LESSON 5.

4: TRAFFIC ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION

Traffic Accident Investigation.  Generally, to know what question to ask and

what to look for, you must have some fundamental bearing on accidents and their
causes.  When you speak of traffic accident, everybody knows what you mean -
SOMETHING WENT WRONG on the highway, either a wrecked car, somebody injured
or possibly killed. 

A.   What Traffic Accident Investigation Determines.

1. WHAT happened?
2. WHO and WHAT was involved?
3. WHERE did it happen?
4. WHY did it happen?
5. HOW did the accident occur?
6. WHEN did the accident happen?

B.  Purposes of Traffic Accident Investigation.  

1. Everyone involved is curious about the causes and circumstances of
the accident.
2. Police are also interested in finding out whether there is enough
evidence of law violation in the accident to take enforcement action.
3. Claims attorneys and adjusters want to determine negligence on the
part of the drivers involved in the accident so that damage claims can be
properly adjusted.
4. Officials and other want specific information about accidents to know
how to prevent future accidents.

C.   Common Words and Phrases Used in Traffic Accident Investigation.

1. ACCIDENT.  It is that occurrence in a sequence of events which usually
produces unintended injury, death, or property damage.
2. TRAFFIC ACCIDENT.  An accident involving travel transportation on a
traffic way.
3. MOTOR VEHICLE ACCIDENT.  Refers to any event that results in
unintended injury or property damage attributable directly or indirectly to
the action of a motor vehicle or its loads. Includes:
a. Accidental injury from inhalation of exhaust gas;
b. Fires; 
c. Explosion;
d. Discharge of firearm within the motor vehicle while in motion;
e. Collision between a MV and a railroad train or street car on
stationary rails or tracks; and
f. Failure of any part of the motor vehicle while the vehicle is in
motion.
Excluded are:
g. Collision of a motor vehicle with an aircraft or water-craft in
motion;
 g.  Injury or damage due to cataclysms (flood or sudden physical change on earth
surface); and
g. Injury or damage while the motor vehicle is not under its power, is being loaded
on or unloaded from another conveyance.

4. Motor Vehicle. Every device which is self-propelled and every vehicle which is
propelled by electric power obtained from overhead trolley wires, but not
operated upon rails.

5. KEY EVENT.  An event on the road which characterizes the manner of

occurrence of a motor vehicle traffic accident.

6. DEBRIS.  Refers to the accumulation of broken parts of vehicles rubbish, dust

and other materials left at the scene of the accident by a collision.

7. SKID MARKS.  These are marks left on the roadway by tires which are
not free to rotate, usually because brakes are applied strong and the
wheels locked.

8. TRAFFIC UNIT.  Any person using a traffic way for travel, parking or other
purposes as a pedestrian or driver, including any vehicle, or animal which he is
using.  It applies also to: 
a. Pedestrians;
b. Cyclists;
c. Street cars;
d. Horse-drawn (animal-drawn) vehicles;
e. Farm tractors; and
f. Other road users in almost any combination.
Example:  A traffic accident could involve a cyclist and a pedestrian. 

9.   HAZARDS.  This is generated when a critical space-motion relationships between a

traffic unit and another object develops due to the movement of either or both.          
Example:  A curve in the path is a hazard.  Another traffic unit in the path is also
a hazard.

10.  SAFE SPEED.  The speed adjusted to the potential or possible hazards or the road
and traffic situation ahead.  It is determined by the road rather than the particular driver
of a vehicle.  
Example:  A curve ahead is a hazard and a safe speed for it is a speed at which it can
be taken comfortably.
11.  STRATEGY.  It is the adjusting of speed, position on the road, and direction of
motion, giving signals of intent to turn or slow down, or any other action in situations
involving potential hazards.

12.  TACTIC.  It refers to any action taken by the traffic unit to avoid hazardous
situations like steering, braking, or accelerating to avoid collision or other accident.

13.  IMPACT.  It is the striking of one body against another or a collision of a motor
vehicle with another motor vehicle.

14.  CONTACT DAMAGE.  Damage to a vehicle resulting from direct pressure of some
foreign object in a collision or roll over.  It is usually indicated by situations, rub-off of
material or puncture.
15.  FACTOR.  Any circumstance contributing to a  result without which the result could
not have occurred or it is an element necessary to produce the result, but not by itself
sufficient.

16.  PRIMARY CAUSE.  A misnomer loosely applied to the most obvious or easily
explained factor in the cause of an accident or the most easily modified condition factor.

17.  CAUSE.  The combination of simultaneous and sequential factors without any one
of which result could not have occurred.

18.  ATTRIBUTE.  Any inherent characteristics of a road, a vehicle, or a person that

affects the probability of a traffic accident.

19.  MODIFIER.  A circumstance that alters an attribute permanently or temporarily.

D.  Kinds of Traffic Accidents.

1. Non-Motor Vehicle Traffic Accident. Any accident occurring on a traffic way
involving persons using the traffic way or travel or transportation, but not
involving a motor vehicle in motion. Ex. Pedestrian and cyclist in a traffic way.

2. Motor Vehicle Non-Traffic Accident. Any motor vehicle accident which occurs
entirely in any place other than a traffic way. Ex. Accident on a private driveway.

3. Motor Vehicle Traffic Accident. Any motor vehicle accident occurring on a

traffic way. Ex. Collision between cars on highway. 

E.  Classification of Motor Vehicle Traffic Accident According to Key Event.

1. Running off road. This is usually characterized by a motor vehicle falling on the
roadside or on a cliff along mountainous roads.
2. Non-collision on road. This does not involve any collision. Ex. Overturning.
3. Collision on road.  
Examples of this are motor vehicles colliding with: 
 a. Pedestrian; 
b. Other motor vehicle; 
c. Parked motor vehicle; 
d. Railroad train; 
e. Bicycle; 
f. Fixed object; and
g. Other objects

F.  Classification of Accidents According to Severity.  

a. Property Damage Accident
b. Slight. 
c. Non-Fatal Injury Accident.
d. Less Serious. 
e. Serious.
f. Fatal.

G.  Causes of Motor Vehicle Traffic Accidents.

1. Simultaneous Factors: 
a. Road conditions; 
b. Drivers attitude or behavior.
c. Weather condition
2. Sequential Factors: 
a. Speed is greater or less than safe; and 
b. Defective vehicle.
3. Operational Factors: 
a. Road hazards; and 
b. Driver's non-compliance to traffic laws, rules and regulations.
4. Perception Factors: 
a. Driver's inability to react promptly to a situation; and 
b. Driver's faulty action to escape collision course.

When all possible causes of an accident have been grouped together by an

investigating officer and he believes the accident would not have occurred if any one of
these causes did not exist, then the investigator may have identified the combination of
factors causing the accident.

On-the-scene reconstruction of a traffic accident relates accident causation to

direct causes for summary police action and to direct, mediate and early causes for
ongoing studies of high-frequency accident locations and future research and analysis.

H.   Chain of Events in a Vehicular Accident.  It refers to a series of an expected

events leading to damage or injury.  One event usually leads to another so that the
series can \be spoken of as a "chain of events.””
1. Perception of Hazard.  It is seeing, feeling, or hearing and understanding the
usual or unexpected movement or condition that could be taken as sign of the
accident about to happen
 2. Start of evasive action.  It is the first action taken by a traffic unit to escape from
a collision course or otherwise avoid a hazard.
3. Initial Contact.  It is a first accidental touching of an object collision course or
otherwise avoid a hazard.
4. Maximum Engagement.  It is greatest collapse or overlap in a collision.  The
force between the traffic unit and the object collided with are greatest at
maximum engagement.
5. Disengagement.  It is the separation of a traffic unit in motion from an object
with which it has collided.   The force between the object ceases at this time.
6. Stopping.  This is when the traffic unit/s involved come to rest.  It usually
stabilizes the accident situation.
7. Injury.  It is receiving bodily harm.  This event does not necessary occur after the
accident but within any of the chain of events.  
8. Other events that may occur during an accident.
a. Point of Possible Perception.  The place and time of which the hazard could
have been perceived by a normal person.  It precedes actual perception and is
the beginning of perception delay.
b. Point of no Escape.  It is that place and time after or beyond which the accident
cannot be prevented by the traffic unit under consideration.
c. Perception Delay.  The time from the point of possible perception to actual
perception.
d. Final Position.  It is the place and time when objects involved in an accident
finally come to rest without application of power.

I. Who conducts the traffic accident investigation? The police officers assigned in
the field or highways upon learning of an accident usually responds and conduct initial
inquiries. However, police stations normally have designated traffic accident
investigators. In major traffic accidents involving numerous victims, the local traffic
investigator shall immediately inform the nearest PNP-HPG which shall then take lead
in the investigation under Special Investigation Task Group (SITG) which shall be
activated to manage the case (PNP Field Manual on Investigation of Crimes of Violence
and Other Crimes, 2011). When the proper crime scene processing is necessary, the
traffic investigators may also ask assistance of the Scene of the Crime Operation Team.

J.  Five (5) Levels of Activity in Accident Investigation.

1. Reporting.  This involves basic data collection to identify and classify a motor
vehicle, traffic and persons, property and planned movements involved.
2. At-Scene Investigation.  This level involves all action taken by the investigator
at the scene of the crime or accident.
3. Technical Preparation.  This involves delayed traffic accident data collection
and organization for study and interpretation.
4. Professional Reconstruction.  This involves efforts to determine from whatever
information is available, how the accident happened.
5. Cause Analysis.  This last level usually involves final analysis on the causes of
accident which are bases for the prevention of similar accident. 
K.  Steps Taken by the Police During Traffic Accident    Investigation.  
1. Step One.  Upon Learning of the Accident.
a. Ask first: (1) When did the accident happen?; (2) Exactly where was it?; (3)
How bad was it?; (4) Did you see the accident happened? (5) Where can you
be reached?

b. Decide whether to go to the scene: (1) Will scene have been cleared by the
time of arrival?; (2) Is it in investigator's area?; (3) Should headquarters be
informed or consulted?

c. Then find out, if necessary:  (1) Is traffic blocked?; (2) Has ambulance been
called?; (3) Has wrencher been called?; (4) Was fire apparatus called?

2. Step Two.  Start for the Scene.  With two way radio, you can do two things
while on the way.
a. Choose Best Approach, Consider:  (1) Time; (2) Possible traffic jams; (3)
Possible route of driver involved and (4) Probable situation at scene.
b. Drive Safely.  If you get involved in accident yourself, then other units must be
used.
c. Be Alert for Cars Leaving the Scene:  (1) As possible witnesses or hit and run
drivers; & (2) Records registration numbers of any likely looking  vehicles.
d. Get Equipment Ready for Use.  So far as practical while on the way.
e. Look for Conditions confronting a Driver  Approaching Scene:  (1) Low
visibility view obstructions; & (2) Traffic control devices.
f. Note Hazards to approaching Traffic:  (1) Drop helper to direct traffic if
necessary; & (2) Look for physical evidence.  Have it guarded until it can be
examined, collected or located.

3. Step Three.  Upon Arrival at the Accident Scene.

a. Select parking place carefully: (1) Is it safe?; (2) Will it block traffic?; (3) Can
headlight illuminate scene?
b. Care for injured: 
1. Stop arterial bleeding; 
2. Call for help if necessary; 
3. Help injured from cars safely; 
4. Protect injured from exposure; 
5. Ask for emergency assistance from bystanders from anywhere.
c. Look over bystanders and others:  
1. Look for drivers; 
2. Look for possible witnesses; 
3. Look for volunteers who will help  you; 
4. Get them under control.
d. Have Emergencies Under Control:  
 1. Have spilled gasoline guarded; 
2. Look for fire and electrical hazards; 
3. Look for traffic hazards; 
4. Put out flares; 
5. Ask helper to direct traffic; 
6. Keep bystanders off roadway; 
7. Request help from headquarters if needed.
e. Locate drivers: 
1. Consider possibility of hit and run accident;
2. alert headquarters.
f. Measure location of short lived evidences.
f. Arrange for clearing roadway.
f. Delay removal of vehicles except to aid injured.

4. Step Four.  When Emergency is Under Control.

a. Preliminary questioning of drivers: 
1. Who was driving each vehicle?;
2. Note unpremeditated statement; 
3. Look for signs of nervousness, confusion and intoxication.
b. Gather clues for identifying hit and run cars: 
1. Question other witnesses especially bystanders in hurry to go; 
2. It needed, get signed statement at once from why who may be hard to
find later.
c. Examine drivers conditions:  
1. Get specimen for chemical test; and 
2. Question about trip plan for possible fatigue.
d. Question drivers carefully: 
1. Check license and record data from it; 
2. Verify and identify address; 
3. Check registration and record data; 
4. Verify ownership and correct address; 
5. Get step by step account of what driver saw and did.
e. Position and condition of vehicles: 
1. Lights and light switches; 
2. Gear position and tires; 
3. Mark position of MVs if it must be removed; 
4. Unusual thing inside the vehicles.
f. Form preliminary opinion as to how accident occur.
f.  Photography: 
1. Photograph skid mark and location of vehicles and 
2. Mark skid mark location for later measurement.
h. Record place to which injured persons or damage vehicles  were or will
be taken.

5. Step Five.  After Getting Short-live Evidence.

 a. Get additional evidence: 
1. Make test skids; 
2. Decide whether proof of violation is sufficient for arrest;
3. If so, make arrest or issue citation; 
4. Get additional formal statements, from witnesses remaining at the
scene and 
5. Have road clear if traffic is obstructed.
b. Suggestion to drivers, if necessary: 
1. How much accidents can be avoided in the future; and 
2. Tell drivers what reports they must make and dismiss them.
c. Approach the scene by path of each traffic unit involved.  Look for: 
1. View obstructions; 
2. Traffic control devices, etc.; 
3. Probable points of perception and 
4. Road surface conditions.
d. Complete examinations of vehicles. 
d. Locate key event of accident. 
d. Make additional photographs of: 
1. Vehicle damage; 
2. View obstruction; 
3. Pavement's conditions; and 
4. Control devices, and general view, etc.
g. Establish exact location of accident and record  it.  
g.  Measure for scale diagram if location is hard to reach. 
g. Review notes of evidence or testimony: 
1. Get additional facts at scene and 
2. Identify all notes with places and time.
j. Clean up location or arrange to have it done.
j. Report to headquarters by radio or  telephone.

6. Step Six.  After Leaving the Scene:

a. Get medical report on injured persons from doctor or hospital.
b. Question drivers or witnesses: At hospital or home if not adequately
questioned; and Take needed additional statements.
c. Notify: Relatives of dead or injured; and Owner of vehicles. 
d. Have specimens analyzed if were taken for chemical or laboratory
test.
e. Have photograph developed, get prints if needed for report.
f. Complete the report of the accident: Have copies made if necessary;
File report and copies; and Complete factual data on investigation report if
not completed at scene.
g. Decide whether analysis of accident is warranted by the time
available for making it.
h. Reconstruction of the accident: 
1. Estimate speeds of vehicles involved; 
 2. Draw scale diagram; 
3. Analyze angle of collision; 
4. Get technical help if necessary, and 
5. Summarize opinions.
i. Present case summary to a lawyer.
i. Complete report or investigation.
i. Submit to superior for approval.
i. Inform other Agencies or departments of any condition at the scene which
needs attention for safety.

7. Step Seven.  If Case Goes to Court:

a. Find out what the prosecutor wants further to develop evidence.
b. Return to the scene if necessary for the following: 
1. Additional photographs of general scene and long-lived evidence;
2. Measure for scale diagram for use in court; and 
3. Locate additional witnesses and review their testimony.
c. Locate also, if necessary: 
1. Relatives and friends who can confirm activities before the
accident; 
2. Technicians who developed pictures, made chemical tests, etc.;
and
3. And expert who can help.
d. Have enlargement made of any photo needed in court.
d. Enlarge scale diagram made for court use.
d. Pre-trial conference with prosecution.
d. Insure that subpoenas are issued.
d. Testify in court.
d. Organize papers and file permanently.
d. Insure that the disposition of case is recorded in drivers’ record and other
reports.

K.  The Traffic Accident Investigation Report (TAIR).

1. Uniform traffic Accident Reporting System.
2. Preparation of Traffic Accident Report:
a. By a competent bonafide traffic accident investigator.
b. Requirements for an investigator in the submission of report such as evidence
gathered, diagrams, sketches as well as sworn statements of witnesses.
c. TAIR will be accomplished in five (5) copies for the:  
1. Court or Prosecutor's Office; 
2. TRAFCOM or Traffic Division; 
3. Investigator;
4. Insurance company of Party-involved #1; and 
5. Insurance Co. of Party-involved #2.

L.  Sample of Traffic Accident Investigation Report Form.

PC/INP Form ________________________________________ FILE
NR_____________________________
________________________________________

TRAFFIC ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION REPORT

I. WHERE:  .................................................................................................................................................................................
..........................................
(Near/Km Post Nr) (Near Intersection/landmark)

..................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..........
(Hwy/St/Rd) (Dist/Bo) (Mun/City) (Prov)

II. WHEN:  ....................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................
(Day of Week) (Date) (Time)
III. WHAT:
1.  € Another vehicle 5.  € Bicycle 9. € Animal-drawn vehicle
2.  € Pedestrian 6.  € Scooter 10. € Fixed object
            Vehicle vs. 3.  € Animal 7.   € Railroad train 11. € Non-collision(fell, overturned, etc.)
4.  € Motorcycle 8.  € Push cart
          
TYPE OF ACCIDENT: 1.  €  Fatal 2. €  Non-fatal 3.  € Property
damage

IV. HOW:
1.  €  Head-on 4. € Sideswipe-same direction Width of road
.......m/ft.......................................................................
2. €  Rear-end 5.  € Sideswipe-opposite direction Width of shoulder
m/ft.......................................................................
3. €  Angle 6. € Others (specify) Number of
lanes: ..............................................................................

V.  VEHICLE Number of vehicles involved

(Use supplemental TAIR if more than two vehs)

Vehicle 1 Vehicle 2
TYPE: ...........................................................................................     
…............................................................................................
Make and Model...........................................................................      ......................................................................................
...........
Plt Nr. Decal Nr.............................................................................        ……
……………………………................................................
Classification & Place of Issue....................................................         
………………….......................................................................
Driven by......................................................................................    
…………………………. ............................................................
Address........................................................................................      ...................................................
.........................................
Occupation..................................................................................       ...................................................
.........................................
Driver’s Lic. Nr.............................................................................       ......................................................................................
...........
Nationality./..................................................................................      
………………………................................................................
Age..............................................................................................      
…………..................................................................................
Sex & Status................................................................................      .
………………………................................................................
Driving experience.......................................................................     
……….......................................................................................
 Vehicle owner .............................................................................        
………… .................................................................................
Address......................................................................................     
………………………………………………………………………..
Reg. Cert. Nr. & File Nr .............................................................    
………………………………………………………………………
Estimate Damage.......................................................................    
………………………………………………………………………..

VI.  WHAT DRIVERS WERE DOING:

    1      2 (Check appropriate boxes)
1.  € € Going straight 10.  € € Backing 
2.  € € Turning right 11.  € € Evading vehicle
3.  € € Turning left 12.  € € Evading pedestrian
4.  € € Making U-turn 13.  € € Evading animal
5 € € Slowing 14.  € € Evading object
6.  € € Abrupt stopping 15.  € € Overtaking
7.  € € Stopped 16.  € € Parked
8 € € Entering parked position 17.  € € Others (specify).................................
9.  € € Leaving parked position

VII. WHAT PEDESTRIAN OR ANIMAL WAS DOING

1.  € Crossing between intersection 11.  € Along roadway outside sidewalk
2.  € Crossing at intersection 12.  € Along roadway without sidewalk
3.  € Crossing upon signal 13.  € Standing in safety zone/island
4.  € Crossing against signal 14.  € Getting on vehicle
5.  € No signal 15.  € Getting off vehicle
6.  € Crossing at  pedestrian lane 16.  € Evading other vehicle
7.  € Crossing without pedestrian lane 17.  € Pushing cart/wagon
8.  € Coming from behind moving vehicle 18.  € Pulling cart/wagon
9.  € Coming from parked vehicle 19.  € Vending on road
                  10.  € Along roadway on sidewalk 20.  € Others (specify).....................................................

VIII. CONDITION OF MOTOR VEHICLE

  1   2
1.  € € No defects noted   9.  € € Tail lights out
2.  € € Brakes defective 10.  € € Brake lights defective
3.  € € Headlights glaring 11.  € € Signal lights defective
4.  € € Both headlights insufficient 12.  € € Steering mechanism defective
5 € € Both headlights out 13.  € € Windshield wipers defective
6.  € € One headlight insufficient 14.  € € Defective tires
7.  € € One headlight out 15.  € € Others (specify).................................
8 € € Tail light/s insufficient

IX. VIOLATIONS INDICATED:

  1   2
1.  € € Disregarding traffic signs and signals 9.    € € On wrong side of road
2.  € € Weaving in-and-out of traffic 10.  € € No right of way
3.  € € Exceeding lawful speed 11.  € € Dangerously loaded
4.  € € Unsafe passing between intersection 12.  € € Under the influenced of intoxicants
5 € € Unsafe passing in hill/curve 13.  € € No valid driver’s license
6.  € € Operating defective vehicle 14.  € € No driver’s license
7.  € € Failure to signal 15.  € € Others (specify)..................................
8 € € Hit-and-run

X. CONDITION OF DRIVER OR PEDESTRIAN:

                         1     2
1.  € € Absolutely normal 5.  € € Had been drinking liquor
2.  € € Physical defects (eyesight..........) 6.  € € Was absolutely drunk
3.  € € Sick or ill 7.  € € Others (specify)..................................
4.  € € Apparently sleepy

XI. VISION OBSCURED BY:

  1   2
 1.  € € Tress, plants, crops, etc. 6.  € € Moving vehicle
2.  € € Building, house, fence, etc. 7.  € € Its own cargo
3.  € € Hillcrest, embankment 8.  € € Rain
4.  € € Signboards 9.  € € Falling objects
5.  € € Parked vehicle 10.  € € Others (specify)..................................

XII. ROAD CHARACTER, SURFACE: XIV. WEATHER CONDITION, DAYLIGHT

CONDITION:
1.  € Straight road 1.  €   Concrete       1.  € Fair 1.  € Sunny
2.  € Curve 2.  € Asphalt 2.  € Cloudy 2.  € Dim (cloudy)
3.  € Level road 3.  € Gravel 3.  € Foggy 3.  € Dark-moonlight
4.  € Dip 4.  € Sand 4.  € Stormy 4.  € Dark-artificial light good
5.  € Hillcrest 5.  € Earth 5.  € Rainy 5.  € Dark-artificial light poor
6.  € Upgrade 6.  € Coral 6.  € Smoky 6.  € Darkness
7.  € Downgrade 7.  € Windy

XIII. ROAD CONDITION, WIDTH, LANES: XIV. POINT OF IMPACT:

1.  €   No defects noted         1.  €Dry  1       2
2.  €   Lanes marked         2.  €Wet 1.  € € Front end 7.  € €  Front left side
3.  €   Defective shoulder            3.  € Muddy 2. € € Right front      8.  €    €  Center left side
4.  €   Loose material on surface    4.  €   Dusty 3.  € € Left front 9.  € €  Rear left side
5.  €   Holes, deep ruts       5.  €   Under construction 4.  € € Front right side      10.  € €   Rear end
6.  €   Opposing lanes separated    6.  €  Others (specify) 5.  € € Center right side    11.  € €   Right rear
6.  € € Rear right side       12.  € €   Left rear

XVI.  SKETCH OF ACCIDENT:

(Use separate sheet if necessary and indicate File Number)
INSTRUCTIONS:
1.  Number each vehicle and show 3.  Show pedestrians or animals by
    the direction of travel by arrow.

    _______________________ ___________________________ 

2.  Use solid line to show direction before impact.      Show North by
Arrow.

    Dotted lines after impact. ……………….. 4.  Draw out roadway in solid lines.

   
Conforme:  Driver veh 1 ..................................................... Veh 2 .....................................................................

XVII. BRIEF NARRATION:

Sample:

That on or around 1520H June 2020 a Red Hyundai Elantra with plate number TMG225 coming from the direction of
Cauayan City and driven by one “Juan Dela Cruz y Pedro” collided with a black Nissan Terra with plate number ABC 322 coming
from the direction of Rizal Avenue and driven by one “Juanito Miguel y, San Pedro causing damage to both motor vehicles and head
injuries on Juanito Miguel.

(Other facts may be included in this portion)

XVIII. CASUALTY LIST:
legend:  K-killed; SI-Serious Injury; SPI-Slight Phy Inj.; D-Driver; Pd-Pedestrian; Ps-Passenger
NAME SYMBOL ADDRESS AGE SEX
HOSPITAL TAKEN
1.  ................................................................. ..................................... ..................................
........................ 2.  ................................................................. ............... .....................
.................................. ........................ 3.  .................................................................        ...............
..................... .................................. ........................
XIX. WITNESSES: NAME
ADDRESS

1. .......................................................................................................................................................................................................

2. .......................................................................................................................................................................................................
XX. ACTION
TAKEN: ..............................................................................................................................................................................
XXI.

RECOMMENDATION: ......................................................................................................................................................................
XXII. STATUS OF
CASE: ..........................................................................................................................................................................
XXIII. REPORTED
BY: ...............................................................................................................................................................................
XXIV. INSURANCE COVERAGE DATA: Veh 1 Veh 2
Insurance Company and Policy Nr. and Sticker Nr.  ...........................................................
.........................................................
................................................................................  ............................................................ ................................................
.........
Certificate of cover Nr. ...........................................  ....................................................
.........................................................
Date Issued/Period Covered ...................................  ....................................................
.........................................................
XXV. ENCLOSURES .......................................................  ...................................................
.........................................................
XXVI. INVESTIGATED OR PREPARED BY: ..................  ............................................................
.........................................................
(Office)           (Print name and sign)

LESSON 5.5: HIT-AND-RUN INVESTIGATION

The objectives of the investigation of a motor vehicle accident involving the flight
of one of the participants in two fold: responsibility must be determined and the
identity of the driver of the vehicle who fled the scene must be established.
A.  Hit-and-run Cases Defined.  Evading responsibility is a term commonly applied to
a traffic accident in which a driver fails to comply with any of the duties required by Sec.
55 of RA 4136.
 Drivers can only leave the are of accident if the driver:
1. is imminent danger of being seriously harmed by any person or persons
by reason of the accident;
2. reports the accident to the nearest officers of the law; or
3. driver has to summon a physician or nurse to aid the victim.

B.  Reasons of Apprehending and Prosecuting Hit-and-Run Drivers.

1. Injury might have been lessened or death prevented if the driver had
promptly sought help;
2. Compensation of injuries, death or property damage for the victim/s;
3. Deter other would be hit-and-run offenders; and
4. Secures increased public support.

C.  Two Important Considerations.

1. The driver who flees is not necessarily the driver responsible for the
accident.   His reasons maybe are: he may be wanted for another crime,
or intoxicated, or without a valid license, etc.
2. The suspect may report that his motor vehicle was sideswipe or hit by an
unknown vehicle or to report that his vehicle was stolen.

D.  Elements of Hit-and-Run.

1. Suspect driving the vehicle at the time of the accident.  
2. Suspect was involved in an accident resulting in death, personal injury or
damage to property.
3. Suspect failed to perform his responsibilities stated in Sec. 55 of R.A.
4136.  
4. Suspect had knowledge of the accident. Note the following:
a. Physical evidence may prove the vehicle figured in the accident.
b. Extent of damage to vehicle.  Extensive damage to vehicle would preclude
allegation of lack of knowledge and If suspect refrained from using his MV for
several days since the accident. 
c. Guard against claims that the vehicle was stolen to evade responsibility.

E.  The Hit-and-Run Operator.

1. Categories based upon possible psychological explanations for their
motivation of flight:
a. Apprehensive-panic-drive, fearful driver: 
1. intoxicated drivers; 
2. without license; 
3. no insurance; 
4. his companion in the car is not his/her mate; 
5. stolen car; 
6. stolen goods in car; 
7. leaving scene of another crime; 
8. fleeing crime scene or wanted for crime
b. Projectionist-projects guilt.  One who blames the other driver.
 b. The sneak operator.  This type involves minor property-damage-only
accidents and usually thinks that the accident ca happen to any other
driver.

2. Classes of Hit-and-Run Drivers:

a. Drunk drivers.
b. Criminals fleeing from the scene of the crime.
c. Improperly licensed drivers, or drivers with no license or with revoked or
expired license.
d. Drivers who fear publicity and prosecution.
e. Ignorance of the accident.
f. Driver who flees in panic.
g. Drug addicts.
h. Insurance or financial reasons.
i. Juveniles.

F.   Preliminary Steps in Hit-and-Run Investigation.

1. Refer to checklist on Accident Investigation.
2. Obtain the best possible descriptions of the car and driver.
a. from partial descriptions given by witnesses.
b. Get the license plate and any unusual features of the vehicle.
c. Concentrate on the car's description first.
d. Dispatch initial description and all subsequent information to the HQs and
to police agencies.
e. Try to determine the damage to the fleeing car.
3. Appeal for information through local newspapers, radio, T.V., etc.
3. Carefully search the hit-and-run scene for physical evidence (debris).
a. Request laboratory study of evidence. 
b. Watch out for the possible return of the hit-and-run driver to the scene of
the accident.  
5. The Victim
a. Check his clothing; other parts of his body for possible transferred
evidence.
b. If the victim is killed, get samples of uncontaminated blood, hair and skin
from him.
c. Collect and preserve for laboratory examination, the clothes, shoes, and
other items he was wearing at the time of the accident.

G.  Follow-up Investigation.

1. Interview persons living along the route taken by the hit-and-run driver; also
operators of filling stations and garages.
2. Canvass parking lots and other filling stations and garages.
3. Return to the accident scene at the same time on subsequent days and on the
same day of the following weeks to obtain additional witnesses such as delivery
men operating on scheduled routes.
 4. Follow-up phone calls to garages and dealers of auto parts.
5. Continue appealing for information through the press, radio and TV.

H.  Search for Suspect Car.

1. Look for physical evidence, such as latent fingerprints, pieces of clothing, marks,
damaged parts, hair, blood, etc. which will identify the car as that involved in the
hit-and-run accident.
2. Search the undercarriage of the suspect car. Determine also if there is indication
of disturbance in the grease or dirt adhering to it.
3. Make a careful investigation for replaced parts.

I.  Interview of Suspect.  When the suspect is apprehended:

1. Obtain a signed statement if you can.
2. Get a full account of suspect's whereabouts and write it down just in case he
refutes in later.
3. Approach and apprehend the driver of the suspect car as soon as his identity and
whereabouts are ascertained.
4. Place the driver in a defensive position by properly directed questions upon
approach

LESSON 5.6: SKIDMARKS: AS A TOOL IN TRAFFIC ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION

Skidmarks.  The sudden application of brakes which results in the locked

wheel condition places such a great pressure between the brake shoe and the brake
drum that the frictional force at this point becomes greater than the frictional force
between the tire and the road surface.  When this condition exists, the wheels skid.

A.   Skidmarks as a Tool in Traffic Accident Investigation.

1. One of the main reasons for studying and measuring skidmarks at the scene of a
traffic accident is to get some idea how fast the car which left these marks was
going prior to the accident. 
2. Estimates of speed based on skidmarks sometimes lead to convictions in
connection with an accident. On the other hand, knowing how to estimate speed
correctly may help to keep an innocent person from being convicted.
3. For example, skidmarks 80 feet long were measured at an accident scene.  A
test skid made 20 miles per hour showed 20 feet long skidmarks.
4. It was argued in court that with skidmarks 20 feet long from a speed of 20 miles
per hour, the car must be going 80 miles per hour to leave 80 feet skidmarks. 
The driver was unjustly convicted.  His actual speed was more nearly half of that,
or 40 miles per hour.

B.   Other Tire Marks.

1. Centrifugal skid mark.  A marking on a roadway left by a rotating tire and wheel
of a speeding vehicle on a curve when the speed of the vehicle is above the
critical speed of the curve and the centrifugal force entirely or partially overcomes
 the friction between the mass of the vehicle and its tires and the surface of the
roadway.
2. Impending skid marks.  Marks caused by the forward rotation of the wheels
being slower than the forward movement of the vehicle.  The shadowy beginning
of a skid mark along the approach path of the vehicle is the impending skid mark
(a.k.a. as tire shadow marks), while the darker markings are the skid marks
which begins in the impending skid mark and ends at the point of collision or
position or final rest.
3. Yawn mark.  A scuffmark made while a vehicle is yawning the mark made on the
road by a rotating tire which is slipping in a direction parallel to the axle of the
wheel.
4. Skip mark. A braking skid mark interrupted at frequent regular intervals; the skid
mark made by a bouncing wheel on which brakes keep the wheel from turning. 
Compare with gap skid.
5. Gap skid.  A braking skid mark which is interrupted by release and reapplication
of brakes or which terminates by release of brakes before collision.

C.   Other Marks and Impression Left by a Motor Vehicle either on the Road
Surface or on the Other Motor Vehicle.
1. Ruts.  A sunken track worn by a wheel, as in road; hence, a groove forming a
path for anything.
2. Gouge.  A groove made by a hard part of a motor vehicle to another car after
side-sweeping each other or it may be left on a road surface by a motor vehicle
which over turned then slid on the road surface.
3. Paint Strips.  When a vehicle collided with other object, it sometimes transfers
its paint to the other object.

D.   Skidmarks as Evidence in Accident Cases.

1. Aid in determining the speed of the car prior to the accident or collision.
2. It will show if the vehicle was traveling in the wrong distance or on the wrong side
of the road.
3. It will indicate if the driver failed to observe the right of way.
4. It will also show if the driver did not obey a traffic signal.

E.   Skidmarks Do Not Show All of the Speed.  They show only how far the car would
have had to slide to stop in the distance shown by skidmarks.

Evidence of additional speed.  A car is somewhat going faster and often faster is
calculated from skidmarks because in addition to losing speed is sliding the distance
shown by the skidmarks, the car losses some of its speed on one or more of the
following ways:
1. Sliding with one or more wheels before any skidmarks begin to appear.
2. Braking without skidding.
3. Dragging the car as it hits some object.
4. Damaging other cars or objects.
5. Sliding other cars or objects along the way.
 6. Vaulting or bouncing up into the air.

F.   Estimating the Approximate Speed of MV in Case Skid Mark is Absent.  In

many accident of course, other evidence of terrific speed is the WRECKAGE (EXTENT
OF DAMAGE), but there are no skidmarks at all because brakes were not put on hard
enough to lock the wheels.  The following guides the investigator:
1. In an accident in which brakes are put on just before contact of vehicles, the
skidmarks maybe only two or three feet long and therefore, show a speed of only
five or six miles per hour.  Whereas, the wreckage tells us that the total speed
may have been ten times as great.
2. In accident in which most of the speed is lost in skidding, the speed calculated
from skidmarks may come close to showing how fast the car was actually going. 
Accidents involving pedestrians are the most common ones of this kind.
3. In any accident in which great damage was done will skidmarks show more than
small part of the speed, often a very minor part of it; but if the skidmarks have
been rightly identified and measured, it can be said that the car was going faster
than the speed calculated from the skidmarks, much faster if there was
considerable damage.

G.  Things that Determine Skidding Distance.

1. Speed itself is by far the most important.
2. Slipperiness of the pavement.
3. Grade or slop of the road whether road up or down.

H.   Other Factors that Affect the Skidding.  

1. Brake Pedal Pressure.
2. Weight of the Car.
3. Tire Thread.
4. Air Pressure.
5. Tire Material.
6. Road Surface.
7. Direction of Slides.
8. Temperature of the Air and the Road Surface.
9. Against Head Wind.
10. Downhill/uphill

I.   Speed Estimates.  Generally, you do not have to consider those minor factors in
establishing speeds from skidmarks.  Because the minor factors are neglected, we can
not calculate speeds precisely.  We only estimate them.  Some of the minor factors
would tend to give a higher speed and others a lower speed, and they would partly
balance or cancel out.

Sometimes all of the factors tend to give a high estimated speed.  In this
connection, the skidmarks do not show all of the speed and therefore, the probable
actual speed is still greater than your estimate.
J.  Facts Needed.
1. Length of Skidmark.  
a. Be sure they are skidmarks - not just tire marks.
b. Did all wheels slide or just some of them?  It makes little difference if tire is
sliding forward or sidewise.
c. Are there any gaps in the skidmarks?  Be sure there are gaps caused by a
release of brake pedal pressure and not skids caused by bounced.
d. What is the length of each skidmarks around any curves; it may not make
straight from beginning to the end in the shortest line.  You may want to
consider two separate lengths for each Skid mark. One of these is based
on the part of the Skid mark you can positively identify.  It gives you speed
which will be minimum beyond reasonable doubt.  The others is a possible
Skid mark which will give you a more likely speed.  The first is all you can
use in court, the second is often much useful in figuring out just what did
happen in the accident.
e. Use the length that the wheel skids, not the tire skid.  Dual tires which
leave two marks are considered as one wheel, and the skid mark length is
counted if either tire on the wheel leaves this mark.
f. There are two ways of figuring the length of a slide if all on the same kind
of pavement.  These are:
1. Straight Line.  A slide is considered straight if both rear-wheel
skidmarks do not go off to one side of the front wheel skidmarks.
a. Use the length of the longest Skid mark left by any wheel
minus gaps in it.  This method is possible because all wheels
slide about the same distance.  
b. If one wheel does not slide as far as the others, still it was
about to slide when the others began. The drag on the
pavement by this wheel is about the same just before it
begins to slide as when it is actually sliding.  It may even be
greater.
c. Therefore, we are usually safe in saying that all wheels are
dragging as much as if there were sliding wheel skid applies
to motorcycles, trucks, truck and trailer combinations, and
buses as well as ordinary motor vehicles.
2. Spin.  A slide is considered a spin if both rear wheel skidmarks do get off to one
side of the front wheel skidmarks. 
a. Take the length of each skidmarks minus gaps.  Add the Skid mark length
for all wheels and divide the numbers of wheels.
b. This method is necessary in the case of the spins, because some of the
wheels slid much farther than others; that is, one end of the car may
practically stand still while the other sweeps around it.
c. Use this method only when there is about the same weight on front and
rear wheels; that is usually for ordinary cars, motorcycles, and light trucks
with trailers or heavily loaded  trucks having duel tires on the rear wheels. 
Uneven weight with a spin is a situation which requires special
calculations.
 d. These methods gives you a figure for the sliding distance of the vehicle.  It
is not necessary to compute it more accurately than to the nearest foot. 
For this length you may have two figures, one a positive distance and one
a possible distance.

g. Unfortunately, many investigations are carelessly made.  For example,

investigators may:
1. Fail to show whether all wheel slid.
2. Fail to include in the sliding distance a skid shown by a shadow as
well as that more clearly shown by the smear of the hot tire.
3. Neglect to note whether they are gaps in any of the skidmarks.
4. Show only an overall length without separate measurements for
each wheel.  This usually includes the wheel base of the car with
the result that the sliding distance appears to be length longer than
it really is.
5. Fail to note whether the skidmarks are straight or a spin.
6. Measure straight across from beginning to the end of a curve
skidmarks rather than around its length.
h. If the facts are not all there, assumptions should have to be made about
the distance the car slid.  For legal purposes, you may assume only what
may be true beyond reasonable doubt. Hence, poor observations and
measurements often leave you little value to go on.
h. Nevertheless, reasonable assumptions regarding conditions which more
definitely observed in investigations may be very helpful in coming to a
conclusion about what probably happened. 

2.  Coefficient of Friction or Drag Factor.  It is the measurement of the maximum
frictional resistance of pavements.  It is equal to the force exerted when the wheels are
skidding divided by the weight of the car.
Slipperiness of surface must also be known in order to calculate speeds from
skidmarks.  We tell what this slipperiness by a number, usually decimal less than 1.00. 
When any object is sliding, the surface it slid on puts a friction drag on sliding tire that
slows the car. A slippery movement creates a small friction drag and an abrasive
pavement a big drag.  If we divide the amount of friction drag in pounds by the weight of
the car in pounds, we get the number that describes the slipperiness.

a.  Principle of Computation.  For example, the drag of the pavement on the sliding tires
of an automobile is 3,000 lbs..  The automobile weights 4,000 lbs..  The number
representing the slipperiness of the pavement, or its friction drag, is then 3,000 divided
by 4,000 or 0.75.
1. This slipperiness number is called technically the “COEFFICIENT OF
FRICTION.”  You can measure the drag factor of a pavement by making a test
skid which tells how far a car slides on that pavement while stopping from a
known speed.
 2. If we let "S" stand for the speed in miles per hour from which the test skid is
made and "D" the distance in feet that car slides in coming to stop, then the drag
factor, which we call "F", the formula will be:
F=S
2

                                     30(D)
3. The "30" is the formula because speed is given in miles per hour and the
distance in feet (transformation of feet per second to miles per hour) and it is
constant. 
3. Thus, to find slipperiness number, F, we multiply this speed by itself and then
divided by 30 times the stopping distance. You do not need to carry the division
out more than two places to the right of the decimal point.

b.  Applying the Principle.  On a test to measure pavement slipperiness, a car was
stopped in 40 ft. from 30 miles per hour.  
1. Substituting these numbers for the letters, we will have: 

              S       30             900
2 2

               F = ----  =  -----      =  ------ =  0.75   

                               30D    30(40)      1,200  

2. It is very important that the test skids to measure pavement slipperiness be

correctly made.  You are unlikely to do it right without special instruction or
experience.
2. At least two skids are desirable.  Compute the slipperiness separately for each. 
Unless these are within 0.05 each other friction calculated from any of several
test skids made on the same paving.  This is necessary if you want to be sure
beyond reasonable doubt of calculated speeds.
2. Test skids using the same car that was in the accident are the best.  

3.  Grade or slope (Gradient).  It refers to the degree of inclination either uphill or
downhill.
a. It is measured usually by less than 1.00.  The measure of the grade is the
number of the feet that the road rises or falls for each feet of the horizontal
distance.
b. To find it, divide the vertical rise or fall by the horizontal distance.  

            horizontal distance

               f =   ----------------------
                             vertical rise or fall

4.  Reaction Time.  This is the distance traveled before applying the brakes.  It is
computed by:
a. Divide seconds in an hour (3,600) into feet in a mile (5,280) = 1,467.
b. To determine distance you will travel in one second, multiply 1.467 (1.47 or 1.50)
times the speed at which you are traveling.
 c. Time to get foot off the accelerator and slam it on the brake is 3/4 of a second on
the average.  The age of the driver should be considered.
d. X speed = length in feet covered before brake works for you.

5.  Brake Tests. 

a. In most states (US), a vehicle traveling at 20 mph must stop within the following
minimum distances:
1. Two-wheel brakes-foot pedal: vehicle should stop within 45 ft.
2. Four-wheel brakes-foot pedal: vehicle should stop within 30 ft.
3. Hand brakes: vehicle should stop within 75 ft.
b. Brake tests should not be conducted when the road surface is wet.
b. Use of Decelerometer.  These are devices which hold their readings and indicate
on a clocklike face braking efficiency of the car being tested.

K.  Procedure Followed by the Philippine National Police (PNP). 

1. The officer submits as evidence in a case the measurements of the skidmarks

and the Court interprets the facts in the light of other evidence.
a. Some courts require the assistance of an expert.
b. Measurements should be accomplished by two men.
c. Sketches and photographs with measurements indicated should be made soon
after the accident.
2. Some police departments have their officers skid a vehicle to a stop from the
legal speed limit, if this can be done safely, and compare the skidmarks with
those in the accident.
2. Some would draw conclusions from tests based on physical calculation.
2. Measurement of Skidmarks.  
a. Should meet legal standards.  Officers measuring the skidmarks and the
distances to embankment or other fixed constructions should verify each other's
measurements. 
b. Evidence should be presented to show that the skidmarks were made by the
suspect car.
c. Witnesses should testify in court.

L.  Basic Principles in Calculating Speeds from Skid marks.  

1.  Energy and vehicle speed.  An automobile moving at any speed possesses
energy. As the speed of the vehicle increases, the resulting energy developed is said to
increase as the square of the ratio of the increase in speed.   Examples:  

20 kph = 40 30 kph = 90 40 kph = 160

2.  Stopping a Motor Vehicle.  Whenever a moving vehicle is stopped, the energy
which it possesses at that time must be expended or spent.  It is only when most or all
of the vehicle's energy is expended through skidding of tires that a fairly accurate
calculation may be made of the vehicle's speed before the accident.

3.  Test Runs.  It is often necessary to conduct one or more test runs, using the vehicle
involved in the accident or, if it cannot be driven, another vehicle of similar
characteristics may be used.
a. Conditions should be the same as those existing when the accident occurred
(road, weather). 
b. Conduct tests on the same road surface and in the same direction.
c. The vehicle's speedometer should be checked. 
d. A speed consistent with safety, such as 20 or 30 miles per hour, should be
selected. 
e. Brakes should be applied suddenly and as hard as possible. 
f. The length of each skid mark should be measured.
g. If a brake detonator is available, the total braking distance should be accurately
determined using such equipment, either mechanically or electrically operated.
h. Generally, it is advisable to conduct two or three tests at the selected speed. The
longest braking distance, that which favors the defendant most, is generally used
in the calculation.
i. It may be advisable to have the driver of the accidents vehicle drive the car in the
test runs.

M.  Speed Calculation. When a vehicle is stopped solely by skidding, it is possible to

calculate the speed of the vehicle at the beginning of the skid by using the formula
based on the principle that the skidding or braking distances vary as the square of the
speed.

1. Formulas Used in Finding Speed Estimates. 

a. S =   5.5 √ DF= (speed on a level road)

b. S =  5.5 √ DF (+/- f) = (up or downhill)
   
    S                           
2

c. D = --------  = skidmarks
                30F                                                         
     
  S 2

d. F = --------- = Drag Factor

    30D

2. Where: S = speed (mph);  F = coefficient of friction (drag factor);   f = grade

(1,2,4) or super elevation;  D = distance (feet)
2.  When accident vehicle cannot be driven.  When the vehicle is damaged so badly
that it cannot be driven, part of the vehicle's energy is expended in damaging the car
and the object struck.
1. A calculation of speed from skidmarks left under these circumstances gives a
speed based only on the amount of energy expended in the skidding.
2. Consequently, the resulting speed value may be considerably less than the
actual pre-accident speed, since it is not possible to determine how much farther
the vehicle would have skidded had there been no collision.

N.  Sample Problems.  A driver of a Toyota Tamaraw FX while traversing down along
Marcos Highway suddenly steps on the brake when a young boy ran across the
vehicle’s path.  In the process, the vehicle skidded before hitting the boy.  When the
skid mark was measured, it yield 55 ft. long markings.  Applying the formulas for speed
calculations, find for the approximate speed of the Toyota Tamaraw FX before it
skidded if: 1)  the skid mark of the motor vehicle when tested at 30 mph is 35 ft. and  2)
the vertical fall of the highway is 1.5 ft..  The solution will be:

1.  Compute first for the Drag Factor.  Use the figures used during the test skid:

2
S     30           900
    2

  F =  -----   =  -------   =  -----  =  .86

        30 (D)     30 (35ft)       1050

2.  Calculate for the gradient because the highway is down hill:

    horizontal distance   1 ft.

  f = -------------------- = -------  = .67
        vertical fall            1.5 ft.

3.  Compute the speed by using the formula for downhill.

                         
  S =  5.5.  √ DF (+f) 
4.  Substitute the figures:                                   
S =  5.5.  √ (55ftx.86)+ .67
S =  5.5.   √ 47.3 + .67                                   
S =  5.5.   √ 47.97
S =  5.5  (6.93)
S = 38.12 mph