤࿤ He wanted to avoid war on two fronts at the same time
࿤࿤ He also wanted to attack Russia by surprise after the defeat of
Britain and France on the western front
࿤࿤ He thought that he would quickly bring the war to an end and
become the world super power.

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German foreign minister signs the German-Soviet Non-aggression Pact,

August 23rd 1939 as Soviet dictator Joseph Stalin (right) and Soviet
Commissar Molotov (left) stand behind (Source: Google)
In April 1940, the war started on the western front as Hitler’s forces
captured Denmark and Norway. In May attacks were made on
Holland, Belgium and France which were soon defeated. Mussolini
of Italy had declared war in June, just before the fall of France.

Hitler attacked Britain using the German mechanised army and air
force. Because Britain was an island, he first attacked it by air to
clear the way for attack by sea. However, Britain had manufactured
a radar which was used against the German airforce. Hitler lost
129 planes and many soldiers, leading to his defeat in the battle
on Britain.

Hitler then turned the war from the Western front and made a
surprise attack on Russia, violating the Non-aggression Pact he
had signed with Stalin of Russia.

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The Axis offensive: 1939–1942

North Africa and Greece

On June 10th, 1940 Italy invaded France, declaring war on
both France and the United Kingdom. Twelve days later France
surrendered and was soon divided into German and Italian
occupation zones, and an unoccupied rump state under the
Vichy Regime headed by Marshal Pétain. On July 3rd, the British
attacked the French fleet in Algeria to prevent its possible seizure
by Germany.

In February 1941, Hitler sent Afrika Kops to Tripoli and, together

with the Italians; they drove the British out of Libya. After much
advancing and retreating, the Germans arrived in Egypt in June
1942.

In April 1941, Hitler’s forces invaded Greece. The Germans soon

captured Athens, forcing the British to withdraw. After bombing
Crete, the German forces launched a parachute invasion of the
Island; again the British were forced to evacuate.

Invasion of Russia or Operation Barbarossa

On June 22nd, 1941, Germany, along with other European Axis
members and Finland, invaded the Soviet Union in Operation
Barbarossa. The primary targets of this surprise offensive were the
Baltic region, Moscow and Ukraine.

Adolf Hitler was motivated by the following:

࿤࿤ He feared that the Russians might attack Germany while the
latter was still occupied in the West.
࿤࿤ He had hoped that the Japanese would attack Russia in the Far
East.
࿤࿤ He had desire for creating “living space” or “Lebensraum” by
dispossessing the native population and guaranting access to
the strategic resources needed to defeat Germany’s remaining
rivals.
࿤࿤ He wanted the rich grain fields and the large supplies of oil in
the Soviet Union.
Although the Red Army was preparing for a strategic counter-
offensives before the war, Barbarossa forced the Soviet supreme
command to adopt a strategic defence. During the summer of

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1941, the Axis forces made significant gains in the Soviet territory,
inflicting immense losses on both personnel and material. By the
middle of August, however, the German Army High Command
decided to suspend the offensive of a considerably depleted Army
Group Centre, and to divert the 2nd Panzer Group to reinforce
troops advancing towards central Ukraine and Leningrad. The Kiev
offensive was overwhelmingly successful, resulting in encirclement
and elimination of four Soviet armies, and making further advance
into Crimea and Eastern Ukraine.

In mid-November,  the weather turned cold and the ground froze.

Hitler and the commander of Army Group Centre, faced the choice
of having the armies dig in where they were or sending them ahead,
possibly to be overtaken by the winter. Intending to end the 1941
campaign with some sort of victory in Moscow, they chose to move
ahead.

In the second half of November, Germany aimed two armoured

spearheads at Moscow. Just after the turn of the month, one of
those, bearing in on the city from the northwest, was less than
32 km away. The other, coming from the south, had about 65
km (about 40 mi) still to go. The Panzer divisions had often
covered such distances in less than a day, but the temperature
was falling, snow was drifting on the roads, and neither the men
nor the machines were outfitted for extreme cold. On December
5th, the generals commanding the spearhead armies reported that
they were stopped. The tanks and trucks were freezing up, and the
troops were losing their morale to fight.
Stalin,  who had stayed in Moscow, and his
commander at the front, General Georgy Zhukov,
had held back their reserves. Many of them were
recent recruits, but some were hardened veterans
from Siberia. All were dressed for winter. On
December 6th they counterattacked, and within
a few days, the German spearheads were rolling
back and abandoning large numbers of vehicles and
weapons, rendered useless by the cold.
Georgy Zhukov (December 1, 1896–June 18, 1974)
(Source: Google)
German forces were defeated due to heavy rains, lack of food,
ammunition, and lack of hope for rescue which forced the German
commander to finally surrender in early 1943. The battle cost the
Germans approximately 300,000 killed, wounded or captured soldiers.
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After the “Battle of Stalingrad” of 1942–1943, the Red Army took

offensive. They lifted the siege of Leningrad and drove the German
troops out of the Soviet Union.

War in the Far East

On December 7th, 1941, without warning, Japan destroyed Pearl
Harbor, the American naval base in the Hawaiian Islands, in the
Pacific Ocean. The USA was on the side of the Allied Powers with
France, Britain and Russia.

Attack on Pearl Harbor (Source: Google)

With the attack on Pearl Harbor, the Japanese controlled the
Pacific and by May 1942 they had captured Malaya, Singapore,
Hong Kong, Burma, the Dutch East Indies, the Philippines and two
American possessions, Guam and Wake Island.

The Allied successes: 1942–1945

When USA entered the war, the Allied leaders met periodically
to lay their strategy. In 1942, the Big Three US President F. D.
Roosevelt, British Prime Minister W. Churchill and Soviet Leader J.
Stalin agreed to finish the war in Europe first before turning to the
Japanese in Asia.

During 1942 and 1943, the Allies won several victories that would
turn the tide of battle against the Axis. The first turning point came
in North Africa and Italy.

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The Big Three: F. D. Roosevelt, W. Churchill and J. Stalin met at

Teheran in 1943 (Source: Google)

El Alamein and the invasion of Italy

In Egypt, the British troops, under the command of General
Montgomery, finally stopped Rommel’s advance during the long
violent Battle of El Alamein. They then turned the tables on the
Desert Fox Operation, driving the Axis forces back across Libya and
Tunisia.

Later in 1942, American General Dwight Eisenhower took

command of a joint Anglo - American force in Morocco and Algeria.
Advancing from the West, he combined with the British to ambush
Rommel’s army, which surrendered in May 1943.

Victory in North Africa allowed the Allies to leap across the

Mediterranean Sea into Italy. In July 1943, a combined British and
American army landed first in Sicily and later in Southern Italy. They
defeated the Italian forces there in about a month. Italians, fed up
with Mussolini, overthrew him and established a new government
headed by Pietro Badoglio, as Prime Minister. This Government
signed an armistice on September 1943, but the fighting did not
end. Hitler sent German troops to secure Mussolini. However, for
the next eighteen months, the Allies pushed slowly up the Italian
peninsula, suffering heavy losses against German resistance. Still,
the Italian invasion was a decisive event for the Allies because it
weakened Hitler by forcing him to fight on another front.

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Battle of Stalingrad: August 1942–February 1943

On July 23rd,  1942, Adolf Hitler ordered General Friedrich Von
Paulus, the commander of the German Sixth Army, to capture
Stalingrad, an important industrial and communications centre
along the Volga River. Hitler wanted Stalingrad to serve as a
base for a German invasion of the Caucasus region where rich oil
reserves could be tapped for the German war effort and denied to
the Soviet Union.

Joseph Stalin, ordered his forces to defend Stalingrad at all costs,

demanding that the soldiers of the Red Army take “not a step back.”
In late August he called on his two best military professionals,
General Zhukov, who had organised a counteroffensive to defend
Moscow, the Soviet capital, in December 1941, and the army chief
of the General Staff, General Vasilyevsky, to deal with the situation
at Stalingrad. They proposed to wear the enemy down by locking
German troops into a bloody fight for the city while the Red Army
assembled the means for a counterattack.

By September 3rd the German forces had pushed the Soviet

defenders of Stalingrad back to the west bank of the Volga. The
German air force pounded the city into rubble, but the shattered
buildings provided cover for the Soviet defenders. The German
Panzer tanks were unsuited to this kind of urban warfare and it
became a long battle where progress was very slow.

A series of German assaults on the Soviet forces occupying the

west bank resulted in bitter hand-to-hand fighting in the ruins.
By the end of October the Germans were exhausted and short of
ammunition, while the Soviet defenders, who had just managed
to cling to their positions, were replenished across the Volga with
troops, food, ammunition, tanks, and guns.

A German Panzer offensive from the south sought to break through

to relieve the Sixth Army, but the Red Army repulsed this offensive
on December 23rd. By January 26th, 1943, further Soviet assaults
split Paulus’s forces in two. The shattered German army fought on
until January 31st, when Paulus finally surrendered. By February
2 the remnants of his starving, diseased, and frostbitten army had
given up. About 200, 000 Axis forces were killed or wounded in
the battle. The Red Army suffered about 1.1 million casualties,
including about 485, 000 killed.

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Invasion of France: June–November, 1944

Since June 22nd, 1940, Northern France had been occupied by
Germany. In the South, the French set up a “Puppet State” or
government with its capital at Vichy. Some French officers had
escaped to England, where they also set up a government in-exile
led by General Charles de Gaulle. The two “free French” worked
hard to liberate their homeland. Inside France itself, resistance
fighters turned to guerrilla tactics to harass the occupying German
force.

By 1944, the Allies were at last ready to open the long-awaited

second front in Europe known as “the invasion of France”. They
chose June 6th, 1944 known as “D-Day”; they called it the invasion
of France and Normandy Operation Overlord.

About 176,000 Allied troops were ferried across the English

Channel; they fought their way to shore amid underwater mines and
raking machine-gun fire. They clawed their way inland through the
tangled hedges of Normandy. Finally, they took Paris. Meanwhile,
other Allied forces sailed from Italy to land in France.

In Paris, French resistance forces rose up against the Germans.

Under pressure from all sides, the Germans retreated. On August
25th, 1944 the Allies under the command of General Dwight D.
Eisenhower entered Paris. Within a month, all France was free.

War in the Pacific Ocean

A major turning point in the Pacific war occurred just six months
after the bombing of Pearl Harbor. In May and June 1942, American
warships and air planes severely damaged two Japanese fleets
during the Battles of the Coral Sea in Solomon Islands over the
Midway Island. These victories greatly weakened Japanese naval
power and stopped the Japanese advance.

After the Battle of Midway, the USA took the offensive. That
summer, USA marines, under the command of General Douglas
MacArthur landed at Guadalcanal in the Solomon Islands. On the
captured islands, the Americans built air bases to enable them
to carry the war closer to Japan. By 1944, American ships were
blockading Japan, while their bombers pounded Japanese cities
and industries.

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In October 1944, MacArthur began to retake the Philippines. The

British, meanwhile, were pushing the Japanese back in the jungles
of Burma and Malaya. Despite such setbacks, the militarists who
dominated the Japanese government rejected any suggestions of
surrender.

Assault on Germany: The defeat of the Nazi

After freeing France, the Allies battled towards Germany. They
advanced into Belgium in December 1944. And then Germany
launched a massive counterattack and Hitler was throwing
everything into a final effort.

At the bloody Battle of the Bulge (December 1944–January 1945),

both sides registered terrible losses. The Germans drove the Allies
back in several places but were unable to break through. Their
aim was to divide the Americans and the British and retake the
vital seaport of Antwerp. They created a “bulge” in the Allied lines,
but their advance was halted near the Meuse in late December.
Managing to avoid being cut off by an Allied pincer movement,
the Germans withdrew to their own lines in January, but heavy
losses, including some 220,000 casualties, contributed to their
final collapse in the spring of 1945.

By this time, Germany was staggering under non-stop bombing. For

two years, Allied bombers had hammered military bases, factories,
oil depots and cities. By 1945, Germany could no longer defend
itself in the air. In one 10-day period, bombing almost erased
the huge industrial city of Hamburg. Allied raids on Dresden in
February 1945 killed as many as 135,000 people.

By March 1945, the Allies had crossed the Rhine River into
Western Germany. From the East, Soviet troops closed in on Berlin.
Victory was only months away but savage fighting continued. In
April, American and Russians soldiers met and shook hands at the
Elbe River. Everywhere, Axis armies began to surrender.

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American and Soviet troops meet in April 1945, east of the Elbe River
(Source: Google)
Several changes in leadership occurred during that year. On April,
12th, 1945 US. President Roosevelt died and was succeeded by
Harry Truman. Benito Mussolini was killed by Italian partisans on
April 28th, 1945. Two days later, Hitler committed suicide, and
was succeeded by Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz.

German forces surrendered in Italy on April 29th. The German

instrument of surrender was signed on May 7th in Reims, and
ratified on May 8th in Berlin and officially the war in Europe ended.
This was proclaimed V-E-Day (Victory in Europe Day).

The supreme commanders on 5 June 1945 in Berlin: Bernard

Montgomery, Dwight D. Eisenhower, Georgy Zhukov and Jean de Lattre
de Tassigny (Source: Google)

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Defeat of Japan and the end of the Second World War

With war won in Europe, the Allies poured their resources into
defeating Japan. By mid 1945, most of the Japanese navy and air
force had been destroyed. Yet the Japanese still had an army of 2
million men. The road to victory, it appeared, would be long and
costly.

Some American officials estimated that an invasion of Japan would

cost a million or more causalities. At the bloody battles to take the
Islands of Iwo Jima and Okinawa, the Japanese had shown they
would fight to death rather than surrender. To save their homeland,
young Japanese became Kamikaze pilots (Japanese, “divine wind”)
who undertook suicide missions, crashing their planes loaded with
explosive into American warships.

Meanwhile, Harry Truman got the news of the test of an atomic

bomb at Alamogordo in New Mexico on July 16, 1945. He knew
that the atomic bomb was a terrible new force for destruction. He
decided to use the new weapon to defeat Japan.
On August 6th, 1945, an American plane
dropped an atomic bomb “Little Boy” on
Hiroshima, killing more than 84,000
people and leaving thousands more slowly
dying of radiation poisoning. After this
drop, Truman warned the Japanese that if
they did not surrender, they could expect “a
rain of ruin from the air the like of which
has never been seen on this earth”.

And on August 8th, 1945 the Soviet Union

declared war on Japan and invaded
Manchuria. Still, Japanese leaders did not
respond. The next day, on August 9th, 1945,
the USA dropped a second atomic bomb
Atomic explosion at Nagasaki, nicknamed “Fat Man” on Nagasaki, killing
August 9th, 1945. (Source: more 40,000 people.
Google)

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Some members of the Japanese cabinet wanted to fight on, other

leaders disagreed. Finally, on August 10th, 1945, Emperor Hiro Hito
intervened, forcing the government to surrender. On September 2nd,
1945 the formal Peace Treaty was signed on board the American
battleship Missouri, which was anchored in Tokyo Bay. The Second
World War ended.

Japanese Surrender August 10th, 1945 General Douglas McArthur

1880–1964

After the surrender, American forces occupied the smoldering ruins

of Japan under General Douglas McArthur. In Germany, the Allies
of occupation: French, British, American and Russian, divided
Germany between them.

Consequences of dropping the atomic bombs on

Hiroshima and Nagasaki

Nagasaki after the Atomic bomb explosion, August 9th,1945 (Source:

Google)

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Activity 4

Observe the photo above about the atomic explosion at

Nagasaki, 9 August 1945 and use it to answer the following:
1. In which country did it happen?
2. Describe what you see in the photo
3. Imagine how much causalities or damages it caused.
Discuss your views with the rest of the class.

The consequences to Japan included:

࿤࿤ Japan was defeated even after the use of her Kamikaze pilots;
࿤࿤ Allied powers forces occupied Japan up to 1950;
࿤࿤ Many Japanese lost their lives, about 84,000 people were
killed at Hiroshima and around 40,000 people were killed at
Nagasaki;
࿤࿤ Japanese infrastructure was destroyed;
࿤࿤ This led to trauma due to a lot of suffering;
࿤࿤ The bombs caused birth defects in children due to radiation
poisoning.
࿤࿤ The defeat of Japan caused many Japanese generals including
General Tojo Hideki, the Prime Minister to commit suicide and
his government to resign.
࿤࿤ The dropping of atomic bombs in Japan led to the displacement
of people from radiation poisoned areas and famine. It led to the
decline of the Japanese economic activities. Japan only survived
by the support from the victorious powers, especially USA.

Reasons for Axis powers’ defeat in the Second

World War

Activity 5

Discuss the reasons why Axis powers were defeated. Make a

presentation to the class.

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The Axis powers were defeated by the Allied powers because of the
following reasons:
࿤࿤ They had a numerical advantage because the Axis powers were
few in number compared to the Allies
࿤࿤ Germany, as leader of the Axis powers, had many internal
weakness that made her fail to get massive support at home
because her leader Hitler was a dictator
࿤࿤ Germany did not have support from the countries she had
occupied
࿤࿤ The dropping of the atomic bomb on Hiroshima and Nagasaki
by Americans which forced Japan to surrender.
࿤࿤ The economies of the Axis powers were weak compared to those
of the Allied powers and they were suffering from a serious
shortage of raw materials and other essential military hardware.
This was due to economic sanctions imposed on Japan in
1931 after invading Manchuria, on Italy in 1935 after invading
Ethiopia and on Germany in 1936 after attacking Austria.
࿤࿤ The allied powers were much more experienced in fighting on
Sea than the Axis powers.
࿤࿤ Hitler failed to realise the danger of winter and refused to
withdraw his troops from Russian territory. The strong winter
weakened German troops the Battle of Stalingrad leading to
the loss of approximately 300,000 killed, wounded or captured
soldiers.
࿤࿤ The Axis powers underestimated the military capacity of the
Allied powers.
࿤࿤ There was lack of the foresight because the leaders of the Axis
powers ignored the importance of fighting planes.

Consequences of World War II

Activity 6

Do the following activities:

1. Compare the consequences of the First World War with
those of the Second World War.
2. Thereafter, decide the best way to prevent war and present
your findings to class and human suffering.

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࿤࿤ Loss of lives. It was estimated that 62 million to 76 million

people died, 45 million people were wounded and about 21
million people were displaced from their homes
࿤࿤ Massive destruction of infrastructure, especially in France and in
Japan due to heavy bombing of major cities
࿤࿤ Influx of homeless refugees. Most refugees were in camps of
Western Europe. Many of them were the Jews who were running
away from Adolf Hitler
࿤࿤ Formation of the United Nations Organisation in 1945 to replace
the League of Nations
࿤࿤ The production of nuclear weapons which up to the present day
have disorganised World politics
࿤࿤ The defeat and downfall of dictators in Europe like Adolf Hitler
who committed suicide on April 30th, 1945 and Benito Mussolini
who was killed by his own forces on April 28th, 1945
࿤࿤ Balance of power in the World changed because of the rise of
new super powers, USA and USSR
࿤࿤ The rise and growth of nationalism in the Middle East and in
Africa leading to the decolonisation process
࿤࿤ It led to the partition of Germany into two zones till 1989;
East Germany, known as Democratic Republic of Germany was
controlled by Russia; and West Germany, known as Federal
Republic of Germany, controlled by USA, Britain and France.
࿤࿤ Outbreak of the “Cold War” which was a non-violent
confrontation between the western capitalists led by USA and
eastern communists led by USSR.

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Key
State
Boundary
International
Boundary

Red Russia
Green Britain
Brown USA
Blue Fance

Post-war Allies occupation zones in Germany (Source: Google)

Role of Africans in the Second World War

࿤࿤ During the Second World War some 375,000 men and women
from African countries served in the Allied forces. They took part
in campaigns in the Middle East, North Africa, East Africa, Italy
and the Far East. In Asia, they fought in the Burma Campaign,
in the Pacific theatre against Japanese forces, in the East African
Campaign against Italy, and in the Battle of Madagascar against
the French Vichy Government soldiers.
࿤࿤ The Burma Campaign was the longest land campaign fought
by the British in the war. The British lost Rangoon (current
day Yangon) in March 1942 to the advancing Japanese forces.
They were forced to retreat and regroup. The fighting ensued,
and Japan eventually surrendered in 1945, but their surrender

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would not have happened without reinforcements from the

British Commonwealth, largely comprised of Indians and the
African soldiers. The British did not have the numbers to go at it
alone, and the outcome of many war theaters would have been
different in the absence of African soldiers.
࿤࿤ In the British army, Africans made up about 100,000 of the
conscripted soldiers in the Burma Campaign alone. Most of
them were from Nigeria and Ghana, but some were also from
Sierra Leone, Gambia and other British controlled African lands.
࿤࿤ The British conscripted African soldiers from different parts
of Africa for the East Africa Campaign against Italy and the
German Motorised Company in the horn of Africa, and against
the French Vichy in the Battle of Madagascar.
࿤࿤ British West African forces played a major role in the East African
Campaign. It was the motorised Nigerian brigade of 11th African
Division that captured and occupied Mogadishu, the capital of
Italian Somaliland. Mussolini’s Italian forces had no defense,
as they had previously suffered heavy blows from South African
forces. The Italians were easily defeated by the Nigerian forces.
࿤࿤ While the British did most of the conscripting of African
soldiers during the Second World War, they were not alone.
Italy conscripted Africans too. Collectively, there were more
Ethiopians, Somalis, and Eritreans. The French also conscripted
soldiers from their African colonies.
࿤࿤ The role of Africa in the Second World War was also observed
in the manufacturing of Atomic bombs used by Americans in
Japan. Most of the uranium necessary for the production of the
bomb came from the Shinkolobwe mine in region of Belgian
Congo.

Consequences of the Second World War on Africa

࿤࿤ The Second World War helped in the rise of African nationalism
which led to the decolonisation of Africa. The legacy of African
World War Veterans was evident and important in the winning
of independence in different parts of Africa. The returning ex-
soldiers brought awareness and consciousness. During the war,
Africans worked alongside the Europeans, and found them little
difference from them. They had fought and killed Europeans in
the name of freedom and democracy. They had observed poverty
in Europe and savagery in warfare. Thus, their return added more
momentum to the growth of nationalism.

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࿤࿤ The Second World War also helped in the changing of attitudes

of Europeans themselves towards their colonies. Allied forces,
especially France, were aware of its indebtedness to Africa during
the war. In order to ensure continuing African support, European
administrators were obliged to promise the social, political and
economic reforms in their African colonies after the allied victory
in the war. At a free French conference held in Brazzaville in
1944, De Gaulle promised a new deal for the subjects of the
French African territories. Some European countries became
reluctant to implement their promises. Thus, there was rise of
intensive nationalism.
࿤࿤ The Second World War also contributed to the rise of African
elites who played a big role in organising and mobilising Africans
for large scale nationalism campaign. In British West Africa, the
war years saw the posting of the educated in high administrative
positions and election to local councils. British colonial
administrators began to contemplate a time in the distant future
when Africans would be allowed some degree of self-governance.
Few ex-service men played a significant role in the leadership of
the ensuing independence movements.
࿤࿤ Europena nations experienced economic hardships after the war.
Most of their economies were so badly ruined that they were not
able to continue running vast overseas colonies in Africa and
Asia. They began preparing them for self-determination.
࿤࿤ The Second World War led to intensive exploitation or large
scale colonisation of Africa. Most of the European countries
wanted to revamp their ruined economies by increasing
qualitative and quantitative production in the peripheries. For
instance, new taxes were introduced, land alienation policy
increased, forced cropping in west Africa was practised, and
“grow more” campaign in Tanganyika intensified. All these
practices of exploitation awakened the Africans to fight for their
independence.
࿤࿤ During the Second World War, some African soldiers lost their
lives. For instance, out of a population of 42 million in African
colonies of the British Commonwealth, 372,000 served in the
Allied cause and 3,387 of these were killed or reported missing
while 5,549 were wounded.
࿤࿤ It can be concluded that African participation in the Second
World War was very important. Africans produced vast quantities
of food and strategic materials for the Allied war effort. The
impact of the war on the lives of ordinary people throughout the

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African continent was, therefore, unquestionably profound. The

uncompromising Allies’ demand for manpower and raw materials
introduced new products and methods of production, altered
labour relations, inspired anti-colonial nationalism, challenged
established gender norms, and accelerated environmental
change on an unprecedented scale.

Unit summary
The Second World War broke out only 27 years after the end of
the First World War. It opposed two blocks: Allied powers against
the Axis powers. This War was the most terrible event that
humanity had experienced because of the use of weapons of mass
destruction such as atomic bombs. It was also during this war
that the Holocaust or the genocide against Jews was applied and
claimed about 6 million lives. The war ended on September 2nd,
1945 with 76 million people dead.

This unit analyses the causes, the course and the responsibility of
each country in the outbreak of the Second World War. Besides, it
examines the consequences of the Second World War.

Finally, this unit ends by exposing the role played by Africans in

the Second World War and its impact on their continent, the most
important being the rise of nationalism that led to the demand for
decolonisation and independence of their countries.

Glossary
Ambush: the act of concealing oneself and lying in wait
to attack someone by surprise
Appeasement: political policy of trying to pacify a hostile
country, e.g. by granting concessions
Mercy: leniency and compassion shown toward
offenders by a person or agency charged with
administering justice or a disposition to be kind
and forgiving
Pledge: promise solemnly and formally or Pay (an
amount of money) as a contribution to a charity
or service, especially at regular intervals

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Prestige: a high standing achieved through success,

influence or wealth etc.
Raking: scratching or scraping with a long sweeping
movement
Rubble: the remains of something that has been
destroyed or broken up
Straddling: sit or stand astride of or range or extend over;
occupy a certain area
Tap: Strike lightly

Revision questions
1. What were the causes of the Second World War?
2. Explain the reasons why the Axis powers were defeated.
3. What were the consequences of the Second World War?
end of unit 9

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 History for Rwanda Secondary Schools

National and
Unit
Unit international
1
10 human rights
instruments and
the protection of
human rights

Key unit competence

Analyse the effectiveness of national and international human rights
instruments and ways in which human rights can be protected in
the context of democracy.

Introduction
Human rights are the foundation of human existence and
coexistence. They are universal, indivisible and interdependent,
and they lie at the heart of everything the United Nations aspires
to achieve in its global mission of peace and development.

Since the adoption of the universal declaration of Human Rights

by the United Nations Organisation General Assembly in 1948,
governments have discussed, negotiated, and agreed upon many
hundreds of fundamental principles and legal provisions designed
to protect and promote an array of civil, cultural, economic, political
and social rights.

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In the context of such rights, this unit focuses on both national

and international human rights instruments. National human rights
instruments are state bodies endowed with a constitutional and/
or legislative mandate to protect and promote human rights while
international human rights instruments are treaties and other
international documents relevant to international human rights law
and protection of human rights in general.

This unit, first of all, attempts to define the two key phrases —
national and international human rights instruments, and then it
places an emphasis on the effectiveness of national and international
human rights instruments in the protection of human rights in the
context of democracy.

Links to other subjects

This unit can be linked to other subjects like general studies.

Main points to be covered in this unit

࿤࿤ National human rights instruments
࿤࿤ International human rights instruments
࿤࿤ Effectiveness of national and international human rights instruments
࿤࿤ Ways in which human rights can be protected in the context of
democracy

Definition of National and International Human

Rights instruments

Activity 1

Observe and discuss the situation of human rights in Rwanda.

Afterwards present your results to the rest of the class.

Activity 2

Analyse the national and international human right instruments

characterising a democratic society. Present your findings to
the class.

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 National and international human rights instruments and the protection of human rights

Human Rights institutions, are bodies with constitutional and/ or

legislative mandate to protect and promote human rights.

Role of the national Human Rights instruments

In general, Human Rights institutions are public institutions that
are not under the direct authority of the executive, legislative or
judiciary although they are, as a rule, accountable to the legislative
either directly or indirectly. National human rights institutions
are, most of the time, established by constitutional mandate and
legislation of countries. The mandate includes the power to protect
and promote economic social and cultural rights as well as civil
and political rights.

Nowadays, in a number of countries special commissions have

been established to ensure that laws and regulations concerning
the protection of Human Rights are in place. Human Rights
commissions may also monitor the state’s compliance with its
own, and with international Human Rights laws and if necessary,
recommend changes.

The national Human Rights institutions have also an obligation to

make preparation of reports on the national situation with regard
to Human Rights in general, and on more specific matters and this
is mostly done in annual status reports.

Names of national Human Rights institutions in Rwanda

National Human Rights instruments have different names. In
Rwanda we have the following:
࿤࿤ Civil rights protector
࿤࿤ Commissioner
࿤࿤ Human Rights commission
࿤࿤ Human Rights institute or centre
࿤࿤ Ombudsman or commissioner for Human Rights
࿤࿤ Public defender/protector
࿤࿤ Parliamentary advocate

International Human Rights instruments

International Human Rights instruments are treaties and other
international documents relevant to International Human Rights
law and the protection of Human Rights in general. They can be
classified into two categories namely; declarations and conventions

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Declarations are adopted by bodies, such as the United Nations

Geneva Assembly, which are not legally binding although they
may be politically so as soft law. Conventions are legally binding
instruments concluded under international law, treaties and
even declarations, and over time, obtain the status of customary
international law.

International Human Rights instruments can be divided further

into global instruments, to which any state in the World can be a
party, and regional instruments which are restricted to states in a
particular region of the World.

Global Human Rights instruments

Global Human Rights instruments include the following:
࿤࿤ The International Bill of Human Rights which includes Universal
Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR)
࿤࿤ The United Nations Human Rights Conventions such as:

࿤࿤ convention on the prevention and punishment of the crime
of genocide
࿤࿤ International convention on elimination of all forms of
discriminations against women
࿤࿤ Convention against torture and other cruel inhuman or
degrading treatment or punishment
࿤࿤ International convention on elimination of all forms of racial
discrimination
࿤࿤ Convention on the rights of children
࿤࿤ International convention on the protection of all rights of all
migrants workers and their families
࿤࿤ Convention on the rights of persons with disabilities
࿤࿤ International convention on civil and political right
࿤࿤ International convention for the protection of all persons
from enforced disappearance.

Regional human rights instruments

These are human rights instruments which are restricted to states
in particular regions of the World. Some of these are those adopted
by the African Union, the Council of Europe and the European
Union, the organisation of American States and Organisation of the
Islamic Conference.

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 National and international human rights instruments and the protection of human rights

The African union includes the following protocols:

࿤࿤ Protocol to the African charter on human rights and peoples’
rights on the establishment of an African court on human and
people’s rights;
࿤࿤ Protocol to the African charter on human rights and peoples’
rights on the rights of women in Africa;
࿤࿤ Convention governing the specific aspects of refugee problems
in Africa.

Effectiveness of national and international

human rights instruments in the protection and
promotion of human rights
Any exercise of power is accompanied by the temptation to abuse
it. Human rights instruments are designed precisely to limit power,
whatever its nature and to alternate any force it exerts.

In this context each state must be endowed with internal checking

mechanisms or state actors for effective supervision or protection
of human rights.

Among mechanisms for the protection of human rights, states must

ensure the following:
࿤࿤ Access to justice for all
࿤࿤ Independent and impartial justice
࿤࿤ Justice system that protects human rights
࿤࿤ Effective justice
࿤࿤ To put in place national institutions for the promotion and
protection of human rights
࿤࿤ Allow non-governmental human rights organisations
࿤࿤ Develop a free press and media.

Ways through which human rights can be

protected in the context of democracy
Ways to protect human rights in the context of democracy include:
࿤࿤ People in all countries have to be educated about human rights
and this must become part of general public education.
࿤࿤ During periods of wars and violent conflicts secured zones have
to be created so as to protect refugees and other war victims
from any community. This safeguards human lives.
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࿤࿤ Peace keeping institutions like police and army could contribute

to the maintenance of security. By preventing violence, they
help to protect human rights.
࿤࿤ Promoting the right knowledge of human rights: i.e. to possess
sufficient knowledge of human rights and equally know what
to do and where to go to seek redress if our rights are violated.
࿤࿤ Fighting against human rights violation can also be done through
dialogue.
࿤࿤ External specialists can offer legislative assistance and provide
guidance in drafting press freedom laws, minority legislation
and laws securing gender equality.
࿤࿤ To promote a free media acting as a watchdog of society pointing
out evils.
࿤࿤ International observers and reporters can help to exert modest
pressure to bring violations of human rights to public notice and
discourage further violence.
࿤࿤ Trying in courts of law without fear or favour all those who
are suspected of having violated human rights. This teaches a
lesson to the rest to stop such habits.
࿤࿤ To expose the culprit by taking pictures audio or video record of
violation.

Unit summary
National human rights institutions are public institutions that
are independent of the executive, legislature or judiciary powers
although they are accountable to the legislature. They are endowed
with the mandate of protecting and promoting economic, social
and cultural rights as well as civil and political rights.

On the other hand, international human rights instruments

are treaties and other international documents relevant
to international human rights law and the protection of human
rights in general. They are of two categories:  declarations and
conventions. The international human rights instruments are also
divided further into global instruments and regional instruments.

The global human rights instruments include the International Bill of

Human Rights, the United Nations Human Rights Conventions, the
Labour instruments, the Administration of Justice and Protection
to Persons subject to Detention or Imprisonment, the instruments
of protecting special groups, the procedure instruments and the
general instruments.

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 National and international human rights instruments and the protection of human rights

The regional human rights instruments are those which have

been adopted by particular regions such as the African Union,
Organisation of American States, the Council of Europe, the
European Union, and Organisation for Security and Co-operation in
Europe and the Organisation of the Islamic Conference.

Effective protection of human rights can only be reached on condition

that there is close and frank collaboration between national state
bodies, national, international and non-governmental institutions
that are involved in the promotion and protection of human rights.

The ways of protecting human rights are diverse but it is incumbent

on the different world governments to set strong and viable national
human rights institutions and to keep up an open collaboration
with international human rights institutions.

Glossary
Compliance: acting according to certain accepted standards
or a disposition or tendency to yield to the will
of others
Covenant: a formal agreement between two or more
parties to perform or not perform some action
Culprit: someone who perpetrates wrongdoing
Disputant: a person who disputes; who is good at or
enjoys controversy
Endow: to provide something for support
Fugitive: someone who is sought by law officers;
someone trying to elude justice
Grief: something that causes great unhappiness
Immunity: an act exempting someone
Infringement: a crime less serious than a felony (= a serious
crime such as murder or arson) or an act that
disregards an agreement or a right
Inherent: existing as an essential constituent or
characteristic or in the nature of something
though not readily apparent

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Legislation: a law or a set of laws passed by a parliament

or the process of making and passing laws.
Litigant: a party to a lawsuit; someone involved in
litigation (=a legal proceeding in a court; a
judicial contest to determine and enforce legal
rights. e.g. plaintiffs and defendants are both
litigants
Potent: having great influence or having or wielding
force or authority
Preamble: a preliminary introduction to a statute or
constitution (usually explaining its purpose)
Precedence: status established in order of importance or
urgency or the act of preceding in time, order
or rank (as in a ceremony)
Prospective: of or concerned with or related to the future
e.g. “prospective earnings”; “a prospective
mother”; “a prospective bride”; “the statute is
solely prospective in operation”
Protocol: the original copy of any writing, especially an
agreement or a procedure for how an activity
should be performed
Ratify: approve and express assent, responsibility, or
obligation e.g. All parties ratified the peace
treaty
Raw: having the surface exposed and painful e.g. “A
raw wound”
Secular: characteristic of or devoted to the temporal
world as opposed to the spiritual world or not
concerned with or devoted to religion
Shortcoming: a failing or deficiency e.g. That interpretation
is an unfortunate shortcoming of our lack of
information
Unwarranted: incapable of being justified or explained or
lacking justification or authorisation or without
a basis in reason or fact
Vest: provide with power and authority e.g. “They
vested the council with special rights”.

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 National and international human rights instruments and the protection of human rights

Revision questions
1. Define the term “regional human rights” and give examples.
2. Explain the importance of human rights instruments in Rwanda.
3. Assess the ways through which human rights can be protected
in Rwanda. Which national institutions are involved in this
action?
4. Mention human rights instruments both at national and
international levels.
5. State examples of global human rights instruments.
6. What is the effectiveness of both national and international
human rights instruments?
end of unit 10

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 History for Rwanda Secondary Schools

Democratisation
Unit process
11

Key unit competence

Compare the democratisation process in Rwanda and the sub
region.

Introduction
Democracy is a political system which is applied throughout
the world today. It is a system in which people enjoy freedom
and equality. The democratisation process is the way people or
governments try to build democratic societies so that people are
involved in the governance of their country. Some indicators like
participation of the population, open political space and existence
of oppositions, attest to the existence of the democracy. Rwanda,
like other countries of sub-region, presents many elements of a
democratic country.

Links to other subjects

This unit can be linked to other subjects and extended to such units
as in general studies.

Main points to be covered in this unit

࿤࿤ The process of democratisation
࿤࿤ Indicators of democratisation
࿤࿤ Comparison of the democratisation in Rwanda and the sub-
region.

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The democratisation process

Activity 1

In Senior One, you learnt about democracy. Do the following

activities:
1. Define the term “democracy”
2. Outline 3 characteristics of democratic societies.

Democratisation is a process of building political institutions

which ensure equality, freedom and participation of all citizens in
decision making. The population decides their rights and future. In
other words, the process of democratisation can be defined as the
transition from an authoritarian regime to a full democratic system
which divorces it from the practices of a dictatorship.

The following are some basic conditions that must be fulfilled in

order to sustain the process of democratisation:

A fair distribution of wealth

Democracy cannot exist where people do not enjoy equal distribution
of national resources. A democratic regime must satisfy basic
needs of its population such as food, shelter, education, health and
security.

Strong civil society

Powerful civil society organisations like churches, NGOs,
human rights leagues, etc. must be involved in the process of
democratisation.

Education
It has long been said that education promotes stable and democratic
societies. Education leads to greater political tolerance, increases
political participation and reduces inequality among the population.
When all the children in a given country go to school, they develop
and become more tolerant than others in most of the cases.

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Decentralisation policy
Power is decentralised for purposes of simplification of administrative
procedures. The population feels involved in national policy elaboration
and participates in decision making at the local level.

International pressure
Many countries, especially the developed ones, encourage the
process of democratisation. Any developing country cannot usually
be given economic assistance by Western countries without
practicing democracy. Countries must organise free and fair
elections, which consequently lead to succession to political power.
Presidents of countries who refuse such a peaceful alternation are
sometimes overthrown by force like the case of Yahya Jammeh in
Gambia.

The indicators of democratisation

Activity 2

Make a research on the internet or in textbooks and analyse

the characteristics of a democratic society. Report the findings
to the class.

A democratic society is generally characterised by the following

elements:

The respect of human rights

Civil and political rights are constitutive elements of democracy,
hence democracy and the respect of human rights are linked in a
democratic society.

Power limitation
This indicator reflects the availability of checks and balances
between the organisation’s powers such as between legislative,
executive and judicial powers.

Control
Citizens are able to control the political authority. When
representatives implement the mandate according to which they
are elected, they can be praised. The process implies the evaluation
of transparency in the decision-making process.

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Participation of the population

This indicator describes the citizens’ ability to influence and
participate in the decision-making. The citizens have the right to
address petitions to those in power.

Free elections
This is the ability of the government to organise free and fair
elections from the local administration level to the national level.
People are free to elect leaders of their choice, who can respond to
their expectations.

Multi-party democracy
This is the existence of many political parties competing for power.
Many political parties compete for power and the party which gets
majority votes wins. However, this is only one form of democracy.
There can be one party democracies.

Freedom of the press and expression

People are entitled to express their views through newspapers,
radio, television and magazines without fear.

Comparison of democratisation in Rwanda and other countries

in the sub-region

Activity 3

Compare democratisation in Rwanda and other countries in the

sub region. Present your answer to the class.

The democratisation process in Rwanda and in the sub-region has

been marked by improvement. However, more still needs to be done
so as to fulfill all the conditions required to have real democracy.
In different countries of the region (Burundi, Rwanda, Uganda,
Kenya, Tanzania, Democratic Republic of Congo, South Sudan and
Somalia) principles of democracy are to some extent implemented.
They include free and fair elections, political pluralism, freedom of
expression and press, respect for human rights, etc.

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In Rwanda, Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania, there is political stability

and security that enable citizens to participate in the democratic
process such as voting their leaders, planning, and decision making.
However, in the Democratic Republic of Congo, South Sudan and
Somalia, the democratic process remains precarious due to the
insecurity that prevails in these countries. The Democratic Republic
of Congo for instance, has failed to organise the presidential
elections, yet the presidential term of office of the current president
has ended. Besides, many countries of the sub region host a lot of
refugees because of insecurity. This has become a common feature
of some countries. Today, it is Uganda that has the biggest number
of refugees in the region mainly from South Sudan and Democratic
Republic of Congo.

In Rwanda free and fair elections have been organised since 2003
with fair polling and honest tabulations of ballots. People have
been able to elect leaders of their choice like in other democratic
states in the sub-region do.

Rwanda, like other countries of the sub-region, has common

indicators of democratisation like:

Open political space

All political groups are allowed to compete and convince the public
to vote for them. This is the case with other countries like Kenya,
Tanzania, and Uganda.

The existence of opposition

Some political parties challenge RPF during elections and win
seats in parliament and senate, as is the case in the neighbouring
countries.

Existence of multiparty democracy

Rwanda government allows the existence of many political parties.
There are at least ten political parties such Rwanda Patriotic Front
(RPF), Parti Socialiste Démocratique (PSD), Parti Libéral, Parti
pour la Démocratie Islamique, Union Démocratique du Peuple
Rwandais, etc. In all other countries, the existence of the multiparty
system is a reality.

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Electing leaders in August 2003 in Rwanda (Source: Google)

Existence of three powers

There are three sources of power: The Chamber of deputies, Senate
and Supreme Court. Rwanda is the only country in the sub-region
which has a majority number of women in its political institutions.

Rwanda’s chamber of deputies (Source: Google)

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Rwanda’s senate (Source: Google)

Respect for human rights

In the Great Lakes region, respect for human rights has become
a culture in different countries. However, because of armed
conflicts and political instability in some countries in the region,
the violation of human rights is still common. This is true mainly
in the Democratic Republic of Congo, South Sudan, Somalia and
Burundi. This situation has led to the existence of many refugees
in the region.

Nonetheless, in other countries of the region, the fundamental

human rights are respected. These include freedom of worship,
and freedom of press. In Rwanda many newspapers and mass
media exist. They include Imvaho Nshya, Rwanda Express, Igihe,
New Times, Rushyashya, private radios and televisions like Isango
Star, TV1, TV10, Royal TV, Contact TV, and Flash TV. Therefore,
people have the channels through which they can express their
ideas freely.

In addition, the principles of accountability, transparency and the

rule of law are also implemented. For example, in Rwanda every
authority is accountable to the people. This is done transparently.
This reflects participatory democracy like in most other countries
in the sub region. In general, the rule of law is also practiced in
the region and, no citizen is superior to others before the law.
According to the law, a person is tried without considering his/her
rank or social status.
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Unit summary
Sustaining the democratisation process requires the fulfillment of
minimum conditions including open political space, the existence
of opposition and pluralism, free, fair and democratic elections,
respect for human rights, rule of law, etc.

In general, Rwanda and other countries of the sub-region present

many elements which characterise a democratic country.

Glossary
Accountability: responsibility to someone or for some activity
Alternation: successive change from one thing or state to
another and back again
Mandate: the commission that is given to a government
and its policies through an electoral victory
Openness: an attitude of ready accessibility (especially
about one’s actions or purposes); without
concealment; not secretive or willingness or
readiness to receive (especially impressions or
ideas)
Threat: something that is a source of danger or
a warning that something unpleasant is
imminent or declaration of an intention or a
determination to inflict harm on another

Revision questions
1. State and explain three indicators of a democratic society.
2. Examine similarities and differences between Rwanda and the
sub-region concerning the democratisation process.
end of unit 11

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Understanding
Unit Rwandans in
12 Reference
to Regional
Groupings

Key unit competence

Evaluate Rwandans in reference to regional groupings.

Introduction
Rwandans have special characteristics compared to other people
in the sub-region. They speak one language–Kinyarwanda, –which
is the basis of national unity. They also live in one country, have
common ancestry, share the same background and have a rich
cultural heritage expressed in poems, songs, dances etc. However,
the case of Rwandans is not unique because it is similar to that of
the Burundians who also have one language and the same culture.

On the other hand, Rwandans have interest in joining other

countries because it helps ensure security, and enlarges its market
for trade in different domains.

This unit analyses the identities of Rwandans and the benefits

Rwanda can gain by integrating in the regional organisations.

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Links to other subjects

This unit can be linked to other subjects and extended to other
units e.g. in economics, entrepreneurship, geography and general
studies.

Main points to be covered in this unit

࿤࿤ Understand oneself in reference to Rwanda and East Africa
࿤࿤ Accepting and accommodating differences, and integrating in
the region.

Understanding oneself in reference to Rwanda

Activity 1

Account for ways through which Rwandans can be identified

by others.

This can be done in the following ways e.g:

Location
Rwanda is a landlocked country which is located in central-
eastern Africa. It is bordered in the north by Uganda, in the
south by Burundi, in the east by Tanzania and in the west by
The Democratic Republic of Congo. Its capital is Kigali.

Now think of other ways Rwandans can be identified from

other groups of people.

Background
The settlement of Rwanda is ancient and can be traced in pre-
history because the oldest skeleton of human beings was found at
Olduvai in Tanzania about 700 km from Rwanda. It is one of the
interlacustrine states.

During the pre-colonial period, Rwandans were identified through

clans (amoko) such as Abega, Abanyiginya, Abasindi, Abagesera,
Abazigaba, Abatsobe, Abasinga, etc. With the coming of colonialists,
the situation changed. The colonialists began to identify Rwandans

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through their social classes: Twa, Hutu, and Tutsi. But, instead of
calling them social classes they called these ethnic groups.

The divisions which were started in Rwanda by the colonisers led

to the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi. Today, the government
of Rwanda is promoting the concept of “ndi umunyarwanda” (I
am Rwandan). The “ndi Umunyarwanda” campaign aims at
strengthening unity among Rwandans and combating divisionism
that has been emphasised from the colonial period and reinforced
during the First and Second Republics.

Geographical features
Rwanda is located in East Africa, at the co-ordinates 2°00′S 30°0′E.
It has a land area of 26,338 sq km. The entire country is at a high
altitude: the lowest point is the Rusizi River at 950 metres above
sea level. Although Rwanda is located only two degrees south of
the equator, her high elevation makes the climate temperate. The
average daily temperature near Lake Kivu, at an altitude of (1,463m)
is 73 °F (22.8 °C). During the two rainy seasons (February–May
and September–December), heavy downpours occur almost daily,
alternating with sunny weather. Annual rainfall averages 800 mm
and is generally heavier in the western and northwestern mountains
than in the eastern plains.

Rwanda is located in Eastern Africa, and is bordered by

the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the west, Uganda to the
north, Tanzania to the east, and Burundi to the south.  It lies a few
degrees south of the equator and is landlocked. The capital, Kigali,
is located near the centre of Rwanda.

The watershed between the Congo and Nile drainage basins runs

from north to south through western Rwanda, with around 80
per cent of the country’s area draining into the Nile and 20 per
cent into the Congo via the Rusizi River. The country’s longest
river is the Nyabarongo River which starts in the south-west, flows
northeast, and southeast before merging with the Ruvubu River
to form the Akagera River; the Akagera then flows north along the
eastern border with Tanzania. The Nyabarongo-Akagera eventually
drains into Lake Victoria and its source in Nyungwe Forest is a
contender for the undetermined source of the Nile.

Rwanda has many lakes, the largest being Lake Kivu. This lake
occupies the floor of the Albertine Rift along most of the length of

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Rwanda’s western border. With a maximum depth of 480 metres,

Lake Kivu is one of the twenty deepest lakes in the world. Other
sizeable lakes include Burera, Ruhondo, Muhazi, Rweru, and
Ihema, the last one being the largest of a string of lakes in the
eastern plains of Akagera National Park.

Mountains dominate central and western Rwanda. These mountains

are part of the Albertine Rift Mountains that flank the Albertine
branch of the East African Rift. This branch runs from north to
south along Rwanda’s western border. The highest peaks are found
in the Virunga Mountains in the northwest and they include Mount
Karisimbi, Rwanda’s highest point, at 4,507 metres.

This western section of Rwanda, which lies within the Albertine

Rift, has an elevation of 1,500 metres to 2,500 metres. The centre
of the country is predominantly rolling hills, while the eastern
border region consists of savanna, plains and swamps.

Rwanda has a temperate tropical highland climate, with lower

temperatures than are typical for equatorial countries due to its
high elevation.  Kigali, in the centre of the country, has a typical
daily temperature range between 12 °C (54 °F) and 27 °C (81 °F),
with little variation through the year.  There are some temperature
variations across the country with the mountainous area in the
west and north generally cooler than the lower-lying east.

There are two rainy seasons in the year. The first runs from February
to June and the second from September to December. These are
separated by dry seasons: the major one from June to September,
during which there is often no rain at all, and a shorter and less
severe one from December to February.  Rainfall varies with
geographical regions, with the west and northwest of the country
receiving more precipitation annually than the east and southeast.

Rwanda is known as “land of a thousand hills” due to its mountainous

relief. It is also known by its volcanoes, national parks which are
home to many wild animals like mountain gorilla, golden monkeys
and others.

Languages spoken in the country

The evolution of Rwanda’s language policies since 1996 has played
and continues to play a critical role in social reconstruction following
the war and the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi. Rwanda’s new

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English language policy dropped French and adopted English as

the only language of instruction in schools. The policy-makers
introduced the change as a major factor in the success of social and
education reforms aimed at promoting reconciliation and peace. It
also aims at increasing Rwanda’s participation in global economic
development since English is an international language used in
diplomacy, commerce and trade, and sciences by the biggest
number of people in the world compared to other languages.

Kinyarwanda is the national language of Rwanda, and the first

language of almost the entire population of the country. French,
English, and Kiswahili are the official languages of Rwanda.
Rwandan Sign Language is used by the educated deaf population.

From 1994, English became an important language in both

administration and education where the principle of bilingualism
was highlighted. But, in 2008 the government decided to change
the medium of instruction in schools from French to English. Swahili
is used by some people in commerce, and as a subject in schools.

Cleanliness
Cleanliness has become a unique element that characterises
Kigali City compared to other capitals of African countries. Kigali,
is one of the cleanest cities in Africa. It is also characterised by
skyscrapers (housing shopping malls, restaurants, banks, offices
and hotels). This achievement was possible due to the urbanisation
policy which stipulates the necessity of implementing long-term
measures for sustainable urban development. According to this
policy, the use of land in urban areas must be efficient and based
on high-density development principles, appropriate zoning, public
transport systems, and proper waste management including
recycling. Building design principles should decrease the need for
energy and treated water.

Unity and Reconciliation

Today, Rwanda is a country where all Rwandans enjoy all their rights
and play an active role in the governance and development of their
country. The Rwandan model of unity and reconciliation is based
on a national vision, the constitution and positive cultural values
to build citizenship, good governance and economic development.

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Much has been achieved in the area of unity and reconciliation,

even if the process has not fully reached its end. To be successful,
this process has to go through repentance, confession, forgiveness
and restoration of broken relations. Memory, truth, justice,
confession and forgiveness are at the core of the process of unity
and reconciliation in Rwanda.

To reconcile Rwandans, the National Unity and Reconciliation

Commission (NURC) has exploited the mechanisms which draw
inspiration from the local culture (home-grown approaches). It is
the case of ingando that was used at various community levels
and for various audiences such as former ex-FAR soldiers, released
prisoners, the youth, women, students, lecturers and community
leaders. Ingando is an opportunity to discuss the causes of
conflicts, the ways of solving them and the establishment of unity
and reconciliation, sustainable peace and economic prosperity.
The other local mechanisms include: reconciliation mobilisers
(abakangurambaga); festive gatherings of ubusabane organised
by communities; the traditional Gacaca, which has given rise to
Gacaca jurisdictions that deal with genocide issues; ubudehe
a community approach of mutual support and solidarity, which
is currently used to fight against poverty; community dialogue;
njyanama (advisory council), mediators (abunzi); etc.

The Government of Rwanda has also promoted national unity

by enacting the law against discrimination, repatriation and
resettlement of refugees, reintegration of ex-combatants,
implementation of good governance institutions, arrangements
in the power sharing process at the level of the executive and of
the legislature to favour inclusion and participation, the creation
of a fund to support genocide survivors with a contribution from
the national budget, remembrance of the genocide, and the
establishment of rule of law.

At institutional level, important achievements include the dialogue

on issues of national interest through debates, workshops and
seminars, grassroots consultations and various evaluation reports.
In addition, the Rwandan Diaspora has been regularly associated
to national summits on unity and reconciliation which regularly
assess the progress achieved.

The level of understanding of the concept of unity and reconciliation

has increased among Rwandans. This is witnessed in individual

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or community initiatives of reconciliation, reconciliation clubs

in schools and a network of voluntary Unity, Peace and Conflict
Management Review, which are active at the grassroots level.

This dynamism is a sign of ownership of the process of reconciliation

by grassroots communities, and of confidence and harmony
which characterise the social relations. Establishing confidence
and healing the trauma are the central aspects in the process of
reconciliation.

Rwandan culture
Rwandans have a rich and slightly varied culture. Unlike many
other countries in Africa, Rwanda has been a unified state since pre-
colonial times, populated by the Banyarwanda people who share a
single language and cultural heritage. For example Umuganura, a
harvest festival, is one amongst the ancient festivals that are still
celebrated at the national level. Umuganda, community service,
has also been maintained and today it is performed on the last
Saturday of each month, which has been set aside as a national
day.

Music and dance are an integral part of Rwandan ceremonies,

festivals, social gatherings, and storytelling. The most famous
traditional dance is Intore, a highly choreographed routine consisting
of three components: the ballet, performed by women; the dance
of heroes, performed by men, and the drums. Traditionally, music
is transmitted orally with styles varying between the social groups.
Drums are of great importance. Royal drummers enjoyed high
status at the court of the King. Drummers usually play together in
groups of seven or nine.

Traditional arts and crafts are produced throughout the country,

although most originated as functional items rather than purely for
decoration. Woven baskets and bowls are especially common.

The south east of Rwanda is known for imigongo, a unique cow

dung art, whose history dates back to the time when the region
was part of the independent Gisaka kingdom. The dung is mixed
with natural soils of various colours and painted into patterned
ridges, forming geometric shapes. Other crafts include pottery and
wood carving.

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An example of Imigongo (Source: Google)

Regarding the literature, it is worth noting that Rwanda does
not have a long history of written literature, but there is a strong
oral tradition ranging from poetry to folktales. In particular, the
pre-colonial royal court developed traditions of ibitekerezo (epic
musical poetry), ubucurabwenge (royal genealogies typically
recited at coronation ceremonies), and ibisigo (royal poems). Many
of the country’s moral values and details of history have been
passed down through the generations. The most famous Rwandan
literary figure was Alexis Kagame (1912–1981), who carried out
and published research in oral tradition as well as writing his own
poetry.

The Rwandan Genocide against the Tutsi resulted in the production

of a literature of witness accounts, essays and fiction by a new
generation of writers while a number of films have also been
produced on the same theme as well as other topics like love,
fiction, etc.

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Umuganda or community work (Source: Google)

The importance of regional integration in East

Africa

Activity 2

Conduct a research on the advantages of regional integration

in East Africa. Present your findings to the class.

Rwanda has been integrated in the East African Community since

2009 for many reasons including the following:
࿤࿤ Regional integration provides security since a group of countries
come together to address the problem of security. For instance,
when a criminal crosses the border to another country, the
criminal can still be pursued. Besides, this can help to address
conflicts between countries and ensure political stability.
࿤࿤ It leads to the free movement of goods, labour and capital.
People can freely trade in another country and products are
cheap because taxes are reduced.
࿤࿤ It stimulates the establishment of manufacturing industries in a
rational way.
࿤࿤ It enlarges the market of goods produced by individual countries
and this goes with easy transfer of technology across borders.
࿤࿤ Acquisition of raw materials to support local industries is made
easy.

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࿤࿤ It increases the exchange of skilled labour since there is

cooperation between different institutions. For example,
Rwandans can go to teach and work in Uganda and vice versa.
࿤࿤ It promotes the development of member countries. This is
because member countries work together as a single bloc
and have a huge market which attracts investors from other
countries.

Glossary
Choreograph: plan and control steps, and movements in a
dance
Integration: to combine with another so that they become
one whole
Rational: consistent with or based on or using reason
associated with or requiring the use of the
mind
Reconcile restore a friendly relationship
Skyscraper: a very tall building with many storeys

Unit summary
Rwandans have their own identities like unique language,
Kinyarwanda, which is spoken throughout the country. They also
share one culture and have the same origin. They have a lot to
contribute to the development of other countries and in turn, Rwanda
can gain so much in integrating into regional organisations. In so
doing, Rwandans can export goods and their rich culture, and can
also benefit from the large market of other countries in the region.
Moreover, Rwanda can exchange with other countries, skilled
manpower and raw materials so as to develop home industries.

Revision questions
1. Outline the identities of Rwandans.
2. Describe the contribution of Rwanda to regional Organisations.
end of unit 12

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 History for Rwanda Secondary Schools

National laws
Unit in conflict
13 transformation

Key unit competence

Assess how national laws lead to conflict transformation.

Introduction
The existence of a conflict reflects the presence of antagonisms,
which originate from a difference of interests between two or more
parties. A conflict leads to destruction and it can be a driving force
and a powerful motivation in the peace-building process.

The building process of sustainable peace in Rwanda should

consider the knowledge of conflict, its nature, causes and challenges
and opportunities for Rwandan society.

Different legal mechanisms and organs in Rwanda transform the

conflicts among the Rwandan society into a peaceful situation
by considering the challenges faced as an opportunity for peace.
The current Rwandan constitution acts as a guideline to conflict
transformation.

Links to other subjects

This unit can be linked to other subjects like conflict transformation
in general studies.

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Main points to be covered in this unit

࿤࿤ Definition of conflict transformation
࿤࿤ Sources of Rwandan codes and laws
࿤࿤ Legal mechanism and organs vis - à - vis conflict transformation.

The Concept of conflict transformation

Activity 1

Use the textbook or internet and describe the different meaning

of conflict transformation. Prepare a written document and
compare your work with your classmates.

Conflict transformation is the process by which conflicts, such as

ethnic conflict, are transformed into peaceful outcomes.
Conflict transformation process follows the following order: conflict
settlement, conflict management, conflict resolution, and conflict
transformation.
Conflict transformation involves transformation of individuals,
transformation of relationships, and transformation of social systems
large and small. It also involves transforming the relationships that
support violence and conflict management approaches.
Conflict management seeks to change the conditions that give rise
to the underlying root causes of the conflict.
Conflict management can also be defined as a process for conflict
resolution.
Conflict transformation also refers to the process of moving from
conflict-habituated systems to peace systems.

Sources of Rwandan codes and laws

Activity 2

Using internet and or a textbook, carry out research on sources

of laws and codes in Rwanda. Prepare a document and submit
itto your teacher.
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Law is a system of rules that are made and enforced through social

or governmental institutions to regulate behaviour. Law as a system
helps to regulate and ensure that a community shows respect, and
equality amongst themselves.

A source of law, in its restricted sense, means the origins of law

— the binding rules governing human conduct. More generally,
it means any premise of a legal reasoning. Such sources may be
international, national, regional or religious.

The term “sources of law” also refers to the sovereign entity or the
state from which the law derives its force or validity.

Each country’s legal system has its own sources of law, with greater
weight placed on some sources than others. The following are
the most common sources — constitution, legislative enactment
statute, judicial decision, treaties and other sources.

Rwanda’s legal system is largely based on German and Belgian civil

law systems and customary law.

A custom is a law that is not written, but is a rule based on a

practice that can be shown to have existed for a very long time. It
becomes a source of law. These are general customs. Particular (or
“private”) customs may arise when a family or a district or a group
or tribe, has customs from long usage which obtained the force of
law.

During colonialism all legislation governing Rwanda was made

by Belgian authorities and the foundation of criminal and civil
legislation was the civil and criminal codes of the then Belgian
Congo. Though criminal law had universal application, written civil
law was applied only to whites, while customary law continued
to apply to the natives. Hence, the current Rwanda civil law legal
system is based on German and Belgian civil law systems and
customary law of Rwanda.

In modern democracies, the power to make law lies with a

country’s citizens or their representatives. In many  jurisdictions,
the most important source of law is its written  constitution  and
the treaties and laws that have been passed under the authority of
that constitution.

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Constitution
In Rwanda, the main source of law is the constitution (currently of
2013 as revised in 2015). It is a set of fundamental ground rules
setting out the powers of the different branches of government (i.e.
executive, legislature and judiciary) and how these entities operate
and interrelate. The constitution may also set out basic principles,
such as fundamental freedoms and rights. In civil law systems
these rules are usually embodied in “codes”.

International treaties and conventions

Other sources are the international treaties and conventions, where
a host country like Rwanda may be subject to laws made by a
regional or world grouping by becoming a signatory to a treaty.
Once Rwanda became a signatory of any international treaty or
conventions, these treaties and conventions became a part of
Rwanda’s law as it has to respect their clauses.

National legislation
National Legislation is another key source of law. It consists of the
declaration of legal rules by a competent authority. Legislation can
have many purposes such as to regulate, to authorise, to enable,
to proscribe, to provide funds, to sanction, to grant, to declare, or
to restrict. With the promulgation of the Rwandan constitution,
legislative power was vested in an independent bicameral
parliament composed of a chamber of deputies; whose members
have the title of deputies,  and a senate,  whose members have the
title of senators.  Parliament in Rwanda deliberates on bills and
passes them into laws.

Case law
Judicial precedent (case law or judge - made law) is the accumulated
principles of law derived from centuries of decisions. Judgments
passed by judges in important cases are recorded and become
a significant source of law. When there is no law on a particular
point which arises in changing conditions, the judges depend on
their own sense of right and wrong and decide the disputes from
first principles.

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The codes and laws of Rwanda found at the Ministry of Justice are
the following:
a) Volume 1: Constitutional law, political institutions, treaties and
international conventions
b) Volume 2: Administrative law
c) Volume 3: Judicial and criminal law
d) Volume 4: Civil and social law
e) Volume 5: Economic and financial law
f) Presidential orders
࿤࿤ Prime minister’s orders
࿤࿤ Ministerial orders
࿤࿤ Official rules and regulations.

Legal mechanism and organs vis - à - vis

conflict transformation

Activity 3

Make a research on legal mechanism and organs,and thereafter

analyse the role of different organs in conflict transformation.
Write down the results of your analysis and present to the class

In Rwanda, there are different legal mechanisms and organs which

play a big role in conflict transformation. These are the following:

Constitution and other relevant laws

The Rwanda constitution is a set of laws governing the country.
The role of constitution is to protect rights (empower citizens as
well as limit state action), establish rules for peaceful change
of government, ensure the predictability of state action and the
security of private transactions through the legal system, as well as
establishing procedures for the settlement of disputes.

All conflict has a normative dimension and thus must be resolved by

the application of morally responsible rules. Human beings engage
in conflict, aggression, warfare and violence and these seemingly
equate with the human condition. Therefore, in such situations,
every Rwandan must be accountable for his/her action by use of

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rule of law. This acts as a guideline or a measure for peaceful co-

existence and avoiding causing harm to society.

National Commission for Human Rights

The national Commission for Human Rights improves both the
analysis and practice involved in moving from violence to sustainable
peace in Rwanda. The Commission of Human Rights, therefore,
brings the relevance of rights for organising and governing the
interaction between the Rwandan citizens, and amongst individuals
and groups in society so as to bring lasting peace and co-existence.

National Unity and Reconciliation Commission

The Rwanda National Unity and Reconciliation Commission, which
was created just after the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi has had
a great achievement in post genocide Rwanda. It has succeeded in
reconciliation and transforming the conflict situation into a peaceful
period. The conciliation, as a method used, generally refers to a
process of dispute resolution in which “parties in dispute usually
are not present in the same room. The conciliator communicates
with each side separately using “shuttle diplomacy”.

The office of the Ombudsman

Office of the Ombudsman (Source: Google)

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The Office of the Ombudsman in Rwanda is an independent

high-level public office responsible to the Parliament and
appointed by constitutional or legislative provisions to monitor the
administrative activities of government. The Ombudsman has the
power to investigate a citizen’s complaints of maladministration
and administrative injustice, but may also act on his or her own.
The ombudsman may recommend changes to prevent further
administrative injustices and may also issue public reports.

Rwanda national police

In Rwanda, the national police and community policing committee
are of great importance in conflict transformation. The police
patrol function continues to be the backbone of community law
enforcement. For any police force intending to adopt the methods
of conflict resolution, the patrolling function becomes the first step.
The police officers frequently meet members of the community and
develop rapport. The feelings of trust develop in the members of
community and police.

Conflict transformation by the police also involves the discretionary

use of authority and prevention of criminal activity by an assertive
police presence. It also involves maintaining good relations with
citizens in the community.

The police is also supposed to build trust and understanding among

the community members. It is a method in which the police officer
anticipates conflict between members of the community and plays
a proactive role.

To build ties and work closely with members of the community to fight
crime, the Rwanda National Unity and Reconciliation Commission
has, since its foundation in 2000, adopted the community policing
strategy. Since then, the department for community policing has
been influential in reducing crime throughout the country, and is
run on a philosophy that promotes proactive partnerships with the
public to address public safety issues such as social disorder and
insecurity. 

Traditionally, the Police respond to crime after it occurs. On top of

that, the Police cannot be everywhere at all times and, therefore,
relies on routine patrols, rapid response to calls for service, arrests
and follow-up investigations. Community policing, therefore, was
adopted to encourage citizens to participate in crime-solving.

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It comes as a strategic and thoughtful plan focused on the proactive

prevention of crime and disorder, by partnering with the public to
increase Police visibility in all communities to solve, prevent and
reduce crime.

With community policing, the link between the police and

community has become closer and this has contributed to the rise
in the trust the Rwandan population has in its police. As evidence,
the Rwanda Governance Scorecard produced by the Rwanda
Governance Board in 2012, presented results from a nationwide
survey, which indicated that 92 per cent of the citizens trust the
Police. This is a high score which is a result of professional services,
discipline and partnership.

It is only when the community and the Police truly work together for
their common good,that the citizens will feel that they can trust the
Police to that level. Once the citizens trust the officers who they meet
in their day-today operations, they feel free to provide them with
information to help prevent or solve crimes and to arrest criminals.

This has enabled the Police to serve communities better and to

fulfil their mission to “make the people living in Rwanda feel safe
and reassured.”

Abunzi committee
According to the law establishing the organ of Abunzi, the mediators
play a big role in conflict resolution where, due to their competence
they make trials of the problems that affect Rwandans. The
activities of Abunzi cement national unity and all social categories
are equally treated by these kinds of courts.
Abunzi reduced the number of cases introduced in ordinary courts
because many problems are resolved in local communities. As the
problems are locally resolved, Abunzi pave a strong way to national
reconciliation because the solutions come from the neighbours;
To achieve their goal, Abunzi committees use two major methods
such as negotiation and mediation. Negotiation is a process in
which two or more participants attempt to reach a joint decision on
matters of common concern in situations where they are in actual
or potential disagreement or conflict. While mediation is a process
in which an impartial third party helps to resolve a dispute or plan
a transaction, the third party does not have the power to impose a
binding solution. Here, the parties negotiate face-to-face with the
guidance of the third party.

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Glossary
Backbone: the most important part of a system, an organisation,
etc. that gives it support and strength.
Enactment: the process of a law becoming official; a law which
has been made official.
Premise: a statement or an idea that forms the basis for a
reasonable line of argument.

Unit summary
Like every country all over the world, Rwanda has a constitution of
its own. The 2003 Rwanda constitution as updated in 2015 has
been inspired by Rwandan culture. Through gacaca and mediators’
committees as home grown solutions conflict are resolved.

This unit has described the origin of laws and codes in Rwanda. In
the context of Rwanda, the laws and codes have been influenced
by German and Belgian colonisation, because they have acted as a
model for the origin of laws of independent Rwanda. To fulfill their
aspirations, Rwandans have adopted a new constitution which
stipulates the organs which manage and transform the conflicts
into peaceful solutions like national unity and reconciliation.
Abunzi committees are still providing the peaceful solutions to
daily problems faced by Rwandans.

Revision questions
1. Explain the origin of Rwandan codes and laws.
2. Describe the role of the Rwandan constitution and other
relevant laws in conflict transformation.
3. Evaluate the contribution of national police in conflict
transformation.
4. Examine the role of Abunzi (mediators) in conflict transformation.
end of unit 13

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Factors for
Unit National
14 Independence

Key unit competence

Examine the factors for national independence

Introduction
This unit is about the factors for national independence. In the first
place, it puts emphasis on the political factors for independence
such as having a strong sense of patriotism sense, self esteem and
confidence among the people of a country, security and sovereignty,
respect of principles of democracy, good governance, etc.

In the second place, this unit deals with the socio-economic factors
for independence such as private sector support improvement in
the industrial sector, strengthening environmental management for
sustainable development, utilising our resources well, innovations
and inventions supporting the youth, strengthening Rwandan
culture, etc.

At the end of this unit, home-grown solutions are highlighted as

strategies set up by the Rwandan government with the aim of
achieving self-reliance.

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Links to other subjects

This unit can be linked to other subjects like general studies and
economics.

Main points to be covered in this unit

࿤࿤ Political factors for national independence
࿤࿤ Economical and socio-cultural factors for national independence
࿤࿤ Promoting and sustaining self-reliance.

Political factors for national independence

Activity 1

Discuss different political factors that are likely to sustain the

independence of a nation or country. Present the results of your
discussion to the class.

Independence is the freedom for a nation, a country or a state

from being under control or influence of another country. It is the
state of a country in which its residents and population exercise
self-government and sovereignty over their territory. In order to
maintain this independence, the factors to be considered include
political factors, among others, as discussed below.

Respect of principles of democracy

The word “democracy” means “rule by the people.” The principal
purposes for which the people establish democratic government are
the protection and promotion of their rights, interests, and welfare.
Democracy requires that each individual be free to participate in
the community’s self-government. Thus political freedom lies at
the heart of the concept of democracy.

The overall concept of modern democracy has three principal parts-

democracy, constitutionalism, and liberalism. Each must exist in a
political system for it to be a genuine democracy.

Democracy is the rule by the people through free and fair elections
and other forms of participation.

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Popular sovereignty is the idea that the people are the ultimate
authority and the source of government authority and it is a
fundamental principle of democracy. The political equality of all
citizens is an essential principle of democracy. In a democracy,
the just powers of government are based upon the consent of the
governed. Free elections and other forms of civic participation are
essential to democracy. If the people are to rule, they must have
practical means of determining who shall exercise political power
on their behalf. If they are to rule, the people must also monitor
and influence officials’ behaviour while in office. Elections are
at the heart of the practical means for the people to assert their
sovereignty.

Elections in themselves do not fulfil the requirement of modern

democracies. They must be free, fair, and sufficiently frequent if
the people’s will is to have effect. “Free elections” means all adult
citizens can vote in elections and stand to be elected for office.
Candidates for office are not in any way blocked from addressing the
electorate. “Fair elections” means elections that are fundamentally
honest. Voters must not be stopped from voting and all votes must
be accurately counted. The term “Frequent elections” means that
elections must be held often enough to enable the people to exercise
their control of government. As overseers of government, the people
must have alternative sources of information. Freedom of the press
is, therefore, an essential aspect of democratic government.

Constitutionalism is the use of constitutions to limit government

by law. The people do not give power to government to oppress or
abuse, but rather to protect their fundamental rights, interests, and
welfare. Therefore, they limit government power by authoritative
fundamental laws called “constitutions.” The constitution is
a written document and a means used to state what powers
government shall have. In defining these powers, constitutions
limit them.

Liberalism means freedom, equality, and dignity of the individual.

Liberal democracy recognises the moral primacy of the individual
and that all persons have certain fundamental rights. The central
purpose of democracy is to protect these rights in the practical
world of everyday life. Examples of these fundamental rights are
freedom of religion/conscience the right to practice any religion or
none equal rights of all citizens to participate in choosing those
who govern and to remove them at will through elections. There are

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different forms of freedom such as freedom of the press, freedom of

individual expression, right to privacy and to a private sphere of life
free from governmental interference, right to freedom of association
in public and private, etc.

The countries in the sub region try to implement all these principles.
The main instrument that is now used is elections at different levels
of administrative entities. Most of the time, popular consultations
are held in countries in the region to elect the leaders from the
central to the local government.

Good governance
Good governance is about the processes for making and
implementing decisions. It is not about making correct decisions,
but about the best possible process for making those decisions.
Good decision-making processes, and therefore good governance,
share several characteristics. All have a positive effect on various
aspects of local government including consultation policies
and practices, meeting procedures, service quality protocols,
councillor and officer conduct, role clarification and good working
relationships.

The main characteristics of good governance are accountability,

transparency, rule of law, responsiveness, equity, inclusion,
effectiveness, efficiency, and participation of the citizens in
decision-making.

In Rwanda and the region, the implementation of good governance

is carried out through decentralisation of administration and
involvement of the population in decision-making, including the
youth, women and vulnerable groups.

Having a strong sense of patriotism

Patriotism is the attachment to a homeland. This attachment
can be viewed in terms of different features relating to one’s
own homeland, including ethnic, cultural, political or historical
aspects. It encompasses a set of concepts closely related to those
of nationalism. To preserve national independence, the citizens
should have love for their own country. This state of someone
loving his or her country is termed patriotism.

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Patriotism is acquired through the education of citizens. In Rwanda,

for instance, the channel through which this value is inculcated
into the citizens is the National Itorero Commission (NIC). Itorero
is a Rwandan civic education institution which aims mainly at
teaching all Rwandans to keep their culture through different
values such as national unity, social solidarity, patriotism, integrity,
bravery, tolerance, the dos and don’ts of the society like corruption,
embezzlement, impunity, etc.

Through this instrument Rwandans also keep informed of

government policies and programmes, which will strengthen
ownership of these policies and promote the role of the population
in the implementation of these social-economic development
programmes. Itorero ry’Igihugu also aims at cultivating visionary,
patriotic, and exemplary servant leaders at all level of governance,
leaders who have a heart for the people and their wellbeing. A
culture of selflessness and voluntarism is also being revived and
entrenched among Rwandans of all walks of life.

Itorero aims to promote opportunities for development using

Rwandan cultural values; identify taboos that inhibit the
development of the country; fight violence and corruption; eradicate
the culture of impunity; strengthen the culture of peace, tolerance,
unity and reconciliation; and eradicate genocide ideology and all
its roots.

The National Itorero Commission (NIC) has established the

following National Values that Rwandans should be equipped with:
࿤࿤ Speed and respect for time: A country in a hurry;
࿤࿤ Customer service mentality: Constant improvement and
anticipation;
࿤࿤ Quality of delivery: High standards, spirit of excellence, efficiency;
࿤࿤ Completion-towards results: We finish what we start;
࿤࿤ Self respect: National pride.
On the other hand, there are taboos that Rwandans should avoid:
࿤࿤ Inattention to results: Status and ego
࿤࿤ Avoidance of accountability: Missed deadlines
࿤࿤ Lack of commitment: Ambiguity
࿤࿤ Fear of conflict: Artificial harmony
࿤࿤ Lack of trust: Invulnerability.

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Having self-esteem and confidence among the citizens

Being independent demands a strong mindset, thinking positively
and a belief in the possibility to achieve the desired set goals.
This in turn will lead to selflessness, sharing resources, time and
money to make sure that everything is done. Once this is achieved,
independence can be easily maintained.

National security and sovereignty

National security and sovereignty should be tightly guarded in the
whole country. This is to provide security not only for the citizens but
also for the foreigners living in the country for different purposes. In
addition, security is a sine qua non for attracting foreign investors.

Respect of principles of democracy

This is another necessary element for attaining and maintaining
independence; where the leaders should be fairly, democratically
and freely elected at different levels.

Promoting basic principles of democracy such as representative

democracy, the constitution, respect for human rights and
pluralism, among others, must be maintained so as to avail a
peaceful environment for development and independence.

Good governance
To maintain national independence, it is important to place more
emphasis on decentralisation of administration and involvement
of the population in decision-making, including the youth, women
and vulnerable groups.

Embezzlement and mismanagement of national funds

Corruption, embezzlement and mismanagement are some of the
most formidable challenges to good governance, development
and poverty reduction. The fight against them should be one of
the government’s priorities. This would lead to efficient use of the
limited resources available.

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Economic and socio-cultural factors for national independence

Activity 2

Discuss the different socio-economic factors that are likely to

sustain the independence of a nation or country. Present the
results of your discussion to the class.

Promotion and support of the private sector

The government has to enhance collaboration and cooperation
between the private sector and the public sector. This will improve
service delivery and the performance of the private sector hence
paving the way for economic independence.

Improvement of the industrial sector

In developing countries, lack of independence is caused by a
deficit balance of payment. Then, the creation of local industries
will substitute the imported manufactured goods and with such a
strong economy, the country will be economically independent.

Promotion of good investment climate

To be economically autonomous, the country needs to promote
business and investment by setting up favourable investment
policies and supporting local investors. This can be done by
subsidising local investors which can increase their capacities,
giving tax holidays to investors and free land among others. All this
can lead to expanded employment, wide tax base and a desirable
independent economy.

Good resource management

The good management of national resources helps to avoid wastage
and underutilisation of resources. The national resources include
human resources, raw materials, finances and all inputs that can
produce outputs. Once well utilised, the available resources can
lead to both political and economic independence.

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Promoting and sustaining self-reliance

Activity 3

Discuss the different home grown solutions that the Rwandan

government has taken to overcome different problems it was
faced with. Present the results of your discussion to the class.

Self-reliance is a state of being independent in all aspects. It can

be social, political and economic independence.

To stimulate development and be self-reliant, Rwandans have

adopted a number of home-grown solutions. After the 1994
genocide against the Tutsi and its legacy of suffering and division,
Rwandans decided to find their own methods of solving their
problems.

It is in this context that Rwandans have got to embark on

supporting the adaptation and reintroduction of ancient practices
such as umuganda, itorero, ubudehe, gacaca, abunzi committees,
imihigo, girinka, and agaciro development fund, etc. These home-
grown solutions mold age-old practices with modern-day life and
present workable solutions in justice, good governance, poverty
reduction and reconciliation. They help Rwanda to maintain its
independence in the long run. Home-grown solutions seek not just
to drive socio-economic development but also to promote unity,
reconciliation and social cohesion.

In brief, home grown solutions can be explained as follows:

Girinka (one cow per poor family) programme

The programme of girinka primarily aims at improving the
livelihoods of poor households by offering and managing dairy
cows for increased milk, meat and fertiliser production.

This not only improves nutrition but also increases the earnings of
beneficiaries from the sale of milk and other milk products, meat,
and sale of manure.

But the programme also boosts social cohesion by passing on

the first calf to another household. Therefore, this programme

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contributes not only to the improvement of the income of the

beneficiaries, but also to the reduction of dependency.

Imihigo: A Rwandan woman receiving a cow from the Girinka

Munyarwanda programme (Source: Google)
Imihigo is at the heart of local governance in Rwanda. It is a
performance contract between the President of the Republic and
each district’s Mayor. It has also been expanded to include each
strata of government. Each leader makes a reciprocal contract with
the entities above and below them all the way to individual citizens.
It is a participatory planning process designed to make it possible
for every Rwandan to be involved in local development and to
enable them to hold their leaders accountable for this progress.

Planning begins with individual households reporting to their

villages, villages to cells, cells to sectors, and so on up to the
district level. The district development plan reflects the priorities of
the central government and this contract is signed by both district
leaders and the President. It is viewed as a way for Rwanda to
decentralise policymaking while maintaining accountability.

Leaders are held accountable at yearly reviews of imihigo contracts

where the outcomes are published and widely disseminated. The
contracts themselves are also transparent and exposed to the
public.

Umuganda
As part of its Vision 2020 development programme, the government
implemented a community service policy called umuganda.
It was created to help supplement the national budget spent in
construction and the repair of basic infrastructure. The work done

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is organised by community members and is done voluntarily and

without pay.

The projects completed through umuganda include, but are not

limited to, the construction of schools, feeder roads, road repair,
terracing, reforestation, home construction for vulnerable people,
soil erosion control, water canals, etc.

This policy will result in a more cohesive society as all members

of a community come together to complete a project that benefits
them. Reports are prepared monthly to account for the value and
quantity of work done.

Umuganda activities have since 2007 been used to address various

environmental and social support aspects, especially for the needy,
saving RWF 33 billion that would have been used in reaching out to
all the communities. All people dedicate the last Saturday of each
month to mainly cleaning and rehabilitation of the environment.
After that, a meeting is held to discuss the progress of the nation.

Establishment of forums of mediators (Abunzi)

The forums of mediators known as Abunzi are panel councils
of the people from the local community known as Abunzi or
Mediators. The mediation committees were established by organic
law No. 02/2010/OL of 09/06/2010 on organisation, jurisdiction,
competence and functioning of the mediation committee published
in Official Gazette No. 24 Bis of 14/06/2010.

This law defines the Mediation Committee as an “organ meant for

providing a framework for mandatory mediation prior to filing cases
in courts hearing at first instance cases referred to in Articles 8 and
9 of this Organic Law.” (Art.3)

This committee was established at the Cell level and at Sector level
and at this level acts as appeal for the Mediation Committee.

According to the law establishing the organ of Abunzi, the

mediators play a big role in conflicts resolution where, due to their
competences, they make trials of the problems that affect the
Rwandans.

Abunzi reduce the number of cases introduced in ordinary courts

because many problems are resolved in local communities.

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As the problems are locally resolved, Abunzi pave a strong way

to national reconciliation because the solutions come from the
neighbours.

The activities of Abunzi cement national unity as all social categories

who are equally treated.

Economically, the Abunzi improved the economic conditions

of Rwandans because their role did not affect their economic
activities. In addition, the time spent in ordinary courts is reduced.
Even the money for transport is not necessary.

Abunzi remains the nearest organ that facilitates the population to

find solutions to their problems as mediators.

The establishment of the agaciro development fund

The establishment of the agaciro development fund has been the
most remarkable home-grown solution that drives Rwanda directly
to achieving self-reliance. Though the dvelopment of this initiative
was coincidental at the time when Rwanda faced aid cuts from
donor communities, the initiative has showed signs of hope. Today,
this fund has accumulated and it is invested in different national
projects.

Ubudehe
Ubudehe is a poverty eradication programme under the Ministry
of Finance. A pilot programme was launched in 2001 and the
official launch was in 2004. It is a culture of collective action and
solidarity to solve problems of poverty by people themselves. This
is done by categorising Rwandans into different income groups
according to self sustenance. The poor are given priority in terms
of health insurance, education, electricity, water supply and even
accommodation.

Kuremera
Kuremera is an initiative created by the government of Rwanda. It
aims at solving the problem of unemployment, especially among
the youth. At the start, the Rwandan government gave Rwandan
francs 200 million to youth. They were given this amount to
start self-help projects. In practice, the youth are invited to plan
projects and the best ones after being selected, the winners are

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trained in project management and assisted to get loans through

hanga umurimo programme without collateral security before the
implementation of their projects.

This practice of kuremera has gone even to local levels where

members of a given community can join hands to help the needy.
For example, they can construct houses, avail water for the aged
people and provide food.

The National Itorero Commission

From November 19th, 2007, Itorero ry’Igihugu was launched in all
districts of the country. In December 2007, a ceremony to present
nationwide Intore regiments at district level to His Excellency the
President of the Republic of Rwanda and other senior Government
officials took place at Amahoro stadium. Each district’s regiment
presented their performance contract at that colourful ceremony
marked by cultural festivals. Each district’s Intore regiment
publically announced its identification name. At the national level,
all the 30 District Intore regiments comprise One National Itorero,
but each District regiment has its identification name. Each district
regiment can have an affiliate sub-division which can, in turn, also
have a different identification name.

There is also Itorero for Rwandan Diaspora that has the authority
to develop its affiliated sub-division. From November 2007 up to
the end of 2012, Itorero ry’ Igihugu had a total of 284,209 trained
Intore.

In order to enable each Intore to benefit and experience change

of mindset, each group sets objectives it must achieve. Those
projected objectives must be achieved during or after training, and
this is confirmed by the performance contracts that have to be
accomplished. With this obligation in mind, each individual also
sets a personal objective that in turn contributes to the success of
the corporate objectives.

A total of 814,587 Intore have been trained at the village level.

Those mentored at the national level mentor in villages, schools,
and at various work places. In total, 1,098,599 Rwandans have
been mentored nationwide.

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Achievements Made Through Urugerero Programme

Plans to implement Urugerero (National Service) started toward
the end of 2012 and the actual implementation started in 2013.
Despite this short time of existance, Urugerero programme has
started to yield impressive results. Students who completed
Secondary School in 2012 went through Itorero mentorship
between 30/11 and 17/12/ 2012. Upon completion of the
prescribed course, participants were given certificates, but later
on, they had to undergo a practical exercise of Urugerero organised
through various activities designed to promote social cohesion and
community wellness in particular, and boost national development
in general. Intore mentored at that time totalled 40,730 where
19,285 were female. However, those who joined Urugerero were
37,660, where female were 18,675.

According to the policy of Itorero ry’ Igihugu, volunteerism refers to

any unpaid communal work, voluntarily undertaken in the service of
the nation. Volunteerism is reflected in various community works,
such as Umuganda, Ubudehe, and contributions to a common cause.
Other voluntary activities include those of Community Mediators,
various Councils, Community Health Workers, Community Policing
Committees (CPCs), Red Cross volunteers, etc.

Actual Urugerero activities started on 17/1/2013, but they was

officially launched on 22/1/2013. The activities included general
community sensitisation, collection of essential data base, and
community work in support of vulnerable groups.

The achievements of this pioneer group of Urugerero are as follows:

࿤࿤ Sensitising Rwandans on the eradication of genocide and its
ideology, and encouraging all Rwandans to participate in
activities organised to commemorate the genocide committed
against Tutsi in 1994;
࿤࿤ Sensitising the community on the importance of mutual health
insurance, adult literacy, fighting against drug abuse, legalising
marriages, especially for families that are cohabitating, and
environmental protection;
࿤࿤ Organizing meetings at village levels aimed at educating the
community on Rwandan cultural values, unity, patriotism, and
development;

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࿤࿤ Educating the population on personal hygiene and cleanliness

of their environment.
࿤࿤ Collecting data on different categories of people; for example,
the illiterate people, people who have not yet registered for
mutual health insurance, people legible for paying tax and
making inventories of districts’ property, school dropouts and
children of school going age who are not yet in school, illegal
marriages, etc.
Some groups of Intore in Urugerero opted to demonstrate how
speedy and exceptional service could be rendered while working
with various public offices. This kind of support work was done
in health centres, cell offices, district offices, especially in the
services relating to issuing of documents, data entry in computers
and customer care.

Activities relating to manual community work include vegetable

gardening for family consumption, shelters construction for
vulnerable families, participation in the construction of cell offices
and landscaping their compounds.

In environmental protection, Intore constructed terraces and

planted trees as a measure of preventing soil erosion.

The above activities were related to the promotion of the Volunteer

Services in National Development Programmes. In the Rwandan
culture, “volunteerism” means rendering a sacrificial and selfless
service out of love either to a national cause or to a needy
neighbour. All in all, these are the outcomes, outputs and activities
relating to fraternity, national identity and participation in national
programmes through Urugerero instilled and entrenched among
the youth.

Ndi Umunyarwanda
Ndi Umunyarwanda is a programme of the government of Rwanda
aimed at restoring the unity of Rwandan society. This unity had
been destroyed by colonisers who, after their arrival in Rwanda,
changed social classes into ethnic groups by telling Rwandans that
they did have the same origin and they were not equal. They did
this to divide Rwandans. These colonial deeds led to the destruction
of Rwandan identity and the loss of Rwandan values. To restore
values unity among Rwandans, there has to be one knot to tie
Rwandans: “Ndi Umunyarwanda”.

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 Factors for National Independence

Ndi Umunyarwanda campaign has been disseminated in the whole

country as part of the Rwandan Government’s efforts to foster unity
and reconciliation. Ndi Umunyarwanda is a heroic action which is
applauded, and supported by all Rwandans.

Ndi Umunyarwanda programme, will help them disseminate

factual evidence about the past for improved public understanding
that creates better citizens.

Ndi Umunyarwanda cultivates a culture of hope over fear, love

over hatred, national identity over ethnicity. Throughout recorded
history, scholars in different disciplines have focused on how the
past can inform politics, religion, art, and social life of different
groups in transforming both human and economic development of
a country.

Ndi Umunyarwanda is aimed at building national cohesion and

unity with the purpose of avoiding suspicion and distrust among
citizens.

The campaign for “Made in Rwanda”

This campaign aims at finding a solution to the country’s socio-
economic challenges by promoting locally made products and
services to boost domestic production. This will in turn stimulate
local consumption habits and reduce the country’s heavy import
bill. This campaign for “made in Rwanda” is done mainly through
exhibitions of local products.
  

Exhibition held on December 14 to 20, 2016 at Gikondo expo grounds

organised by the Private Sector Federation in partnership with the
Government of Rwanda (Source: Google)

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Unit summary
National independence is of great importance for it leads to self-
sustenance and self-reliance. National independence eliminates the
dependence burden as well as foreign domination that results from aid
with strings attached.

To maintain national independence and achieve self-reliance,

Rwanda has adopted a number of home-grown solutions based
on her own cultural heritage. It is in this context that programmes
like umuganda, itorero, ubudehe, gacaca, abunzi committees,
girinka, and agaciro development fund, made in Rwanda etc. have
been launched and very good results have already been yielded. A
big number of Rwandans have left poverty. Rwandans have been
reconciled and live together after the 1994 genocide against the
Tutsi.

Glossary
Apprehend: get the meaning of something or take into
custody e.g. “the police apprehended the
suspected criminals”
Boost: contribute to the progress or growth of or
Increase or raise
Collateral: descended from a common ancestor but
through different lines or serving to support or
corroborate or Situated or running side by side
Disseminate: cause to become widely known
Humanity: the quality of being kind to people and animals
by making sure that they do not suffer more
than is necessary, the quality of being humane
Legacy: (law) a gift of personal property by will
Normative: describing or setting standards or rules of
behaviour
Promulgate: to announce a new law or system officially or
publicly

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Sine qua non: an essential condition; a thing that is absolutely

necessary
Volunteerism: the use or involvement of volunteer labour,
especially in community service

Revision questions
1. Discuss the political, economic and social factors for national
independence.
2. Explain the methods that can be adopted to promote and
sustain self-reliance.
3. Evaluate the home-grown solutions adopted by Rwanda to
achieve self-reliance.
end of unit 14

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Concept of
Unit Disability
15 and Inclusive
Education

Key unit competence

Differentiate special needs education and inclusive education and
appreciate the impact of inclusive education.

Introduction
Inclusive education means that different and diverse students are
learning side by side in the same classroom.

This unit explains some terms such as special needs education,

inclusive education, exclusion, inclusion and integration, and
identifies the characteristics of children with special needs. It also
explores ways of helping children with disabilities and the impact
of inclusive education.

Links to other subjects

This unit can be linked to other subjects like social studies and
general studies; living together in our society.

Main points to be covered in this unit

࿤࿤ Definition of special needs education
࿤࿤ Who are children with special needs?

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࿤࿤ Ways to help children with special need.

࿤࿤ Definition of inclusive education
࿤࿤ Exclusion and inclusion
࿤࿤ Integration
࿤࿤ Impacts of inclusive education

Activity 1

Using the internet or dictionary, research the meaning of the

following terms: special needs education, special education
needs, inclusive education, exclusion, inclusion and integration

Definitions
The term ‘special needs education’ is a specific educational
arrangement put in place for learners with learning difficulties or
disabilities.

Example of an inclusive classroom

(Source: Google)
Special educational needs is/are learning difficulties or disabilities
which make it harder for learners to learn in the same way as their
peers of the same age.

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 Concept of Disability and Inclusive Education

Inclusive education refers to an education system which takes into

consideration the learning and educational support needs for all
learners irrespective of their abilities and backgrounds.

Inclusion is based on the right of all learners for a quality and

equitable education that meets their basic needs and takes into
account the diverse of backgrounds and abilities as a learning
opportunity.

Exclusion is the of not allowing someone to take part in an activity

or to enter a place.

Integration is the combining of two or more things so that they

work together effectively. When people become part of a group or
society and are accepted by them, integration has taken place.

Activity 2
1. Using internet or relevant textbooks and persons as
resources, identify who the children with special needs are.
Present the results of your findings to the class.
2. Role play the case of learners with visual impairment and
find out how you can help such a student. How do you feel?
Describe his or her attitude and the reaction of the students
of the class.

Who are children with special needs?

Children with special needs are children who have a disability or
a combination of disabilities that make learning or other activities
difficult.

Special needs children include those who have:

Intellectual disability (ID), also known as general learning disability,

or mental retardation (MR), is a generalized neuro developmental
disorder characterised by significantly impaired intellectual
and adaptive functioning. It is defined by an IQ score under 70 in
addition to deficits in two or more adaptive behaviours that affect
day-to-day living. Once focused almost entirely on cognition, the
definition now includes both a component relating to mental
functioning and one relating to an individuals’ functional skills in their

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environments. Intellectual disability is subdivided into syndromic

intellectual disability, where intellectual deficits associated with
other medical and behavioural signs and symptoms are present, and
non-syndromic intellectual disability, in which intellectual deficits
appear without other abnormalities. Down syndrome and fragile X
syndrome are examples of syndromic intellectual disabilities.

The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) officially

defines speech and language impairments as a communication
disorder such as stuttering or stammering, impaired articulation,
a language impairment, or a voice impairment that adversely
affects a child’s educational performance. Each point in this
official definition represents a speech and language subcategory.
A communication disorder such as stuttering provides an example
of a fluency disorder. Other fluency issues include unusual word
repetition and hesitant speech. Impaired articulation indicates
impairments in which a child experiences challenges in pronouncing
specific sounds. A language impairment can entail difficulty
comprehending words properly, expressing oneself and listening to
others. Finally, a voice impairment involves difficulty in voicing out
words; for instance, throat issues that may cause an abnormally
soft voice.

Physical disability (wheel chair users, crutch users) is an

impairment that makes one unable to use his or her limbs to
perform a function. Such children cannot easily move around the
school environment, may have difficulty in getting to school, may
not participate in games with other children, and may find some
school infrastructure such as playground, toilet etc., inaccessible.

Learning disabilities, or learning disorders, are an umbrella term

for a wide variety of learning problems. A learning disability is
not a problem with intelligence or motivation. Kids with learning
disabilities are not lazy or dumb. In fact, most are just as smart
as everyone else. Their brains are simply wired differently. This
difference affects how they receive and process information. In
simple terms, children and adults with learning disabilities see,
hear, and understand things differently. This can lead to trouble in
learning new information and skills, and putting them to use. The
most common types of learning disabilities involve problems with
reading, writing, counting, reasoning, listening, and speaking.

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Visual impairment (low vision, totally blind) is a condition of

some one being unable to see the blackboard, cannot read print
textbooks, and cannot write in notebooks.

Hearing impairment (hard of hearing, total deafness), is a condition

of a learners being unable to hear.

Developmental disability results in problems with growth and

development. For example, learners with intellectual disability
(slow learners, autism, dyslexia) may not be able to understand
the teacher, or to socialise with other children, and may need more
time to accomplish class works.

Mental health and emotional disabilities: This is a mental disorder

or illness which is perceived outside by the majority of the society
as antisocial or other behavioural problems. Children with brain
disorders such as bipolar disorder, anxiety disorders, or even
depression have emotional dissabilities.

Gifted and talented learners: These are learners who have higher
abstract thinking. They often get bored in class after finishing tasks
quickly, and may not be understood by the teacher. A gifted learner
may have a specific talent or be gifted in a specific area.

Activity 3

Identify the types of disability in each of the cases below and

fill in the table.

Case 1: Francine is 10 years old, but she still cannot read her
own name.

Case 2: John is an albino. His eyes look unusual and he cannot

copy from the blackboard.

Case 3: Claude cannot walk well. He has no wheelchair but

can move slowly with the help of a crutch.

Case 4: Nelly never answers the teacher when he talks, but she
can copy the notes on the blackboard very well.

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Case 5: Peace is very intelligent. She cannot use one of her

hands. Her writing is poor and difficult to read.

Case 6: Fred has down’s syndrome. He cannot read or write.

Case study Impairment

1
2
3
4
5
6

Activity 4

Given the impairment below, suggest possible strategies to help

the learners with such impairment. Present the results to the
class.
1. Visual
2. Hearing
3. Learning
4. Physical

Ways to help learners with special needs

N.B. Why do we learn about learners with special needs?

We learn about children with special needs because with proper
care and education, every child can reach his or her full potential.
Learners with special needs require extra attention, teaching, care
and love.

The table below shows some classroom strategies to help children

with special needs:

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 Concept of Disability and Inclusive Education

Impairment Classroom strategies

Visual ࿤࿤ Ask the children where they can see best and
allow them to sit in that place
࿤࿤ Write with yellow chalk on a clean chalkboard
࿤࿤ Use big writing on the chalkboard
࿤࿤ Sit next to them and help them
Hearing ࿤࿤ Look at them when speaking
࿤࿤ Speak clearly and loudly
࿤࿤ Sit next to them and help
࿤࿤ Write instructions on the chalkboard or on paper
Physical ࿤࿤ Help them to move around
࿤࿤ Allow them to sit in a place where they can
move around easily
࿤࿤ Encourage them as they take more time and
practice to write
࿤࿤ Copy important notes for them on paper, if it
takes them too much time to copy all
Learning ࿤࿤ Encourage them to utilise the time given to
them to finish work and to answer questions
and sit close to them and help
࿤࿤ Give the learner a slate (urubaho) to help them
communicate
࿤࿤ Speak slowly and use simple words
࿤࿤ Give the child real objects to use

Ways to help children with special needs

A teacher must understand that students with special needs need
to be taught differently. Some strategies are necessary to enhance
the learning environment.

Strategies that can be used

࿤࿤ Inclusion: in this strategy, learners with special needs spend all,
or most of the school day with fellow learners who do not have
special needs.
࿤࿤ Specialized services may be provided inside and outside
the regular classroom. These include speech and language
therapy, occupational therapy, physical therapy, rehabilitation,
counseling.

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࿤࿤ They might also leave the regular classroom for services that
require privacy, such as counseling sessions with a social worker.
࿤࿤ Facing the learner while you speak might help learners with a
hearing impairment
࿤࿤ Use large writing on the blackboard and on visual aids
࿤࿤ Try to understand the specific talents of the learner and develop
them.
࿤࿤ Break the task down into small steps or learning objectives.
Ensure learners start with what they can easily do, and then
move on to a new harder task.
࿤࿤ Give the learner lots of practice and time. This is called “ over-
learning”. It helps to ensure the child has mastered a skill.
࿤࿤ Be motivational. Disabled learners need and should get lots of
specific praises. Instead of just saying, “you did well, ” or “I like
your work,” be sure you provide specific praising comments that
link the activity directly with the recognition.
࿤࿤ Be positive. A positive attitude is the single most important
quality for anyone who works with children with special needs.
࿤࿤ The child’s eating, sleeping, and exercise habits may be of great
importance. If children with learning disabilities are eating right
and getting enough sleep and exercise, they will be better able
to focus, concentrate, and work hard.

Activity 5

Use internet and relevant textbooks and research on the impact

of inclusive education. Write an essay. Afterwards present it to
the class.

Impact of inclusive education

Around the world, children are excluded from schools where they
belong because of disability, race, language, religion, gender, and
poverty. But every child has the right to be supported by their
parents and community to grow, learn and develop in the early
years, and to go to school upon reaching school age.

When all children, regardless of their differences, are educated

together, everyone benefits. This is the role of inclusive education.

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Inclusive education has many benefits:

Benefits of inclusivity in a Consequences of no inclusivity

classroom(inclusive education) in a classroom
࿤࿤ Learners with Special ࿤࿤ May increase absenteeism
education needs can access and dropouts
basic education ࿤࿤ Violates human rights
࿤࿤ Special education needs ࿤࿤ Special education needs
learners can interact with their learners may be bored in
peers and develop social skills class
࿤࿤ Special education needs ࿤࿤ Special education needs
learners have an opportunity learners may not be able to
to become adults who can learn effectively and will lag
work and contribute to the behind other learners
community ࿤࿤ Learners may not develop
࿤࿤ All learners gain respect for respect for others, can
others create an environment of
࿤࿤ Inclusive classrooms develop shame or bullying
generic competences of ࿤࿤ Can create disorder in class
cooperation and life skills ࿤࿤ Families with special
࿤࿤ Reduces dropout rates in education needs children
schools may feel neglected
࿤࿤ Creates motivating ࿤࿤ Demotivates learners
environment for special
education needs learners

Unit summary
Inclusive education is based on the right of all learners to learn
together for a quality and equitable education. It acknowledges
that the diversity of backgrounds and abilities is an opportunity.
There are many strategies that can be used to help the learners
with special needs like extra attention, care, love, etc.

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Glossary
Dyslexia: impaired ability to learn or read
Absenteeism: habitual absence from work
Shame: a painful emotion resulting from an awareness
of inadequacy or guilt or a state of dishonour
Therapy: (medicine) the act of caring for someone (as by
medication or remedial training etc.)
Syndrome: a pattern of symptoms indicative of some
disease
Albino: a person with congenital albinism: white hair
and milky skin; eyes are usually pink

Revision questions
1. Identify children with special needs and suggest ways in which
such children can be helped.
2. Define the following terms
࿤࿤ Special educational needs
࿤࿤ Special needs education
࿤࿤ Inclusion
࿤࿤ Integration
3. Explain the benefits of inclusive education.
end of unit 15

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 History for Rwanda Secondary Schools

Tolerance and
Unit respect
16

Key unit competence

Recognise and respond to the effects of bias, prejudice, intolerance
and stigma on individual and families.

Introduction
This unit consists of the definitions of major terms such as bias,
prejudice, stigma, intolerance, harassment, rejection, and bullying.
It also analyses the impact of those negative attitudes on healthy
relationships among people. Thirdly it calls for the responsibility of
everybody to support or defend people who are being harassed or
bullied.

Links to other subjects

This unit can be linked to other subjects and extended to units like
effective communication in general studies and social studies.

Main points to be covered in this unit:

࿤࿤ Definition of the terms bias, prejudice, stigma or intolerance,
harassment, rejection and bullying.
࿤࿤ Impact of bias, prejudice, stigma, intolerance on healthy
relationships among peers, people living with HIV/AIDS, people
with disabilities, people who are perceived to be different, etc.
࿤࿤ The emotional, economic, physical and social consequences of
prejudice, stigma, harassment, and rejection.

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Activity 1

Make a research on the internet or in a dictionary about the

definition of bias, stigma, intolerance, harassment, rejection
and bullying. Make a report to the class.

Definitions
࿤࿤ Bias is inclination towards something. Partiality, preference.
Inclined to one side. A preconceived opinion about something,
or someone.
࿤࿤ Bullying is an act of intimidating a weaker person to do something,
especially with repeated coercion. Persistent acts intended to
make life unpleasant for another person. In many cases, bullying
is also defined as the activity of repeated, aggressive behaviour
intended to hurt another individual, physically, mentally or
emotionally. It can be individual, physical, verbal, relational
or collective etc. Schools, students; teenagers can be targeted
because of clothes, shoes, colour of your skin etc. Bullying is a
punishable offense in all schools.
࿤࿤ Prejudice is an opinion formed beforehand or without
knowledge of the facts. Any pre-conceived opinion or feeling,
whether positive or feeling negative. It is preconceived, usually
unfavourable, judgments toward people or a person because of
gender, political opinion, social class, age, disability, religion,
race/ethnicity, language, nationality etc.
࿤࿤ Stigma is a mark of infamy or disgrace. It is also defined as an
association of disgrace or public disapproval of something, such
as an action or condition. e.g. HIV infected person.
࿤࿤ Intolerance is the fact of not accepting other people’s opinions
or beliefs or practices. Refusal to tolerate or respect persons of a
different social group, especially members of a minority group.
e.g. religious intolerance.
࿤࿤ Harassment is persistent attacks and criticism causing worry
and distress or an excessive intimidation. It is behaviour which
appears to be disturbing or threatening. This includes sexual
harassment which refers to persistent and unwanted sexual
advances, typically in the workplace, where the consequences
of refusing are potentially very disadvantageous to the victim.
࿤࿤ Rejection is refusal of accepting other people’s performance.
Denying others opinions or beliefs. Act of pushing someone or
something away.
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 Tolerance and respect

Impact of bias, prejudice, stigma intolerance

Activity 2

Do the following activities:

࿤࿤ Explain why many schools oblige students to wear uniforms.
࿤࿤ Explain why “canteens” were abolished in many schools.
࿤࿤ Show the impact of wearing non-uniform clothes in schools
࿤࿤ How can you help students from poor families who are
victims of discrimination. Present the finding to the class.
࿤࿤ Using the internet and relevant books, explain why prejudice,
stigma, harassment, and bullying are harmful. Present the
result to the class.
࿤࿤ Role play a case study of a student living with HIV who
is a victim of stigmatisation. Describe the consequences of
stigmatisation.

Impact of stigma
HIV related stigma and discrimination refers to prejudice, negative
attitude and abuses directed at people living with HIV and AIDS.

The consequences of stigma and discrimination are the following:

࿤࿤ Stigma makes the victims develop fear and mistrust of others
and do not want to meet them. They develop a practice of non-
self-esteem. Besides, the victims of stigma and discrimination
can suffer from the following:
࿤࿤ Loss of income and livelihood
࿤࿤ Difficulty to get married and failing to produce children
࿤࿤ Being hopeless and having feelings of worthlessness
࿤࿤ Lack of reputation.
࿤࿤ It leads to depression and anger in the victims
࿤࿤ It leads to poor care in the health sector
࿤࿤ It leads to withdrawal of care-giving in the home
࿤࿤ It makes some people ashamed by family, peers and the wider
community.
࿤࿤ It results in poor treatment of patients in healthcare and
educational settings.

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࿤࿤ It makes people fear to come out.

࿤࿤ The victims develop a practice of self-stigmatisation.

Impact of prejudice
࿤࿤ The prejudiced person may be affected in many ways. People,
who make wrong assumptions about others, whether because
of race or health status or any other reason, limit the personal
growth of victims.
࿤࿤ Victims of prejudice may experience shame and anger, leading
to detrimental behaviour, such as aggression.
࿤࿤ They tend to perform worse when they feel they are being
stereotyped.
࿤࿤ Prejudice forces the victims to have a false social status that
strongly influences who they are, what they think, and even the
actions they take.
࿤࿤ Prejudice greatly influences what people expect from the future
and how they feel about their chances for self-improvement,
referred to as their life chances.
࿤࿤ People acting out their prejudices cause domestic violence,
crime, or even death.
࿤࿤ Opportunities in life are lost and personal relationships damaged
when people act upon their prejudice.

Impact of intolerance
࿤࿤ It leads to disunity among the peers because some people will
be tolerated in groups while others are segregated.
࿤࿤ It makes people feel like the social misfits. People with disabilities
who are not tolerated by peers in society feel isolated.
࿤࿤ It also leads to school drop outs. A learner who is not tolerated
may decide to drop out of school.
࿤࿤ Intolerance leads to desperation. This is usually with people
living with HIV/AIDS, and disabilities. Such people once not be
accommodated in society, they despair and this may lead to
death mostly with patients.
࿤࿤ It makes someone wild, rude or arrogant for he or she knows
that the public is against them.
࿤࿤ It makes such people live with regrets for the rest of their life.
Intolerance makes one regret the state of health he or she is in.
࿤࿤ It leads to suicide.
࿤࿤ Intolerance leads to hatred, and malice by those whom it is
directed to.

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Impact of bias
࿤࿤ It leads to loss of confidence (self-esteem).
࿤࿤ It leads to crimes against those biased including violence and
death.
࿤࿤ It leads to exclusion from society which can lead to psychological
problems.
࿤࿤ Bias makes an individual lose a sense of belonging.
࿤࿤ Bias at work places may lead one to be fired from places of
work, hence unemployment results.
࿤࿤ It leads to loss of reputation.

Effects of bullying
In case of bullying, a student or a teenager who is bullied feels
powerless, humiliated and lonely. He or she may not want to go to
school, participate in sports or get on the bus with others.

Bullying can affect those who are bullied, those who bully and
those who witness bullying.

An image showing bullying (Source: Google)

On those who are bullied

࿤࿤ Depression and anxiety, increased feeling of sadness and
loneliness, changes in sleep, loss of interest in activities they
used to enjoy.
࿤࿤ Decreased academic achievement and school participation.
They are more likely to miss lessons or drop out of school.

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On those who bully others

࿤࿤ Abuse of alcohol and other drugs in adolescence and as an adult.
࿤࿤ Get into fights and drop out of school
࿤࿤ Engage in early sexual activity
࿤࿤ Are abusive towards children and adults

On bystanders
Children who witness bullying are more likely to:
࿤࿤ Have increased use of alcohol and other drugs
࿤࿤ Have depression and anxiety
࿤࿤ Miss or skip school

The consequences of harassment

࿤࿤ It leads to disbelief.
࿤࿤ It causes anger.
࿤࿤ It leads to self-blame: “I shouldn’t have been there.”
࿤࿤ It leads to loss of self-confidence: “I’m so stupid for letting this
happen. I must be as bad as they say”.
࿤࿤ It causes a feeling of powerlessness: “nothing is going to stop
this”, “no one will believe me”.
࿤࿤ It leads to isolation, withdrawal, illness, depression.
࿤࿤ It causes loss of sleep.
࿤࿤ It leads to loss of appetite.
࿤࿤ It causes headache, stomach aches.
࿤࿤ It leads to increased anxiety or panic attacks.
࿤࿤ It leads to feeling demoralised.
࿤࿤ It makes one feel humiliated.
࿤࿤ It can cause fear of coming to school.
࿤࿤ It leads to inability to concentrate at school.
࿤࿤ It causes increased absenteeism at school.

The emotional, economic, physical and social consequences of

prejudice stigma, harassment and rejection
࿤࿤ Prejudice affects society when discriminatory views are translated
into institutional policy. This can lead to racial segregation and a
lower quality of life of the victims.
࿤࿤ Prejudice can have adverse impact on a person’s psyche.
࿤࿤ Prejudice can affect children at an early age. Children can
harbour racial views as early as 5 to 11 years.
࿤࿤ Prejudice can have far reaching effects on society, such as the
holocaust in Germany under Adolf Hitler.

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 Tolerance and respect

࿤࿤ Minorities can be scapegoats for societal failings, leading to an

atmosphere of violence and isolation.
࿤࿤ Discrimination and harassment leave the individual confused
and broken down.
࿤࿤ Financially, it causes people to lose their jobs.
࿤࿤ People who face racial discrimination may regroup with some
vengeance in mind against other groups. This can fuel conflict
and social discord.
࿤࿤ It can cause difficulty in interpersonal relationships, including
relationships with teachers and peers.
࿤࿤ It causes general feeling of unhappiness or depression.
࿤࿤ It creates feelings of fear and anxiety related to personal or
school matters.

Support to victims of these negative attitudes

Activity 3

How can you support a bullied student?

࿤࿤ Using the internet, research the strategies to avoid the
negative practice of stigma, bullying, bias, intolerance, and
segregation at school and in the community. Present the
result to the class.
࿤࿤ Role play a case of bullying and harassment in your class
and propose appropriate action to stop these bad attitudes.

The following ways can be suggested to support the victims of such

injustices:
࿤࿤ Use a respectful language because language reveals a lot about
what we think and how we feel. For example, do not ask a
person how he caught HIV/AIDS.
࿤࿤ Treat everybody with respect and awareness; even if you are
different. For instance “A Chinese must be accepted by a
Rwandan as equal because all are human beings.
࿤࿤ Show empathy towards the victims and try to understand their
problems because it can also happen to you.
࿤࿤ Educate and inform people about the misconceptions without.
Consider people with disability the same as other persons.
࿤࿤ To avoid these negative practices, political leaders have to
elaborate laws to protect children against bullying, harassment,
prejudice, stigma, intolerance. Parents, school staff, and other

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adults in the community can help children prevent bullying by

talking against it. Building a safe school environment, inclusive
education (code of conduct) and creating a community - wide
bullying prevention strategy can do much. The bullied student
reports to a trusted adult such as parent, teacher, or a guardian.
࿤࿤ The bullied student surrounds himself with supportive friends
and stays in groups.
࿤࿤ The bullied student can also avoid places where they are bullied.
In conclusion, tolerance provides an opportunity to learn from
others while respecting and valuing their differences in religious
and cultural beliefs. Tolerance works as a barrier to prejudice and
brings people of a community together.

Being a good role model and setting an example of respect can

teach others to be tolerant.

Unit summary
This unit explains some terms such as prejudice, stigma,
intolerance, bullying, bias, and it also focuses on the consequences
of these negative attitudes in the family and community in general,
particularly at school.

It analyses available support mechanisms to report and assist

people experiencing stigma, bullying and discrimination.

At its end, this unit recalls the importance of tolerance, acceptance

and respect to healthy relationships.

Glossary
Anxiety: a vague unpleasant emotion that is experienced
in anticipation of some (usually ill-defined)
misfortune or a relatively permanent state of
worry and nervousness occurring in a variety
of mental disorders, usually accompanied by
compulsive behaviour or attacks of panic
Bully: a person who deliberately intimidates or is
cruel to weaker people

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Depression: a mental state characterised by a pessimistic

sense of inadequacy and a despondent lack of
activity or sad feelings of gloom and inadequacy
Empathy: understanding and entering into another’s
feelings
Humiliated: subdued or brought low in condition or status
or made to feel uncomfortable because of
shame or wounded pride
Misconception: an incorrect conception
Psyche: that which is responsible for one’s thoughts
and feelings; the seat of the faculty of reason or
the immaterial part of a person; the actuating
cause of an individual life
Stigmatise: accuse or condemn openly or formally; classify
or describe as disgraceful or mark with a stigma
(= a symbol of disgrace or infamy)

Revision questions
1. Explain the following terms: Bias, prejudice, stigma, bullying,
harassment
2. What is the impact of stigma on healthy relationships among
peers?
3. What are the consequences of harassment at school?
4. Suggest any 3 strategies to stop bullying at school.
end of unit 16

275
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