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OATA CONVERSION/
·ACQUISITION

''-----' All of the preced~g ch~pters have dealt with digital circuitry 10.0 INTRODUCTION
and it's applicatiDns. In this chap~er YDU will study methDds fDr
cDnverting between analog and digital signals. These techr\iques
are impDrtant since many.of the quantities measured and
manipulated are analog quanti,ties.

Upon cDmpletion .of this c:hapter yD.U should be able to: 10.1 OBJECTIVES

• Explain the basic operation of a digital to analog

converter.

• Understand the .operation of an analog tD digital

CDnverter.

• Name twD types .of analDg tD digital CDnverter.

• Understand the basic DperatiDn of sample and hDld

circuits.

20
 .... . ' .~. ?~,;" '~'~ : . .', :·~,· ~~.~·t~ · ;,'
~"'\.I~~;J'.\oi"lII ThE! ; f9~ of t~' :. (;'1;lflPter will be data conversion. Data may be
', ,'
'. , . '. encotmtered in ' either analog or digital fonn. Devices which
< ,.
. ~ ;J.~.
' : ~: ~··.1'~1
:.1,4! ..

COl1v,~rtfrom analog to digital data are called analog to digital or

AID ~Qnverters. Devices which convert from digital to analog
. "
) ..'
' :~'
.
,
dataiu·ec:allef! gigi~hqa,~og or DI1} converters or DACs.
.'

· The need to (;0nvert betWeen datcftypes' often arises since

many data to be manipulated are analog such, as 'temperature or
wind, velocity, and ' the .· ~omputing machines which are
commonly used to manipulate these data are digital. Further,
many of the devices which are driven need analog inputs yet the
machinery best suited to solving the equations for driving the
device are digital.
Data conversion allows switching data from one data type
to another to best suit the needs of the people using the system.

10.2.0 D/A You will study digital to analog conversion first since the
Conversion circuitry for this conversion is simpler than the circuits used for
AID convetsion~ A variety of methods of impletpe"nti;n,g ' D I A
converters have been devised. Many of these methods share
"­
some common circuit elements. Figure 10-1 shows the general
block diagram for all D I A converters.
~---------~
FIGURE 10-1. Basic D/A
I Storage Register I
Converter Block Diagram.
l-r-,. _,..~ ~...,...a
• I I I I I I
..- Digital
Inputs
.... ,

lprec:) . '.' :'

P.S.

Amp
Divider Network
, ~>-+
Analog
Out

Notice that the three basic ,elements are a divider

network, a set of bit switches, and a precision power supply.
Frequently, DI As contain registers to store the binary data while
it is being converted. An output amplifier is often included with
the D I A to provide buffering and amplification of the results. A "'-../

simple D/ A converter is shown in Figure 10-2.

206
 FIGURE 10-2. Simple
D/A Converter.

In most practical circuits, the switches will be replaced

with electronic switches controlled by the outputs of a register or
counter.
The value of the resistor connected in series with each
switch is equal to the value of the resistor connected to the 20 bit
divided by the decimal equivalent of the bit weight. Hence the
second resistor is R/2 and if you were to add a fifth switch the
value of the resistor would be R/16.
The resistors of all switches in the HI state are connected
in parallel between V, the supply voltage, and the output. The
resistors of all switches in the LO state form a parallel network
between the output and ground.
The voltage on the output is a function of the voltage
divider produced by the number entered on the switches. If the
number six is entered, then the voltage divider would consist of
R/2 and R/4 paralleled between the supply voltage and the
output and R/B and R paralleled between the output and
ground. This assumes that RL is many times greater than Ro
and little current flows through it. The voltage output under
these conditions can be calculated from the resistance of the
parallel networkS. The R/2 and R/4 combination has an
equivalent resistance of R/6. The R/B and R combination has an
equivalent resistance of R/9. The voltage divider output is
equal to (R/9)/(R/9 + R/6), or 2/5, of the supply voltage. When
the supply voltage is fifteen volts as chosen, the output is 6V. In
general for the circuit shown with a 15V supply, Vout = IV x
(number set on the switches). This network is capable of fifteen
steps; for a supply of any voltage, V, the output is: Vout = V/15
207
 x (number of switches set).
This type of circuit will work, but has several drawbacks. '-­
One is that resistors of the correct 5!izemay not be commonly
available in standard sizes. Another is that the current loading
varies radically from one switch to another~ , For large networks
this can result in switching problems ,when' electronic switches
are used. Another type of circuit, the binary ladder, solves these
problems. Figure 10-3 shows the circuit diagram for a ladder
type Df A converter. '

FIGURE 10-3. Binary v

Ladder D/A Converter.
1

2R 2R 2R 2R

Notice that this circuit can. ,be fabricated to any size with
only two sizes of resistors. An equivalent, divider network is
easily determined for the binary , ladder. Assumeili.at all
switches exce,pt for the MSa aregro~ded. When this set of
conditions ,e~ts, the value pf the resistance betw,e en , any ,node
(except the MSB node) and grQund is R. The MSB node, which
is the circuit output, has a resistance of 2R to ground and to the
supplyvolta,g e. TIus means that the output is at a voltage level
of V/2. For a sixteen volt supply this translates to 8V. , Other
input combinations are more complex to analyze. When the
input is aA, all switches"are grounded except for the 4 switch.
This situation is shown in Figure 10-4.
208
 1.2R 1.2 FIGURE 10-4. Ladder
VC= - - xV=--V Analysis for A4.
3.2 R 3.2
2R 1.2 1
VA= - x = - V=-V
3R 3.2 4
v v 1.2
VC=--V
3.2

2R
2R R

C R
2RX3R
2R Rc= =1.2R 2R
2R
2R+3R

-. -.
To calculate the output voltage, the voltage at the 4 node
must be calculated first. The resistance to ground is 2R going
through the lesser order switches and 3R going through the
higher order s~tch. The resistance to the power supply is 2R
through the 4 switch. The voltage at the 4 node is: 1.2R/ (1.2R +
2R) x V or 1.2/3.2 x V. The output is 2/3 of the voltage of the 4
node so: 1.2/3.2 x V x 2/3 = 2.4/9.6 x V = V/ 4. For a sixteen volt
supply this means a 4V output. Considering the result obtained
when only the MSB was selected this should not be surprising.
Notice that the sixteen volt value was chosen so that the output
is one volt per count.

Fortunately D/A converters are available as ICs. In order 10.2.1 D/A

to properly select the correct D/A converter for a particular Specifications
application, some knowledge of D / A specifications is required.
A large number of performance specifications are available from
device manufacturers. The specifications that are most
commonly available and pertinent are the resolution, accuracy,
and speed.
The resolution is the smallest standard incremental
change in output voltage of a D/A converter. A converter with
n switches can resolve 1 part in 2n. Resolution may be expressed
as a percentage of full scale or as a number of bits.
209
 Accuracy is a somewhat indefinite term which describes
the maximum deviation of the DI A output from an ideal
straight line drawn from zero to full-scale voltage. An accuracy
specification includes all types of errors and is not usually found
on a data sheet since the individual errors are specified. The
errors included in accuracy are: scale error, offset error, linearity,
and differential non-linearity.
Scale error is the departure of a DAC from the theoretical
voltage output. This parameter is ·norma1lymeasux:~ at full
scale input. . Offset error is the output voltage of the DAC with
zero input. Offset error can be expressed as a number of bits or a
percentage of full scale. Many · data conv~rsion circuits have
external resistors that allow the user to adjust offset to zero.
Linearity describes the departure of the data conversion
circuit from an ideal output curve when other error sources are
ignored. . . Linearity errors are a major concern .in .data conversion
circuits and are expressed in percent of full scale or number of
bits.
Differential non-lin~arity indicates the . difference
between the- actual analog volt~ge change and the .ideai voltage
change. For exaIllple, a DAC with ~ 1.5 LSB step in response toa '--­
code change would have a 1/2 LSB differential non':linearity.
Differential non-linearity can be at most twice the linearity.
Differential non~linerujty is .a· measure of how ·smooth and even
the outpufcw:ve of a DAC is. .
The speed of a device is not given as a number but can be
typified by several performance specifications. The primary
parameters which affect device speed are settling time, slew rate,
and conversion rate. The settling time is the amount of time
required. for the "DAC to · reach a · stable output after a code
transition. . Slew rate is the rate at which the output amplifier
can make' V()ltage changes and is usually specified in V I time.
ConvetSibnrate .is .a measUre of how . rapidly the device · can
perfortt\ rep~titivedataconversi()ns. Conversion rate includes
and allows for all internal" delays i.:t'nd is given as either 'ntimber
of con,versions I second or as the amount of time to perform one
conversion.
10.2.2 CIA The most obvious' use of a digital to analog converter is
Applications to convert data to ·the analog domairt after data processmg. Many
AID converters use an internal DAC as part of the circuitry used ----­
in the conversion system.
no

 Two broad dasses of AID converters exist, simultaneous10~~.3 AlD

or flash cOlwerters which operate· in parallel and sequential Conversion
converters which operate senally. Theparallei converter is . a
straight ·forward device which operates more quickly than a
sequential converter. Unfortunately, flash converterS area~o
more complex circuitS and expensive to construct. Both types of
AID converters empl()y comparators as the bask . means 'of
conversion:' Fla~h converters use a voltage divider as a
reference input to a bank of comparators. 2n-1 c()mp~irators are
requrred to produce a converter with 2n equally sp'aced output
steps. .
Each of the comparators in the bank has one input from
the divided voitage reference and the other input is the voltage
being converted. The output of the comparator bank must be
encoded to form a binary output word. Figure 10-5 show a
typical flash AID converter.
Priority
FIGURE' 0-5. Flash
Comparators Encoder
AID Converter.
Reference

Voltage

1k

1k

1k

1k 8
4 Binary
Digital
1k 2 Outputs

1k

1k

1k

..
Analog

Input 0----\

Voltage

211
 10.2.4 Successive Successive ~pproximation AID converters are the most
Approximation AID .commonly encountered type of sequential AID circuit. In .the "­
past, ramP type converters which would generate a digital ramp
input into a comparator whose ot~er input .is the voltage to be
converteq were widely used. . These devices have been replaced
by successive . approximation . devices since successive
approximation is . a faster technique. In fact successive
approximation ~onverters are ab9ut 100 tim~ faster than ramp
type converters.
The conversion time required for a successive
approximation converter to convert an input to digital .is
constant regardless of the level of the input voltage. A
successive approximation converter requires the circuits shown
in Figure 10-6.
Control

FIGURE 10-6. Successive

Latch Logie

Approximation AID Converter.

Enable .........
Clock
Start
Conversion ..--..
3-State ~
EnabIe Successive
MSB SAR LSB Approximation
8 4 2 ., Register (SAR)
Clock '---+
0 0 0 o~ Serial
Bit .. Digital
Reset Output
.. f---e
Parallel
Com parati~ 3-State
Latch ~ Digital .
Output
~]

-
- Input
Analog Digital-to-
Analog
J. Analog
Output
Converter

The basic components are the control logic, a successive

apprOximation register or SAR, a comparator, a DAC, and a latch
for the output. This device works in a straight forward fashion.
The MSB of the SAR is loaded with a one. this value is
converted to analog by the DAC and compared to the analog
input voltage to be converted. If the value in the SAR is the
higher of the two values, the SAR is cleared. .If the voltage to be
converted is the greater of the two values, the one in the MSB is
retained, and a one is loaded into the next MSB and the entire
212
cDmparison prDcess is repeated. This prDcess cDn~ues until the
LSB is processed. After prDcessing the .LSB,. the .SAR will cDntain
the digital· equivalent Df the YDltage to. be cD~~erted. · .•. Mer
cDnversiDn the cDntents Df the SAR ar~ · transferred to' the .Dutput
~a tch which is Dften a 3-sta te la tch fDr use in buss~d systems.

AID . CDnverters . are .the primary cDm~nent ; ~ed fDr 10.2.5 Data
acquiring data Dr data acquisitiDn. Data is often.: .acquired from Acquisition
analDg sources. This .data is processed either immediately,by a
digital cDmputer Dr stDred fDr prDcessing later. FDr example; data
frDm a temperature sensDr could be cDnverted to digital, and
cDmparedto some value. If ·the temperature were· out Df range
the cDmputer could activate a fan to IDwer the temperature Dr
turn Dn a : heater ! to' . increase the .· temperature~ This SDrt ·,of
techniques is emplDyedin digitalthermDstats.
NDt all data acquired' is prDcessed immediately. Data
frDm sensDrs in an oil field can be cDnverted to digital, stDredDn
a tape " then transpDrted to' a · large cDmputing . facility fDr
prDcessing later. While the AID CDnverter is the primary data
acquisitiDn circuit, Dther circuits are emplDY~ fDr data
acquisitiDn such as ' sample 'and . hDld circuits and analog
multiplexers. :
A sample and . ~Dld circuit perfDrms the functiDns which 10.2~6Sample and
it's name in1plies. These devices sample an analDg input ·and Hold Circuits
hDld the value. this type D~ device is frequently usea in data
acquisitiDn to' hDld the analog data until the AID converter is
able to' CDnvert the data to. digital fDrm. Figure 10-7 ShDWS the
circuitry needed fDr a sampl~;and hDld circuit,
S o _ W••• 'orm FIGURE 10-7. Sample
Wrtn HolO
ClI'adIat and Hold Circuit.
IS""""C_,

'I 1

Samole
ClOCk

213
 This circuit consists of an input amplifier, a digital switch,
a capacitor for storing the voltage to be held, and a high input
impedance amplifier for the output. Both the input and output
amplifiers are voltage followers.
The circuit function is straight forward. When the switch
is closed the input amplifier quickly charges the capacitor to the
level of the analog input. This is the sample mode. At the end
of the sample period, the switch is opened and the device is in
the hold mode.
The output amplifier will be capable of providing a
voltage equal to that stored on the capacitor. This type of device
can be constructed quite easily from CMOS switches and FET
amplifiers. The device will show some voltage sag from the
ideal input voltage since the capacitor will exhibit some leakage.
This type of circuit is used to improve the stability of the AID
conversion process for rapidly changing signal inputs and to
hold the data in systems where the AID serve many multiplexed
analog inputs.
Digital multiplexing was discussed earlier. Analog
10.2.7 Multiplexing multiplexing is the same basically except that the range of output
voltage is greater for analog signals hence simple gates cannot "­
perform the multiplexing function. An analog multiplexer is
really a multi-position rotary switch. This type of device can
route any of several inputs to a single output. An example of
such a switch is shown in Figure 10-8.
1

FIGURE 10-8. Rotary

3
2. • . Output
Switch.
~------4-:~
5.

6'
This same type of switch can be easily implemented with
CMOS devices. CMOS is chosen for this application since
switches with a very low 'on' resistance can be constructed in
CMOS. Multiplexing will allow one AID converter to service
several analog inputs.
The combination of the AID with a multiplexer and
sample and hold forms a modern data acquisition system. A
block diagram for a typical data acquiSition system is shown in ""--'
Figure 10-9.
214
 FIGURE 10-9_ Typical Data
Acquisition Systems.
Inpul , _-+---1

Inpul2 _-+--1 Analog ­

10­
DlgiIaJ
Digrtal
: Ou!pUts
Convener
]
Inpul 3 _-+---1

Inpul4 _+-~

Innlbtt
Inpul

InpulS

I
:~
Sample-and­
HOIC
A,
Amollhers

AO
O1.Itputs

('
:~
~
i BO
g
I B,

C3
4-Bo
4-Cnannel
D'gnal
Muttlple.. er
03

02
0, DAC
VOUI

Analog
ci5 C2 00 Ou1pulS
.. C1
Co

D3

D2

D,

DO

A
Cnannelo---\ _ _ _- - - - - - - - - '
Select
InpulS
B

In this chapter you have learned about data conversion and data 10.3 SUMMARY
acquisition circuits. You studied DACs, . their implementation
and the specifications effecting their performance. You studied
two types of AID converters and highlighted their differences.
You have learned about the sample and hold circuit and it's
application in data acquisition. You studied analog multiplexers
215
 and their application for allowing one AID to serve several
analog inputs.

10.4 REVIEW 1. Name the three general areas dfDAC specification that are
QUESTIONS the most important in determining device performance.

2. Name two types of ladder circuits used in DACs.

3. Give two applications for DACs.

4. Name two types of AID converters.

5. What parts·· are required to form a successive

approximation AID?

6. What is data acquisition?

216
 7. What part of a sample and hold circuit perfonns the hold
'- function?

8. Give two reasons for using sample and hold circuits in

data acquisition.

9. Explain the difference between analog and digital

multiplexers.

In this lab exercise you will learn about D / A converters. You LAB EXERCISE 10.1
will study the DAC 0808 digital to analog converter IC You will Of A Converters
use this IC to form a simple D / A converter. Objectives

LD-2 Logic Designer Materials

DAC 0808 Digital to Analog Converter IC

LF 353 Dual Bifet Op-Amp

4700 Ohm Resistors (3)

20 Kohm Potentiometer

Capacitor 0.1 Microfarrad

217
 Digital Multimeter

Jumper Wires

Procedure 1. Place the DAC 0808 and the . LF 353 onto the LD-2
breadboard.

2. Wire power and groUnd to the ICs. +12 VOC should go to

pin 8 of the LF 353. -12 VDC should go to pin' 4 of the
LF353 and to pin 3 of the DAC 0808. +5 VDC should go to
pin 13 of the DAC 0808. Ensure that you have wired the
power correctly to both of these circuits.

3. Wire the circuit shown in Figure 10-10. This is a simple

D / A converter with al0 V maxinlum output.
FIGURE 10-10. Simple -..a. v .. 12 V

D/A Converter. '"'58

6
1>02. .12 V -12 V
7
. ~ AJ D
A
Digital -5 " 8
A4 C
Inputs 9 0
54 AS
~ Output
10 A6 0 4
55 111
8
, 1.1 1>.7
'S6
.' . .... -.,
12
~ A8
L5e" 0 ,1 "
4.7 h,Q

4. Place SO-57 to LO. Turn power on. Dl should light. Use

the DMM to adjust the wiper of the potentiometer to a
level of 10 VOC. Connect the DMM to the output of the
op-amp. Place SO to HI. The DMM should read about 5
VDC. If it doesn't check the wiring of your circuit.

5. Use the switChes 57-So as the -digital inputs. Observe the

circuit output on the DMM. Observe the operation of this I ' . . . .

circuit and record your observations. ' Pa y particular

attention to determining the resolution of the D / A
converter.

6. Leave this circuit assembled while you answer the

following questions.
218