Radar Systems
IV [Link] I SEM
ECE-B
By
V. Balaji
Assistant Professor
ECE Department
V. Balaji, Asst. Prof, DNRCET
Radar Systems
Tracking Radar
UNIT-4
UNIT –IV:
Tracking Radar: Tracking with Radar, Sequential Lobing, Conical Scan, Mono pulse
Tracking Radar – Amplitude Comparison Mono pulse (one- and two- coordinates), Phase
Comparison Mono pulse, Tracking in Range, Acquisition and Scanning Patterns,
Comparison of Trackers.
V. Balaji, Asst. Prof, DNRCET
Tracking with Radar
• Tracking is process of following the position of
one or more objects in space. The target
(object) is continuously monitored by target
sampling at Nyquist rate.
• By accurate tracking, radar can provide
target's trajectory and can predict its position
in future time.
Antenna Tracking
• Need: The location of the target has to be very
accurately known after it has been scanned. An
antenna with a narrow pencil shaped beam is
useful in this regard, but this type of antenna is
insufficient therefore more precise and useful
method i.e. tracking is employed.
• Types: Two most commonly used antenna
tracking mechanisms are
1. Sequential lobing
2. Conical scanning
Sequential Lobing
• In sequential lobing the direction of antenna beam is
rapidly switched between two positions so that the
strength of echo from target will fluctuate at the
switching rate, unless the target is exactly midway
between the two directions.
• The echo strength will be the same in both antenna
positions. Fig. 5.1.1 shows sequential lobing method.
• Sequential lobing is also called as lobe switching.
• An important feature of sequential lobing is that the
target position accuracy can be far better than given
by antenna beamwidth.
Conical Scan
• The logical extension of the sequential lobbing
technique is to rotate continuously an offset
antenna beam rather than discontinuously step
the beam between four discrete positions. This is
known as conical scanning.
• The angle between the axis of rotation and the
axis of the antenna beam is called the squint
angle.
• Consider a target at position A. The echo signal
will be modulated at a frequency equal to the
rotation frequency of the beam.
• The amplitude of the echo-signal modulation will
depend upon the shape of the antenna pattern,
the squint angle and the angle between the
target line of sight and the rotation axis.
• The phase of the modulation depends on the
angle between the target and the rotation axis.
• The conical scan modulation is extracted from the
echo signal and applied to a servo-control system
which continually positions the antenna on the
target.
• When the antenna is on target, as in B, the
line of sight to the target and the rotation axis
coincide, and the conical-scan modulation is
zero.
Block Diagram
• The antenna is mounted so that it can be
positioned in both azimuth and elevation by
separate motors, which might be either electric-
or hydraulic-driven.
• The antenna beam is offset by tilting either the
feed or the reflector with respect to one another.
• One of the simplest conical-scan antennas is a
parabola with an offset rear feed rotated about
the axis of the reflector.
• If the feed maintains the plane of polarization
fixed as it rotates, it is called a nutating feed.
• Rotating feed:
• The feed causes the plane of polarization to
rotate is called rotating feed. The rotating feed
much simpler than nutating feed.
• The nutating feed is preferred over the rotating
feed since a rotating polarization causes
amplitude of echo signal to change with time for
a stationary target also.
• A rotating feed causes the polarization to rotate.
The latter type of feed requires a rotary joint.
• The received echo signal is fed to the receiver from the
antenna via two rotary joints (not shown in the block
diagram). One rotary joint permits motion in azimuth,
the other, in elevation.
• The receiver is a conventional super heterodyne except
for features peculiar to the conical scan tracking radar.
• One feature not found in other radar receivers is a
means of extracting the conical-scan modulation, or
error signal. This is accomplished after the second
detector in the video portion of the receiver.
• The error signal is compared with the elevation and
azimuth reference signals in the angle-error detectors,
which are phase-sensitive detectors.
• A phase sensitive detector is a nonlinear device in
which the input signal (in this case the angle-error
signal) is mixed with the reference signal.
• The input and reference signals are of the same
frequency. The output d-c voltage reverses polarity as
the phase of the input signal changes through 180°.
• The magnitude of the d-c output from the angle-error
detector is proportional to the error, and the sign
(polarity) is an indication of the direction of the error.
The angle-error detector outputs are amplified and
drive the antenna elevation and azimuth servo motors.
• The angular position of the target may be
determined from the elevation and azimuth of
the antenna axis. The position can be read out by
means of standard angle transducers such as
synchronous, potentiometers, or analog-to-
digital-data converters
• Advantages:-
• It require a minimum no. of hardware so
inexpensive.
• Disadvantages:-It is not able to see target outside
their narrow scan patterns.
Monopulse Tracking
• A type of radar in which angular location of target is
obtained by comparing signals received by two or more
simultaneous beams is called monopulse tracker.
• The measurement of target angle is done on the basis
of single pulse hence called monopulse
• Multiple pulses may be used to increase the probability
of detection, angle accuracy, resolution in doppler. The
accuracy of monopulse is improved compared to time
shared single beam tracking beams (e.g. Conical scan
or sequential lobing).
• Since angle measurement is based on signals that
appear simultaneously in more than one antenna
beam. The accuracy of monopulse is not affected
by amplitude functions of target echo; therefore
it is preferred tracking technique when accurate
angle measurement is required.
• An error signal is developed in two orthogonal
angle co-ordinates that mechanically drive the
boresight of tracking antenna using a closed loop
servo system to keep boresight positioned in the
direction of moving target.
Methods of monopulse angle
measurement
• There exists various methods for measuring
monopulse angle. Most commonly used methods
are
1. Amplitude-comparison monopulse
2. Phase-comparison monopulse
• In amplitude-comparison monopulse, the
amplitudes of the signals simultaneously received
in multiple squinted beams are compared to
determine angle. While in phase-comparison
monopulse the phase difference between two
antenna beams gives the target angle.
Amplitude comparison Monopulse
• Amplitude Comparison monopulse can have
two forms.
1. One angle co-ordinate
2. Two angle co-ordinate
One angle co-ordinate
• In this method two antennas with their main beams
pointed in slightly different direction are used.
• Such two beam are called as squinted or offset
beams.
• Amplitude comparison monopulse uses sum
and difference of two squinted antenna
patterns.
• Sum antenna pattern is used for transmission
while both sum and difference patterns are used
on reception.
• The signal with different pattern gives magnitude
of angle error while direction of difference signal
with the phase of sum signals.
• The sum signal also gives target detection and
range measurement with reference for
determining sign of angle measurements.
Block diagram of Amplitude
comparison
• Two adjacent antenna feeds are connected to the input
of hybrid junction.
• The two signal received from squinted beams produces
sum and difference signals at output ports of hybrid
junction.
• The sum and difference signals are then heterodyned
to IF and amplified.
• The local oscillator is shared by two channels to
maintain identical phase and amplitude characteristics
of two channels.
• Duplexer protects the sum channel receiver and
maintains phase and amplitude in both channel.
• The output of sum and difference channels
are fed to phase sensitive detector for
comparing signals of same frequency.
• The o/p of phase sensitive detector is the
angle error signal.
Two angle co-ordinate
• Monopulse radar in two angle error tracking
extracts signals in both azimuth and elevation.
Block diagram of two co-ordinate amplitude
comparison monopulse tracking radar is shown
in Fig. 5.3.5.
• In this four feeds are used with one parabolic
reflector. There are four horn antennas are used.
The receiver received three types of signal
1. Sum signal (A+B+C+D)
2. Azimuth error signal=(A+C)-(B+D)
3. Elevation error signal=(A+B)-(C+D)
• The receiver has three separate input channel
consisting of three mixers, common local oscillator,
three IF amplifiers and three detector.
• The elevation and azimuth error signals are used to
drive a servo amplifier and a motor in order to position
the antenna in the direction of target.
• The o/p of sum channel is used to provide the data
generally obtain from a radar receiver so that it can be
used to provide the data generally obtain from a radar
receiver so that it can be used for application like
automatic control of the firing weapon.
Advantages:-
1. Only one pulse is require to obtain all the information
regarding the target and able to locate target in less time
comparing other methods.
2. In this generally error is not occur due to the variation in
target cross section.
Disadvantage:-
1. Two extra Rx channel is required and more complex
duplexer feeding arrangement, which makes system bulky
and more complex and also expensive.
Application:-
1. Automatic control of the firing weapon.
Phase comparison Mono-pulse
tracking
• Phase-comparison monopulse uses two antenna
beams to obtain an angle measurement in one
co-ordinate. The two beams cover the same
region of space (not squinted).
• The phase-comparison monopulse is also known
as interferometer radar.
• The amplitudes of signals are same but phases
are different. Let the two antennas are spaced at
a distance 'd' apart as shown in Fig. 5.3.7.
• The geometry of signals at two antennas when received from
a target at an angle measured with respect perpendicular to
the baseline of two radiators is shown in Fig. 5.3.8.
• The phase difference in signals received in two antenna is
given by
• Where,
• θ is signal arriving from a direction θw.r.t. normal to baseline.
• λ is wavelength.
• d is distance between two antennas.
Limitations of Tracking Accuracy
• Several factors that affects the accuracy of a tracking radar
includes;
1. Glint (angle noise)
2. Receiver noise
3. Amplitude fluctuations
4. Mechanical properties of antenna and pedestal
5. Servo noise
6. Antenna beamwidth
7. Atmospheric effects
8. Multipath.
• Out of all above factors glint, receiver noise and amplitude
fluctuations are of major importance.
1. Glint : Glint is also called as angle noise, target noise, angle
fluctuations and angle scintillation. Glint is observed with
complex target having many scattering center within the
resolution cell of a radar. These targets cause glint and
degrade tracking. Glint from a complex target is sometimes
thought of as a distortion of the echo wavefront.
2. Receiver noise : The radar accuracy is greatly affected by
noise at the input of radar receiver as it determines the
detection capability of radar. At long range the signal-to-
noise ratio is very small.
3. Amplitude fluctuations : The amplitude of radar echo from
a complex target having multiple scattering centers is
fluctuating. This effect is significant in conical scan and
sequential lobing radars. The amplitude fluctuations in
echo signal is also called as target fading. The change in
amplitude fluctuations in target echo degrades the
accuracy of measurement.
Tracking in Range
• In modern radars closed loop automatic
tracking is employed for tracking of targets
where there is no operator present.
• A most common technique of closed loop
automatic tracking system is split-gate tracker.
• Split-gate tracker :Split gate tracker uses two
split range gates called early gate and late
gate.
• Fig. 5.6.1 shows split range tracking.
• Echo pulse as seen on video is shown in Fig. 5.6.1 (a).
The relative positions of two gates at a particular
instant is shown in Fig. 5.6.1 (b).
• The difference signal between early and late range
gates is shown in Fig. 5.6.1 (b).
• In the given signal the portion of signal in the early
gate is less than that of late gate.
• The difference error signal is generated by integrating
two gate signals and then subtracting.
• The sign of difference indicates the direction to move
two range gates to have pair traddle echo pulse.
• The amplitude of difference determines how far pair
of gates are from center of pulse.
• When error signal is zero, the range gates are centered
on the pulse, the position of both gates gives the
target's range.
• The deviation of gates from center increases the signal
energy in one gate and decreases in other.
• This generates error signal causing two pulses to move
for re-establishing equilibrium.
• The gate range isolates the target. The gate rejects
unwanted signals and improves SNR by eliminating
noise.
• The range of gate is narrow to minimize external noise.
Usually it is kept equal to pulse width.
Range glint
• Target with multiple scatterers distributed in
range results in tracking errors because of
glint.
• Consider a two scatterer model separated in
range. Let the scatterer range be R1 and R2.
Where, c is velocity of propagation.
T1, T2 respective two-way time delays to the scatterers.
• The two scatterers are assumed to be
unresolved, the error ∆ TR due to range glint is
measurement of time delay relative to center
of two scatterers and is given by,
Scanning Patterns
Need of Scanning:
• The purpose of using scanning antenna is to find the direction of the
target with respect to the transmitter. The direction of the antenna at the
instance when echo is received, gives the direction of location of the
target.
Scanning Techniques:
• Radar antennas are often made to scan a given area of the surrounding
space.
Typical scanning patterns are -
1. Horizontal scanning
2. Nodding scanning
3. Helical scanning
4. Spiral scanning
5. Palmer scanning
6. Raster TV scanning.
• Suitable scanning pattern is used according to the application.
Horizontal Scanning
• It is the simplest scanning pattern. The limitation of this type
of scanning is that it can scan only in the horizontal plane
only. Fig. 5.8.1 shows horizontal scanning pattern.
• The horizontal scanning is used in searching the horizons i.e.
ship-to-ship radar.
Nodding Scanning
• The antenna is moved rapidly in elevation while it rotates
slowly in azimuth thus scanning in both planes. This scanning
pattern is shown in Fig. 5.8.2.
• The pattern covers the complete hemisphere i.e. elevation
angle extending to 90 and the azimuth scan angle is 360.
Helical Scanning
• Helical scanning also covers a hemisphere. Here the elevation of antenna
is raised slowly while it rotates more rapidly in azimuth. Fig. 5.8.3 shows
this helical scanning pattern.
• The antenna is finally returned to its initial position after the completion
of scanning cycle. Its typical speed of rotation is 6 rpm along with a rise
of 20% and was utilized in world war-II for anti-aircraft gun batteries as
fire controlled radar.
Spiral Scanning
• If a limited area of circular shape is to be covered spiral scan
may be used, spiral scanning covers an angular search volume
with circular symmetry spiral scanning covering a circular
area is shown in Fig. 5.8.4.
Palmer Scanning
• Palmer scan consists of a rapid circular scan (conical scan) about the axis
of the antenna, combined with a linear movement of the axis of rotation.
When the axis of the rotation is held stationary the palmer scan reduces
to conical scan. Because of this features the palmer scan is used with
conical scan tracking radars which must operate in both search and track
mode. Fig. 5.8.5 shows palmer scanning.
• The mechanisms used to produce conical scanning can also be
used for palmer scanning. This type of scanning is suited to a
search area which is larger in one dimension than the other.
Raster Scanning
• In raster scan the antenna scans the area in a uniform manner.
The raster scan is a simple and convenient means for
searching a limited area, usually rectangular shaped. Fig.
5.8.6 shows raster scan. It is also called as TV scan.
Review Questions
1. Explain the function of sequential lobing tracking radar? [8]
February/March – 2018
2. With suitable block diagram, explain the function of one-
coordinate amplitude comparison monopulse radar? [8]
February/March – 2018
3. Explain the principle operation and advantages of sequential
lobing tracking radar. [8]March – 2017
4. Briefly explain the tracking techniques with radar? [8] Nov-2016
5. Explain the function of low-angle tracking system? [8] Nov-2016
6. Explain the working of each block in mono pulse two-angle
co-ordinate system?[16] [8] Nov-2016
7. With a suitable block diagram explain the working of a conical
scan tracking radar and explain the factors to be considered in
determining the optimum squint angle. [8] OCT/NOV-2017
8. Explain the principle of operation of phase comparison monopulse
tracking radar with a block diagram[8] OCT/NOV-2017
9. Differentiate between amplitude comparison and phase
comparison methods of monopulse tracking. [8]
OCT/NOV-2017
10. Draw the block diagram of amplitude comparison
monopulse tracking radar for single angular coordinate
and explain its operation[8] OCT/NOV-2017
11. Discuss the operation of conical scanning method[8]
Oct/Nov-2018
12. Describe the operation of amplitude comparison mono
pulse radar for single angular coordinate. [8] Oct/Nov-
2018
13. Explain radar antenna parameters. [8] Oct/Nov-2018
14. Draw and explain the block diagram of two-coordinate
amplitude–comparison mono pulse tracking radar. [8]
Oct/Nov-2018
Assignment Question UNIT-4
1. Describe the operation of amplitude comparison
mono pulse radar for single angular coordinate.
2. Draw and explain the block diagram of two-
coordinate amplitude–comparison mono pulse
tracking radar.
3. Explain the principle of operation of phase
comparison monopulse tracking radar with a block
diagram.
4. Write Short Notes on
a) Conical Scan Radar.
b) Split gate tracker.
c) Acquisition and scanning parameters
Google Quiz
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