Table of Contents

UNIT II: FUNDAMENTALS OF LIGHTING.............................................................................................. 2

PRINCIPLES OF LIGHT ...................................................................................................................... 2
PRINCIPLES OF ILLUMINATION ...................................................................................................... 7
VISUAL TASK ................................................................................................................................... 11
UTILIZATION FACTOR .................................................................................................................... 13
DEPRECIATION FACTOR ................................................................................................................ 14
GLARE............................................................................................................................................... 16

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 BUILDING SERVICES II (AR6511)

UNIT II: FUNDAMENTALS OF LIGHTING

Er. Jenner Z.

Principles of light:
Light is a form of electromagnetic radiation which is visible to the human eye. It is closely
associated with other forms of radiations such as radio waves, infrared microwaves, x-
rays and ultraviolet rays.

Wavelength and color:

 The only difference between the several forms of radiation is their wavelength.
 Radiation with a wavelength between 380 and 780nm (nanometers) forms the visible
part of the electromagnetic spectrum which is the light.
 The eye can see the different wavelength within this range (380-780 nanometers) as
colors moving from red, orange, green, blue to violet.
 Near the red color infrared radiation which is invisible to human eye in present.
 The infrared radiation is detected as heat.
 Near the violet color in the electromagnetic spectrum there is ultraviolet radiation.
This is also invisible to the human eye.
 If the ultraviolet rays are exposed to human eye it can damage the eyes. It also causes
skin cancer.
 White light is the mixture of all the colors present in the visible part of the
electromagnetic spectrum.

Light and color:

 We see light as color and brightness
 Electrons move around the nucleus in orbits.
 Electrons gets kicked into different orbits.
 If you add energy to the atom the electros will jump to bigger orbits.
 When atoms loses the energy electrons jump back to original orbits.
 As they jump back emits one photon of light.

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 The color of the light depends on how big the jump was between the orbits.
 The bigger the jump, the higher the energy.
 The energy determines the color, a blue photon has more energy than the red.
 The light color concept is shown in figure. The red color has the small energy gap
between the excited state and ground state.
 The violet color has the large energy gap between the exited state and ground state.
 With all colors together white light is produced.

Figure: Light Colour

Mixing light of difference colors:

 The three basicwa light colors are red, green and blue.
 These are called primary colors and additive mixing of these colors will produce all
other light colors including white.
So,
Red + green = yellow
Red + blue = magenta
Green + blue = cyan
Red + green + Blue = white
The colors yellow, magenta, cyan are called as secondary or complementary colors
as they are made of combinations of primary colors.

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Electromagnetic radiation / Electromagnetic waves:
The electromagnetic spectrum is the complete range of electromagnetic radiations
placed in the order of increasing frequency. The electromagnetic radiations are,

(i) Radio waves:

 Radio waves have the largest wavelength of all the electromagnetic waves.
 Radio waves are often used to transmit data and have been used for applications
including radio satellites, radar and computer networks.

(ii) Microwaves:
 Microwaves have the shorter wavelengths than the radio waves.
 Microwaves are used in radar that helps to predict the weather conditions,
microwaves is also used to cook food.
 Microwave are also used in communication because they can penetrate clouds and
smoke.

Figure: Electromagnetic Spectrum

Infrared rays:
 Between microwaves and visible light are infrared waves. Infrared rays are classified
into near infrared and for infrared rays.
 The near infrared are closer to the visible light in wavelength and far infrared are
further away from the visible light in wavelength.

Visible light:
 The visible light covers the wavelength that can be seen by the human eye (380nm –
780nm)

Ultraviolet rays:
 Ultraviolet rays have the wavelength lesser than the visible light.

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 The ultraviolet rays from the sun causes skin cancer and we are protected from the
sun’s ultraviolet rays by the ozone layer.

X-Rays:
 X-Rays have the shorter wavelength then the ultraviolet rays. They can penetrate the
soft tissue like skin and muscles and are used to take X-Ray pictures of bones in
medicine.

Gamma Rays:
 The Gamma rays has the shorter wavelength in the electromagnetic spectrum
Radioactive materials emits Gamma rays.

NATURE OF VISION

 The human eye perceives light within the “visible spectrum” – between
wavelengths of about 390 nm (violet) and 700 nm (red). Humans perceive
some wavelengths of light more strongly, and luminous flux is scaled to reflect
this by using the luminosity function.
 Radiant flux is a related measure that quantifies the total power of the
electromagnetic radiation from a source and not just visible light but also
infrared and ultraviolet light, and is measured in watts.

1. Light is focused primarily by the cornea — the clear front surface of the eye, which
acts like a camera lens.
2. The iris of the eye functions like the diaphragm of a camera, controlling the
amount of light reaching the back of the eye by automatically adjusting the size of
the pupil (aperture).
3. The eye's crystalline lens is located directly behind the pupil and further focuses
light. Through a process called accommodation, this lens helps the eye
automatically focus on near and approaching objects, like an autofocus camera
lens.
4. Light focused by the cornea and crystalline lens (and limited by the iris and pupil)
then reaches the retina — the light-sensitive inner lining of the back of the eye.
The retina acts like an electronic image sensor of a digital camera, converting
optical images into electronic signals. The optic nerve then transmits these signals
to the visual cortex — the part of the brain that controls our sense of sight.

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 FIGURE: HUMAN EYE
Measurement of lighting:

The "brightness" of light can mean different things: for example, the amount of light
coming from a light source is luminous flux (lumens), the amount of light falling on a
surface is illuminance (lux), and the amount of light reflected off a surface is luminance
(cd/m2).

 These quantities are different because the farther a surface is from a light source,
the less light that falls on the surface, and the darker a surface is, the less incident
light it reflects.
 This is because light follows the inverse-square law. For example, a point source
like a candle that causes an illuminance of 1 lux on an object one meter away
would cause an illumination of 1/4 lux on the same object two meters away, or
1/9 lux on the object when it is 3 meters away.

Luminous Flux and Intensity = Light Coming from a Source

 The amount of light being given off by a particular source, in all directions, is called
luminous flux (or “luminous power”) and is a measure of the total perceived
power of light. It is measured in lumens.
 Lumens are a useful metric for comparing how bright a light source is (i.e. a 60W
incandescent bulb is about 850 lumens The human eye perceives light within the
“visible spectrum” – between wavelengths of about 390 nm (violet) and 700 nm
(red). Humans perceive some wavelengths of light more strongly, and luminous
flux is scaled to reflect this by using the luminosity function.

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  Radiant flux is a related measure that quantifies the total power of the
electromagnetic radiation from a source and not just visible light but also infrared
and ultraviolet light, and is measured in watts.
 The amount of light that travels in certain directions from the source is called the
"luminous intensity" and is measured in candelas. A candle emits about one
candela in all directions (this candle would emit a total of 12.6 lumens).

Illuminance = Light Falling on a Surface

 The amount of light falling on a surface is "illuminance", and is measured in lux
(metric unit = lumen/m2) or foot-candles (English unit = lumen/ft2). 1
footcandle equals 10.8 lux.
 This is the measurement you’ll work with the most for optimizing visual comfort
because building regulations and standards use illuminance to specify the
minimum light levels for specific tasks and environments.

This value does not depend on the material properties of the surface being illuminated.
However, since the amount of light the surface “sees” depends on how much being is
reflected from other surfaces around it, it does depend on the color and reflectance of the
surfaces that surround it.
PRINCIPLES OF ILLUMINATION:
Quantity of illumination:
(i) Provide adequate illumination
(ii) Uniformity of illumination
Quality of illumination:
(iii) Color of light
(iv) Avoid glare and shadows

Adequate illumination level:

 As a designer your job is to make sure that the occupants of your building have the
right level of light for their activity and try to get as much as that light as possible from
natural day light.
 Some areas can be too dim and some areas can be too bright and these levels depend
on the task.
 For example the illumination or brightness required to make jewelry or assemble
electronic components is more than the illumination required for parking.
 Illumination level required, as per ISI, in various parts of the building given below.
Kitchen 200 lux
Laundry 200 lux
Bathroom 100 lux
Stairs 100 lux
Bedroom 100 – 300 lux
Factories (production 500 – 1500 lux
hall)
Offices (PC room) 200 – 500 lux
School (classroom) 300 – 750 lux

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Uniformity of illumination:
 The human eye adjusts itself automatically to the brightness within the field of vision.
If there is lack of uniformity in illumination pupil or iris of the eye has to adjust more
frequently and thus fatigue is cause
 The problem can be solved by using localized lighting along with general lighting
towards the working surface.
 This type of lighting is adopted in manufacturing companies, offices, drawing offices,
etc.

Color of light:
 The appearance of the object color entirely depends upon the color of the light source.
 In general the color of the light should be in a way that the objects look more natural.
 In some lighting situations the natural color rendering does not matters the most. (Ex:
street lighting)
 But in some applications color should be represented as naturally as possible as under
daylight conditions.
 So when selecting a light source color rendering is an important criteria.
 Compact fluorescent lamps (CFL) are commonly used now a days because of good
color rendering property.
The CRI values 90-100 Excellent color rendering property
CRI 80-90 Good color rendering property
CRI 60-80 Moderate color rendering property
CRI Color Rendering Index

Shadows:
 In lighting installations formation of shows causes fatigue to eyes.
 Complete absence of shadows does not mean that it is an ideal condition of lighting
installations.
 Certain amount of shadow is permissible in artificial lighting as it gives shape to the
solid objects and makes them easily recognized.
 Objects illuminated by shadow less light appear flat and uninteresting.
 However in drawing offices shadowless light is essential otherwise the shadows
disturb the working person.
 The shadows can be avoided by
o Using indirect lighting system
o Using large number of small luminaries mounted at a height not
less than 2.5 meters.
Glare:
 The excessive brightness from a direct light source that makes it difficult to see
what one wishes to see.
 A bright object in front of a dark background usually will cause glare. Bright lights
reflecting off a television or computer screen or even a printed page produces
glare.
 Intense light sources -- such as bright incandescent lamps -- are likely to produce
more direct glare than large fluorescent lamps. However, glare is primarily the
result of relative placement of light sources and the objects being viewed.

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 The glare may be direct or reflected i.e. it may come directly from the light source or
it may be a reflected brightness from a desktop.
 The direct glare from a source of light is the more common and it causes eye
discomfort. The filament of an incandescent lamp causes discomfort glare.
 Direct glare or discomfort glare is produced when the brightness of the source is too
high.
 Reflected glare is produced when the light from a source fall on a polished surfaces or
light colored surfaces.
 A white color surface has a light reflectance value of 100 so the reflected glare will be
more.
 A black color surface has a light reflectance value of 0 so the reflected glare is absent.
 So depending on the applications the painting for walls and ceilings is done.
Energy Consumption
Efficacy
The ratio of light produced to energy consumed. It's measured as the number of lumens
produced divided by the rate of electricity consumption (lumens per watt).
Light Quality
Color temperature
 The color of the light source. By convention, yellow-red colors (like the flames of
a fire) are considered warm, and blue-green colors (like light from an overcast
sky) are considered cool.
 Color temperature is measured in Kelvin (K) temperature. Confusingly, higher
Kelvin temperatures (3600–5500 K) are what we consider cool and lower color
temperatures (2700–3000 K) are considered warm.
 Cool light is preferred for visual tasks because it produces higher contrast than
warm light.
 Warm light is preferred for living spaces because it is more flattering to skin tones
and clothing. A color temperature of 2700–3600 K is generally recommended for
most indoor general and task lighting applications.
Color rendering
 How colors appear when illuminated by a light source. Color rendition is generally
considered to be a more important lighting quality than color temperature.
 Most objects are not a single color, but a combination of many colors. Light sources
that are deficient in certain colors may change the apparent color of an object.
 The Color Rendition Index (CRI) is a 1–100 scale that measures a light source's
ability to render colors the same way sunlight does.
 The top value of the CRI scale (100) is based on illumination by a 100-watt
incandescent light bulb.
 A light source with a CRI of 80 or higher is considered acceptable for most indoor
residential applications.

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Lighting Uses
Ambient lighting
Provides general illumination indoors for daily activities, and outdoors for safety and security.
Task lighting
Facilitates particular tasks that require more light than is needed for general illumination, such
as under-counter kitchen lights, table lamps, or bathroom mirror lights.
Accent lighting
Draws attention to special features or enhances the aesthetic qualities of an indoor or outdoor
environment.

DEFINITIONS

Figure: Principles of illumination

Illumination is defined as the intensity of light per unit area.
The unit for measurement of illumination is lux.

Luminous Flux:
 The amount of light given off by a particular source in all directions is called luminous
flux.
 It is measured in lumens.
 Lumens is used for comparing the brightness of a light source (i.e. 60W incandescent
bulb is about 850 lumens)

Luminous intensity:
 The amount of light that travels in a certain directions from the source is called
luminous intensity.
 It is measured in candelas
 A candle emits about one candela in all directions (this candle would emit a total of
12.6 lumens)

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Illuminance:
The amount of light falling on a surface is illuminance. It is measured in lux
(lux = lumens/m2)
1 foot candle = 10.8 lux
 This is the measurement you’ll work with the most for optimizing visual comforts
because building regulations and standards use illuminance to specify the minimum
light levels for specific tasks and environments.
 The illuminance value depends on the color and reflectance of the surfaces that
surround it.

Luminance:
 Luminance is the light reflected off from the surface. It is measured in candelas per
square meter (cd/m2)
 The quality and intensity of the light depends on the material properties of the
surfaces (color, reflectance)

VISUAL TASK:
 Visual tasks are the tasks that are carried out with the help of vision.
 It mainly depends on the size, shape, color and nearness of the object to be worked.
 Visual task performed are broadly classified into two types
o Paper based task
o Computer based task

Factors affecting visual task:

 Size
 Luminance
 Contrast
 Glare
 Shadow

Size:
 Making objects larger or moving them closer to our eyes, makes them easier to see.
 We need less light to perform a task when size is increased.
 If size is reduced we need more light to read.

Contrast:
 If the contrast is too low, the result will be a dull and flat visual scene with no points
of interest.
 If the contrast is too high it is difficult for the eye to see the objects.
 Well balanced contrast gives satisfaction and comfort to see the object.

Glare:
 The glare may be direct or reflected i.e. it may come directly from the light source or
it may be reflected brightness of a desktop.

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 The direct glare from a source of light is more common and it causes eye discomfort.
The filament of an incandescent lamp causes discomfort glare.
 Direct or discomfort glare is produced when the brightness of the source is too high.
 Reflected glare is produced when the light from a source fall on a polished surfaces or
light colored surfaces.
 A white color surface has a light reflectance value of 100 so the reflected glare will be
more.
 A black color surface has a light reflectance value of 0 so the reflected glare is absent.
 So depending on the applications the painting for walls and ceilings is done.

Luminance:
 As a designer your job is to make sure that the occupants of your building have the
right level of light for their activity and try to get as much as that light as possible from
natural day light.
 Some areas can be too dim and some areas can be too bright and these levels depend
on the task.

Shadows:
 In lighting installations formation of shows causes fatigue to eyes.
 Complete absence of shadows does not mean that it is an ideal condition of lighting
installations.
 Certain amount of shadow is permissible in artificial lighting as it gives shape to the
solid objects and makes them easily recognized.
 Objects illuminated by shadow less light appear flat and uninteresting.
 However in drawing offices shadow less light is essential otherwise the shadows
disturb the working person.
 The shadows can be avoided by
o Using indirect lighting system
o Using large number of small luminaries mounted at a height not
less than 2.5 meters.
Colour of Light:

 The appearance of the object color entirely depends upon the color of the light source.
 In general the color of the light should be in a way that the objects look more natural.
 In some lighting situations the natural color rendering does not matters the most. (Ex:
street lighting)
 But in some applications color should be represented as naturally as possible as under
daylight conditions.
 So when selecting a light source color rendering is an important criteria.
 Compact fluorescent lamps (CFL) are commonly used now a days because of good
color rendering property.
The CRI values 90-100 Excellent color rendering property
CRI 80-90 Good color rendering property
CRI 60-80 Moderate color rendering property
CRI Color Rendering Index

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 Quantity Notation Unit
Solid Angle W steradian (sr)
Wavelength l nanometer (nm) = 10-9 meters
Radiance Le Watt per steradian per sq. meter (W/sr.m2)
Radiant Intensity Ie Watt per steradian (W/sr)
Irradiance Ee Watt per sq. meter (W/m2)
lumen (lm)
Luminous Flux Fv 1 Watt of monochromatic light at 555nm equals 683 lumens
candela per sq. meter (cd/m2)
Luminance Lv 1 cd/m2 = 1 lumen per steradian per sq. meter (lm/sr.m2) = 1 nit
candela (cd)
Luminous Intensity Iv 1 cd = 1 lumen per steradian (lm/sr)
lux
Illuminance Ev 1 lux = 1 lumen per sq. meter (lm/m2)

UTILIZATION FACTOR:

Utilization Factor or Co-efficient of utilization. It may be defined as “the ratio of total lumens
received on the working plane to the total lumens emitted by the light source”.i.e.

Utilization factor =Lumens received on the working plane/Lumens emitted by the lamp

 The term utilization factor in lighting refers to what percentage of the actual light
physically reaching the surface of the room.
 It is important to understand the utilization factor of your lighting when you install
lights in a room.

Factors affecting utilization factor:

(i) Room size:
 The geometric shape of the room i.e. length, breadth and height of a room will affect
the utilization factor.
 The Room Index is determined by the formula
Room Index (RI) = L x W
(L+W) Hm
 The larger the room, the smaller the utilization factor for each light’
 While installing a light in room the brightness must be considered.

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(ii) Reflective factors:
 Reflective surfaces affect the utilization factor because they increase the brightness of
lighting.
 If the light bounces back off a mirror it appears brighter and increases the utilization
factor of that room
 If you are using lighter color paints on your walls the utilization factor will be more.
 If you are using darker colors the utilization factor is reduced.

DEPRECIATION FACTOR:
When artificial light sources are covered with dust, dirt or smoke, some amount of
luminous flux is not radiated. This reduction in illumination is called depreciation.

Depreciation Factor = Illumination level at normal working conditions

Illumination level at ideal working conditions

It may be defined as “the ratio of illumination under normal working condition to the
illumination when everything is clean or new”

The maintenance factor is based on how often the lights are cleaned and replaced. It takes
into account such factors as decreased efficiency with age, accumulation of dust within
the fitting itself and the depreciation of reflectance as walls and ceilings age. For
convenience, it is usually given as three options:

Good = 0.70

Medium = 0.65

Poor = 0.55

MHCP (Mean Horizontal Candle Power):

The mean of candle power in all the directions in the horizontal plane containing the
source of light.

MSCP (Mean Spherical Candle Power):

The mean of spherical candle power in all directions and in all planes from the source of
light.

MHSCP (Mean Hemi-Spherical Candle Power):

It is defined as the mean of candle power in all directions above or below the horizontal
plane passing through the source of light.
Candlepower:
 Candle power is the light radiating capacity of a source in a given direction and is
defined as the number of lumen given out by the source in a unit solid angle in a given
direction.

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Lumen:
 Lumen is the unit of luminous flux.

Solid angle:
 Since the light is emitted by a source in all directions and not only in one plane. It is
necessary to consider solid angles instead of ordinary plane angle.
 Solid angle is the angle generated by the surface passing through the point in space
and the periphery of the area.
 It is donated by𝜔. The unit of solid angle is steradians.
 W (steradians) is given as the ratio of the area of the surface to the square of the
distance between the area and the point.

i.e. 𝜔 = Area = A
(Radius2) r2

Luminous efficiency / luminous efficacy:

It is the ratio of luminous flux to power and measured in lumen per watt..
Luminous efficiency = Luminous flux
Power
Inverse square law:
Inverse square law stakes that illumination (E) on a surface is inversely proportional to
the square of the distance between the surface and the light source (S)
E=l
r2

Figure: Inverse Square Law

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 Lambert’s cosine law:
Lamberts cosine law states that Illumination at any point on a surface is proportional to
the cosine of the angle between the normal at that point and the direction of luminous
flux.

Figure: Lambert’ cosine Law

BRIGHTNESS AND GLARE

For true visual comfort, you don't just need the right amount of illumination. Light needs
to be well distributed to avoid discomfort.

Glare

Areas of high brightness right next to areas of low brightness cause glare, making people
uncomfortable. For instance, having a bare light bulb for your desk lamp may provide
more than enough light. However, it would cause more light to shine directly into your
eyes than reflects off the desktop, making it difficult to read or do other tasks. Having a
shade on the lamp keeps the light from glaring into your eyes while brightly illuminating
your desktop.

 Excessive brightness and brightness contrast can produce glare

 Glare may be direct (from light source) or reflected from an object
 Glare may be irritating or disable vision
 To eliminate glare, move the light source, observer or object/task
 Change the reflectance of the task
 Reduce the brightness of the light source or the brightness contrast by lighting the
surround
 Brighter isn’t always better. Excessive levels of brightness and contrast can
produce glare, which can result in effects ranging from mild irritation to virtual
blindness.
 For an object to be visible, light falls on it and is reflected or transmitted to the eye,
resulting in both vision and perception. Generally speaking, if you increase the
amount of light that falls on the object, you increase its brightness. The object then

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 becomes more visible, particularly if its surround has a low brightness. The result
is a high contrast between the object and its surrounding. Too much brightness
and contrast can produce glare.
 Direct glare is caused by looking directly at a bright light source, such as a lamp
(light bulb) or bright window.
 Reflected glare is caused by light reflecting from a highly reflective surface such as
a computer screen, mirror or glossy magazine.
 Discomfort glare occurs when the observer experiences physical irritation. And
disability glare occurs when vision is virtually blocked.

How To Avoid Glare

 The problem of glare can typically be solved by moving or changing the task,
moving the observer, or moving or shielding the light source. Consider the glossy
magazine page seen in this image.

 On the left, the image is washed out by reflected disability glare. Simply moving
the magazine a little fixes the problem. Alternately, the observer could move a
little, or, if the light source is portable, he or she could move the source.

 Similarly, suppose your desk in your home office faces a window, exposing you to
direct discomfort glare coming in through a window, as well as reflected
discomfort glare from sunlight striking a car outside.

 One solution is to orient the desk so that it’s perpendicular to the window. Another
is to shield the light source, in this case by adding manual blinds.

 Otherwise, avoid exposed bright lamps and specular (extremely shiny surfaces)
that can produce reflected discomfort glare. If shiny surfaces cannot be avoided,
consider a very diffuse light source such as indirect light.

 If there is an exposed lamp, shield it or use a light that is not as bright. Or simply
move the light source above the field of view, where direct glare is less likely to be
noticeable.

 A final tip is to reduce extreme contrast either by reducing the brightness of the
light source or increasing the brightness of its surround. For example, if a window
appears very bright, consider putting some light on the wall around it, which will
reduce contrast and thus reduce the potential for glare.

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Behavior of light:
Whenever light strikes a surface the light may be reflected, absorbed or transmitted.
Reflection:
 The amount of reflected light depends on the type of surface, angle of incidence.
 Reflection is less for very dark surface and high for lighter surfaces.
 A ray of light striking a mirror will be reflected back at the same angle on the other
side.
 The law of reflection is given as,
Angle of incidence = angle of reflection

Absorption:
If the material surface is not entirely reflecting, then part of the light will be absorbed.

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Transmission:
 Transparent materials transmit some of the light striking its surface.
 High transmittance materials are glass.

Scattering of light:
 The deflection of the light from the straight path is known as scattering.

Refraction:
 If the light passes from one medium to other the ray will be broken. This is known as
refraction.

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