CHAPTER 12:

PLANTS
REPRODUCTION &
DEVELOPMENT
Dr. Norliana Mohd Rosli
FOCUS:
 Physiology of plant reproduction and Development
 The flowering plant life cycle.
 Parts of flower.
 Development of female and gametophyte.
 Fertilization.
 Embryonic development.
 Seed and fruit development.
 Dispersal of seeds and fruits.
 Seed germination.
4. The Reproduction Stage
The bud that later opens into a flower is protected by the sepals. Once the sepals open, they the little flower inside blossoms into a mature flower. The flower has
reproductive parts. To aid the process of reproduction, the flower has very attractive petals that are not only brightly colored but also scented to attract the
pollinators. This is a very important stage of a plant’s life.

The female reproductive part of a flower is known as the pistil. It is made up of four parts namely the ovules, the ovary, the style and the stigma. Its male
counterpart is known as the stamen and has is made up of the anther – where the pollen is made- and the filament, a long string through which the pollen pass
through from the anthers.

At the heart of the flower is a long slender tube that is referred to as style. It opens up into a funnel like opening that is known as the stigma. Its role is to collect the
pollen grains. The stigma is sticky and hairy to enhance its capability to collect pollen grains.

In order to aid the process of pollination, sometimes the pistil will be surrounded by several stamens. The pollen grains collected on the stamen travel down the
style into the ovary where the ovules will be waiting for fertilization. The fertilized egg becomes the seed and the flower withers to give way to the growth of ovary
into a fruit.

1. Explain the flowering plant

life cycle
2. Explain development of male
Learning and female gametophyte
outcomes 3. Explain the fertilization in
flowering plants
4. Explain the embryonic, seed
and fruit development
5. Pollination
In some flowers, you will find only male parts while others have the female parts. Sometimes they are located far apart and thus to transport pollen
grains to the female parts, a flower will need agents of pollination such as water, wind, birds, animals, insects etc. Without the pollinators, fertilization
will not occur.

Sometimes, flowers get fertilized with pollen grains from other flowers in a process called cross-pollination. The process results in stronger plants. It is
the bright petals and sweet smell of nectar that attract the pollinators. The flowers are genetically coded to adapt to specific pollinators. A good
example is the dead flower that smells like rotting flesh to draw in the flies that get pollen stuck on their legs and wings as they move from flower to
flower and thereby aiding cross-pollination as they also get food. Animals and humans also help transport pollens from flower to flower when the grains
stick to the animal furs and human clothes.

6. Seed Dispersal
The final stage of the plant life cycle is the seed dispersal. Some seeds – such as the dandelion seeds – are spread by dispersal agents such as the
wind. Others rely on the wind and animal furs to take them to new locations. Water lilies seeds are transported to new locations by water. Most
importantly, humans deliberately plant seeds as one of the most important agents of seed dispersal.
a plants life cycle starts when the seed is first put into the soil and breaths some oxygen and then watered all the way to withering. The essentials of starting a life of
a plant include warmth, oxygen and water.

As the plants germinates, it will start requiring other essentials such as fertile soils, sunlight for photosynthesis and of course water.
The moment a seed falls on the ground, life starts. In nature, there are many types of plant life. However, the most advanced of the plant life is seen in the
angiosperms (flowering plants). They have alluring flowers that help them attract pollinators and thus spread their seeds. The major stages of a plant life cycle
include;
1. Seed
Seed All plant lifecycles start off with a seed. Note that
Germination all seeds have small plants inside their embryo.
Growth
Plant life cycle
Reproduction
Pollination
There are two major categories of seeds. These
are the dicots and the monocots. Dicots, in addition
to having an embryo, have two cotyledons. A good
Seed Dispersal example of a dicot is a bean seed. Note that the
cotyledons is where the seed stores its food. The
cotyledons also happen to be the first leaves of the
plant as it emerges from the ground during
germination. Contrastingly, monocots have only
3. The Growth Process
one cotyledon. A great example is he corn seed.
The growth process is largely
dependent on a process
Both types of seeds have a miniature root system.
known as photosynthesis. It
They also feature a hard coat on the outside to
is the process by which
protect the embryo. Some seeds can keep their
plants make their own food in
germination properties for a long time as long as
the leaves using chlorophyll,
they are kept in a dry and cool place.
sunlight, water, and carbon
dioxide.
2. Germination Process
For a seed to start to germinate, it will need warmth,
The food made by the leaves
water and oxygen. Some seeds need light. Note that the
is stored in form of sugars in
dicots need the moisture more because they have a very
the stem and the root system.
strong outer membrane that needs some softening to
The root is also important for
develop their root system.
anchoring the plant as well as
absorbing nutrients and water
After a seed is dropped into the ground, its outer
from the soil. The nutrients
membrane soaks in water until the seed splits. Monocots
(starches and sugars) are
(such as the corn seed) do not split however. They just
then converted into energy,
open on one end.
thus helping the plant grow at
the top of the stem
The process of germination will then commence when
(meristem).
the stem (hypocotyl) pushes through the soil with the
seed leaves. The process is also referred to as
After a period of growth
sprouting. While the step is pushing upwards, the tiny
(sometimes months and
roots push downwards into the soil looking for water,
sometimes years in some
nutrients and providing support to the growing stem.
plants), a flower bud will
develop and this will signify
For the seed to germinate, it have to be planted at the
that the plant has reached
right place and at the right time. For example, the prairie
maturity and is ready for
grass seed has to pass through fire to sprout. Others
reproduction.
have to go into an animal stomach to get scraping in
order to soften it for germination.
Sexual Reproduction in Plants

 The plant cycle is an alternation of generation

between different multicellular forms of the plant.
 The diploid (2n), spore-producing sporophyte
 The haploid (n), gamete-producing gametophyte
YR1

Sporophyte is
dominant
Slide 7

YR1 Yana Rosli, 4/12/2018

YR1
Slide 8

YR1 Yana Rosli, 4/12/2018

Flowering Plant Life Cycle
 In flowering plants, the sporophyte is the dominant,
flowering-producing generation.
 Flowers produce 2 kinds of spores.
 Microspores that develop into the male gametophyte (a pollen grain)
 Megaspores that develop into the female gametophyte (an embryo sac)

 Mature pollen grain contains 2 nonflagellated sperm-

travel down a pollen tube to embryo sac.
 After the sperm in the pollen has fertilized the egg,
an embryo develops within the flower.
 Structure surround the embryo sac  seed.
 Seed enclosed by a fruit  aids in dispersing seeds.
 Seed germinates into new sporophyte.
Parts of flower

 Flowers typically
have fours kinds of
foliar appendages
usually arranged in a
series of whorls:
 sepals,
 petals,
 stamens,
 carpels,
 arranged in this order
from the bottom to
the top of the floral
axis.
 Monocot
Parts of flower
p1
s2

s1
p2
 Monocots: 3 and multiple of 3 flower parts
p3
 Eudicots: 4/5 & m multiple of 4/5 flower parts
s3
 Can have single/multiple carpels
 Not all flowers have sepals, petals, stamens & carpels
(incomplete)

Eudicot
Complete and Incomplete flower

COMPLETE INCOMPLETE
 Stamens and Carpels

Male part Female part

Development of male gametophyte
Flowering Plant Life Cycle

 [Link]
LHremcc1QdjzTBYF&t=3s&index=28
 [Link]
Development of male gametophyte

 Two distinct and successive developmental phases, lead

to the production of the male gametophyte.

(i) Microsporogenesis phase

(ii) Microgametogenesis phase
(i) Microsporogenesis

 The events which lead to the formation of the haploid

(n) unicellular microspores.

 During microsporogenesis, the diploid microsporocyte

undergoes meiosis to produce 4 haploid (n)
microspores.
 Meiosis I: Diploid microsporocyte undergoes meiosis to
develops 2 cells
 Meiosis II: 2 cells develops into 4 cells; producing 4
haploid microspores
 Each diploid microsporocyte gives rise to a tetrad of 4
haploid microspores.
 Lilium anther with four
microsporangia.

Lilium microsporangium
with cells undergoing
the first division of
meiosis.
 Second division in
microsporocytes of a
Lilium microsporangium

Microspore tetrads in
Lilium anther
Microspore tetrads in Lilium anther
a

b
c d

e
(ii) Microgametogenesis

 The events which lead to the progressive development of the

unicellular microspores into mature microgametophytes containing
the gametes.

 This phase begins with the expansion of the haploid microspore

which is commonly associated with the formation of a single large
vacuole.
 Nucleus undergoes mitosis which results in the formation of two
unequal cells, a large vegetative cell and a small generative cell
each containing a haploid nucleus.  immature pollen grain
 Generative cell divides mitotically to form the two sperm cells
completely enclosed within the vegetative cell cytoplasm either
before pollen is shed (tricellular pollen) or within the pollen tube
(bicellular pollen).  mature pollen grain
TUBE CELL
POLLEN GRAIN STRUCTURE
Dispersion of Pollen Grain
and insects-pollinator
 The tetrad of four
haploid cells is
located inside an
anther sac
(microsporangium)
of Lilium.

Mature 2-cell stage of a pollen grain of Lilium

Development of female
gametophyte

 Occurs over 2 phases:

1. Megasporogenesis
2. Megagametogenesis
1. Megasporogenesis

 Ovary contains 1/more ovules.

 Ovule has central mass of parenchyma cells almost
completely covered by layers of tissue called
integuments, except for an opening called micropyle.
 Megasporocyte (through Meiosis I & II), producing
4 haploid megaspores.
 Meiosis 1: Diploid megasporocyte undergoes
meiosis to develops 2 cell stage.
 Meiosis II: 2 cell stage develops to 4 cell stage; producing
4 haploid megaspores.
 1 megaspore survived (functional megaspore);
3 of them degenerated (die).
2. Megagametogenesis
(Embryo Sac Development)

 Megagametophyte = embryo sac.

 Embryo sac develops from the megaspore
through 3 rounds of mitotic divisions give rise
to 8 haploid nuclei. I
 The cell nearby to the micropyle opening of Antipodal
the integuments differentiates into : cells
1. 3 antipodal cells form on the opposite (chalazal
end) of ovule and later degenerate, serving no
obvious function.
2. 2 synergid cells II
3. egg cell
4. The large central cell of the embryo sac Polar
contains 2 polar nuclei (binucleate) III nuclei

Egg Synergid
cells
Development of embryo sac from megaspore
Ovule with embryo sac
Microsporogenesis vs megasporogenesis

tetrahedral

linear
Microgametogenesis vs megagametogenesis
Pollination

 Is a transfer of pollen from the anther to the stigma

of a carpel (flower).

 This is accomplished by a variety of methods.

(i) transfer of pollen by an insect.

(ii) transfer of pollen by wind.
(iii) pollinators include birds, bats, water, and humans.
(iv) some flowers develop in such a way as to pollinate
themselves. Some flowers (for example garden peas)
develop in such a way as to pollinate themselves.
Others have mechanisms to ensure pollination with
another flower.
POLLINATION
 Pollen germination

 Germination of pollen grains on the

surface of the stigma.
 Pollen tube are growing out of the
pollen grain (2 sperm).
 Pollen tube grow through the stigma,
down the style, enter the ovary and
approach the ovule (egg).
 The large cell becomes the tube cell and
produces the pollen tube.
 The small cell is called the generative cell & it
undergoes mitosis & produces two sperm.

Generative cell
Pathway of pollen development (anther development,
microsporogenesis & microgametogenesis)
Schematic diagram illustrating pollen development
Double Fertilization

 The pollen tube delivers two sperm to the egg to carry out double
fertilization.
 The sperm are involved in 2 fusion events.
 One sperm fuses with an egg to form a diploid zygote (2n).
 One sperm fuses with 2 other ovule cells to form the triploid endosperm (3n).

 Zygote divides mitotically to become embryo (young sporophyte).

 Endosperm cell divides mitotically to become endosperm.
 Endosperm – nourish the embryo & seedling as they develop.
Double fertilization
Double fertilization
and Seed
Development
Development of the Seed in a
Dicot (Eudicot)
 Dicot seeds have three main parts:
 The seed coat is a protective layer.
 The endosperm provides a food reserve.
 A plant embryo is present.

 As the seed matures, the embryo undergoes a specific series of

developmental changes before the plant axis develops.
Seed Development

suspens
or basal
cell
Dicot and
monocot seed
  Endosperm cell divides to
produce endosperm tissue

basal
Pre-globular stage cell

 Zygote divides asymmetrically.

 Small, dense cytoplasm  embryo
 Elongate structure -> suspensor,
which has basal cell.
 Suspensor pushes embryo deep into the endosperm tissue.
 The suspensor cell involved in absorbing nutrients from endosperm (triploid
food storage tissue) and extends the embryo into the food source
 Suspensor will disintegrates when seed matures.
 Heart-shaped stage
 When cotyledons/seed leaves appear

Globular stage
 Embryo is a ball of cells
 Root-shoot axis of embryo is already
suspensor
established, embryonic cells near
suspensor become root, the other end basal
cell
become shoot.
Torpedo stage
 Embryo continue to enlarge & elongate
 Root & shoot tip are distinguishable
 Shoot apical meristem: aboveground
growth
 Root apical meristem: underground
growth
As the torpedo stage of an embryo develops, the protoderm, procambium
and ground meristem differentiate
protoderm :
 future epidermis
procambium :
 which produces primary xylem and phloem
ground meristem :
 which produces thin-walled parenchyma cells
 Hypocotyl
Epicotyl

Radicle

Mature embryo stage

 Epicotyl – shoot development
 Hypocotyl – stem development
 Radicle – root development
Mature embryo:

• Mature embryo differentiate as a the radicle (young root), plumule (young

shoot) and cotyledon.
• The ground meristems classified as root meristem and shoot meristems
• Leaves and branch primodia differentiate as the shoot meristems grows
upward
• At the same time, the root meristem grows downward (micropyle)
• Both meristems, continue to function throughout the life of the plant
• Mature angiosperm embryo consists of an axis with 2 cotyledon (differentiate
as the 2 cotyledon in the embryo sac) such as pea/bean
Embryo development of dicot plants
Embryo
development
Embryo development of monocot
plants
 Embryo development in monocots is identical in the early stages of embryo
development in dicots.
 Preglobular stage develops into globular embryo stage, then develops into
cylinder-shaped; a single cotyledon.
 Monocot embryos have only one cotyledon
 Embryo
 attached at the endosperm tissues called scutellum
 Scutellum – specialised tissue to absorb stored food from endosperm.
Eudicot Monocot
 Embryo have 2 cotyledons  Embryo have 1 cotyledon
 Nutrients are stored in the  Cotyledon rarely stores food
cotyledon and endosperm tissue.  Nutrients pass from the endosperm
 All nutrients are stored in the through the scutellum to the
embryo
enlarged cotyledons. The radicle
gives rise to the roots, the  In some grass, the cotyledon forms
hypocotyl to the lower stem, the a nutrient-rich scutellum
epicotyl to the leaves and upper surrounding the embryo for
germination.
stem.
 The cotyledon will be modified to
 The epicotyl is covered by a form a coleoptile, which surround
protective sheath (coleoptile that and protects the epicotyl and the
encloses the stem elongation). coleorhiza that protects the
radicle.
After fertilization
Parts of flowers Parts of fruits
Petal & Stamen Shrivel & fall away when the 
fruits enlarge
Integuments Seed coat/testa – a protective 
layer
2n zygote embryo which consists of radicel, 
plumule & cotyledons
Ovary fruits (i.e. outermost ski & fleshy 
layer of a fruit
3n endosperm  endosperm‐ provides nutrients to 
nucleus  (3n) the growing embryo & seed 
germination
Ovule seed
Dispersal of Seeds

 Once produced, seeds must be

dispersed in order to germinate.
 Some seeds have hooks that allow
the seed to cling to the fur of
animals.
 Some seeds must pass through the
digestive tract of animals before
they can germinate.
 Some seeds are dispersed by wind
or water.
 Some seeds are dispersed in a
projectile-like fashion.
Dispersal of Seeds
Fruit Types

 Fruit – derived from ovary / other flower

parts
 Fx: protect & help disperse offspring
 Ovary thickens to become pericarp
 Pericarp can contain up to 3 layers: exocarp,
mesocarp, endocarp
 There is great diversity in the types of fruits
produced by plants.
 Fruits can be dry or fleshy.
 Fruits can be simple, as for cereal grains.
 Nuts can have a hard shell that surrounds a single
seed.
 Legumes are fruits with several seeds.
Germination of Seeds

 Seed germination is a developmental process during which

the embryo breaks dormancy and continues its
development.

 Seed germination only occurs when sufficient moisture,

temperature, and oxygen is present to sustain growth.
 There are 2 types of germination process:
1. Epigeous germination :
the one which raises cotyledons over ground level
 In this type of germination, the hypocotyl elongates rapidly and
arches upwards pulling the cotyledons which move above the soil.
Bean, cotton, papaya, gourd, castor and onion have germination of
this kind.
2. Hypogeous germination:
cotyledons remain underground which make them function simply as a
food resource, like in the case of peas.
 In this type of germination, the epicotyl elongates and the
cotyledons remain below the soil. Pea, mango, maize, rice, gram and
groundnut have germination of this kind.
Epigeal
Hypogeal
[Link]
of-seed-types-condition-required-and-other-details/2366