Section 1 - Factors Influencing Wine Quality

Lesson 1: Introduction

Wine Production Begins in the Vineyard

Welcome to VEN124 "Wine Production". This class is the first in the series of
advanced courses in enology and viticulture offered by the Department of Viticulture
and Enology, and serves to provide an overview of all aspects of wine production. As
such, we will touch on many topics that we will not be able to explore in depth.
Reading assignments will provide further information on key subjects. This lecture will
cover the topics of wine quality and factors influencing the definition of quality, and
survey the factors most strongly impacting wine composition and therefore quality.
Many of these topics will be considered in more detail later in this course.

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Copyright 2001 University of California at Davis, University Extension

Copyright 2001 Linda Bisson
Lesson 1: What is Wine Quality?
We will begin our discussion of wine production by first considering the definition of the
term "wine quality". Quality is a subjective term, and has many different meanings,
depending upon the context in which the term is used. Perceived quality is the
reflection of the chemical composition of the wine at the time at which it is being
consumed. What one person perceives as quality may not be so thought of by another.
This is in part due to physiological differences in the detection of compounds. Some
individuals are unable to detect certain bitter compounds, for example. There are also
differences in the relative concentration or threshold at which a given compound is
detected. The best example of this is trichloroanisole or TCA. There appears to be a
thousand-fold range in concentration at which it is detected across the human
population.

Perception of characters also depends upon psychological factors and the previous
experiences of the taster with that compound. Whether the compound is familiar or not
and in what context are important factors. A compound that the taster associates with
food or with pleasurable experiences is not as objectionable as one not primarily
associated with food that is correlated with a negative experience. For example, some
microbes that can be present during wine fermentation produce the ester ethyl acetate.
This character is found at high concentration in wine vinegar but it is also a principle
aroma compound along with acetone of many nail polish removers. Individuals who
associate this character with nail polish remover tend to consider it quite objectionable
in wines while those associating it with vinegar do not find it as unpalatable, but
consider the wine to be defective. Another example is the rosemary character. This
herb character is found in a facial cleansing product. It is also commonly used in
cooking. Individuals who associate the character with a soap find it quite offensive in
foods and beverages while those who recognize it as the herb rosemary do not object
to its presence. Thus the experiences of the individual with certain characters will
impact the positive or negative perception of those characters. For this reason quality
as applied to wine aroma and flavor is inherently subjective.

However, that said, there are some characters that I term the "gray" taints for
"generally recognized as yucky". These are undesirable aromas and flavors on which
there is strong consensus, such as the rotten egg character of hydrogen sulfide. Wines
with these compounds can be clearly viewed as defective or of low commercial
potential or quality. Individuals can decide upon the characters or qualities most
desired in a particular style or varietal and quality in this case becomes an estimation
of nearness to an ideal target as discussed below.
 Good wine cannot be made from bad grapes...
Wine quality is dependent upon viticultural practices and decisions.

You have all heard the statement that wine production begins in the vineyard, and this
is certainly very true. There are a lot of factors that influence grape composition, which
in turn influences wine composition and, therefore, ultimately perceived quality. You
have also doubtless heard this statement that good wine cannot be made from bad
grapes, which is also true. The winemaker is limited in the scope and magnitude of
changes that can be made to the chemical composition of juice, must and wine. If the
composition of the grapes at harvest is not optimal, the finished wine will reflect that
lack of optimization. Grape composition is therefore very dependent upon viticultural
practices. Winemakers need to be fully engaged in vineyard operations, and control
those practices that will impact the ultimate chemical composition of the wine.

But what is the ideal composition of the wine? The answer to this question
depends upon the definition of wine quality, and the factors influencing that definition.
While perceived quality is clearly subjective, quality as an estimate of nearness to a
specific goal can be used more objectively. However it is important to always
remember that quality is inherently subjective. There are three broad definitions of
wine quality currently in use today.

Wine Quality Defined as:

● Nearness to a specific target or "ideal" wine

● Harmonious complexity
● Inharmonious notes

The first definition characterizes wine quality as nearness to a specific, ideal target.
In this case a description of the flavor and aroma composition of the ideal wine of that
type exists and the object is to match that ideal. The closer you are to the perfect
match in composition, the higher the quality of the wine.

The second definition of wine quality equates quality with complexity. The goal is to
produce a wine with a lot of characters, a lot of tastes, a lot of aromas. Harmonious
means that all of those characters go together well in a pleasing format. That is, there
does not appear to be any character in the wine that is in conflict with the flavor/aroma
mosaic. For example, Grenache is characterized by having a significant amount of
what is termed "forward fruit". It has intense red fruit flavors: raspberry, strawberry,
cherry, cranberry, plum, as well as a subtle spiciness. These characters all go together
well, that is, they form a pleasing mosaic. However Grenache is also characterized by
tobacco and smokey notes which when together translates into a burnt cigarette ashes
character. On top of fresh fruit, this is usually perceived as a negative. If our definition
of quality is harmonious complexity, Grenache is definitely a challenge, which is why I
use it as a teaching tool in the pilot winery. However, if we wished to make a Grenache
style that is true to the varietal character of this grape, then we may want the ashes
character along with the forward fruit. Further, harmonious in one situation might not
be harmonious in a different situation. Consider an intense buttery character for
example. This might not go as well with intense forward berry fruit (Grenache) as it
would with Chardonnay. Whether a given character is good or bad really depends
upon the entire composition of the wine. But most importantly, harmonious, like quality
in general, is subjective.

The third definition of wine quality centers on the concept of the importance of a lack
of harmony in wine composition. That is, there is such a thing as being too clean, being
too harmonious. An off note or two is perceived as adding character and dimension to
the wine. This is frequently associated with the notion that a technically "clean" wine
suggests excessive processing and treatment that belies the true character of the fruit.
However, many argue that this definition of quality means that virtually anything goes,
and thus blurs the division between acceptable and unacceptable.

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Copyright 2001 University of California at Davis, University Extension

Copyright 2001 Linda Bisson
Lesson 1: Targeted Definitions of Wine Quality
There are several styles of for which there are specific or targeted definitions of quality.

Targeted Definitions of Wine Quality

● Regional typicity
● Varietal typicity
● True-to-style

The first targeted definition of wine quality that we will consider is regional typicity. In
this case the wine shows the characters and traits that have been defined as typical for
that region. For example, in many areas of France there is a certain expected
composition of wines produced from specific regions. The rating system of wine is
dependent upon nearness to what is defined as typical for fruit from that region. In
most cases the judgment of whether or not a particular wine or vintage is worthy of the
regional designation rests with a regional or government body, not the original
producer. The beauty of this system is that it safeguards the character of the wine for
the consumer, and guarantees a certain nearness to an ideal composition.

The second targeted definition of quality concerns varietal typicity. The goal here is
to produce a wine that best showcases the characters specific to that varietal, in other
words, is the best wine that it is possible to make while retaining a strong varietal
signature. Obviously varietal styles of wine are restricted to those varietals that are
pleasingly complex at the time of harvest, not requiring significant chemical adjustment
that can only be achieved by blending.

The last targeted definition of quality is true to style - style may mean a style that
someone else has developed and that is generally regarded as typical for that varietal
or region, or it may mean your own style. For example, suppose you desire to produce
a Chardonnay that is high in oak and butter because this is quite popular with a certain
segment of the market. Oak and butter do not come from the vineyard, so you are not
aiming for varietal character, nor are you aiming for regional typicity because these
characters are not specifically associated with any one growing region. However, you
do have a very specific definition of the ideal wine, which, once in place, can guide
viticultural and winemaking operations.
The commonality of all of the cases discussed above is that there is a clear goal for the
chemical composition of the wine. Quality is defined as nearness to that goal. It is then
up to the consumer to decide if that goal is worth purchasing. Subjective definitions of
quality also abound in the wine industry and among consumers. Frequently market
factors will dictate the ultimate wine composition. The winemaker must be as aware of
market forces as of vineyard operations.

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Copyright 2001 University of California at Davis, University Extension

Copyright 2001 Linda Bisson
Lesson 1: Harmonious Complexity as an Index of Quality
Harmonious complexity as applied to wine is multi-dimensional. We can think of this
type of complexity in two ways, lateral and vertical.

Complexity as Quality

Lateral complexity:
Wines have multiple intense aromas and flavors that are
"forward": immediately apparent upon smelling/tasting
the wine
●

Vertical complexity:
As wines "breathe" in glass the aroma/flavor profile
changes dramatically, positively and continually; also
referred to as "layered complexity"
●

Both aim for harmony: melding of flavors and aromas

In both cases the wines have a variety of intense and subtler flavors. In the case of
lateral complexity we refer to all of the characters as being "forward" or side-by-side.
That is, they are immediately apparent in the initial chemical composition of the wine.
In this situation, all of the characters present might not be instantly detected. We detect
those compounds in highest concentration first. As olfactory sensors become saturated
to particular compounds they become desensitized, allowing detection of other less
intense aromas in the wine. This physiological property reflects our animal roots - it
would be unwise to exclusively focus on the most intense flavor or aroma in a
particular environment, instead it is better to detect all the important aromas in that
environment in their relative concentrations. The chemistry of the wine is not changing
in this case, instead what is changing is our ability to detect specific chemicals. If you
set that wine aside and went back to it after sufficient time had passed to clear the
olfactory sensors, that is after the desensitization has abated, and you smell that wine
again, you will detect the same set of original characters.

In the case of vertical complexity as the wine ages in the glass the chemical
composition of the wine changes so that a different set of aroma characters are
present. This is principally due to volatilization of some of the aromatic compounds.
Since our olfactory sensors detect volatile compounds, as those compounds are lost
from the environment we are no longer able to detect them and will notice characters
that remain. Those characters might not have been detected earlier because they were
"masked" by other components. The aim is to have harmonious lateral complexity at
each step of the volatilization process. As you can imagine, this is the most difficult
type of wine to produce. One must also consider that the physiological perception of
the characters of a wine will be influenced by the environment in which it is served,
particularly by the other flavors and aromas of that environment. This is the basis of
the pairing of wines and foods. An appropriate pairing can accentuate positive
characters in both the wine and the food while masking those that are negative or
inharmonious. In this case the wine would be considered to be of exceptional harmony
when served with the proper food but may be thought of as tiring (olfactory sensors
saturated with insufficient desensitization time) or defective (excessive negative or
objectionable characters) if served alone or with poorly matched foods. To return to our
Grenache example, a food that suppressed the ashes character might enhance our
perception of the overall harmonious quality of the wine, while one that suppressed the
forward fruit tones might leave the wine bland or too strongly accent the ashes note.
What is "harmonious" to one consumer (or producer) might not be harmonious for
another. There are no absolute definitions. Sensory tests suggest that individuals may
be highly irreproducible from one day to the next in their ability to reproducibly detect
"quality".

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Copyright 2001 University of California at Davis, University Extension

Copyright 2001 Linda Bisson
Lesson 1: The Concept of Off-Notes in Wine Quality
Many believe that wines that have negative or "off-notes" are important indicators of
the quality of a wine. As mentioned above, this may stem from an association of
cleanliness with excessive processing, and a departure from "natural" winemaking
practices. However, it is also true that in order to achieve the optimal vertical
harmonious complexity the initial wine may contain some negative characters
necessitating a period of "breathing" before the wine is consumed. Many negative
characters such as hydrogen sulfide (rotten egg) are produced by microbes under the
same conditions that lead to the production of desirable microbial characters. If the
latter is desired the former must be tolerated. In addition, frequently some of these
negative characters are readily suppressed by more strongly flavored foods, such as
the pairing of the barnyard medley of characters produced by the yeast Brettanomyces
with "gamey" meats or abundantly aromatic cheeses.

Off Notes as Index of Quality

Some believe that a wine free of off-notes is "too clean"

●

Off-notes lend character to a wine

●

Alternately, off notes accompany microbial activity and

therefore track with greater microbially-derived complexity
●

Harmonious complexity "boring"

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Copyright 2001 University of California at Davis, University Extension

Copyright 2001 Linda Bisson
Lesson 1: The Concept of Terroir and Wine Quality
A term frequently used in the description of quality wines is "terroir".

Terroir

A term coined by the French, refers to the influence of non-climatic

environmental factors¹ (soil, topography) on wine composition and
quality

¹Ribereau-Gayon, P., et al,, Handbook of Enology, Vol 1: The

microbiology of wine and vinificatiuons. John Wiley and Sons, Ltd (2000)

The definition of terroir given above from the "Handbook of Enology" limits the term to
the impact of non-climatic environmental factors - soil and topography - on wine
composition and quality. Other authors include climate as a key component of terroir
and still others include the "human element" that is, the grape growing and winemaking
habits and attitudes of a particular region are all considered to be part of the regional
terroir. Critics of the terroir concept claim that it is at best merely a statement of the
obvious, that the environment will influence grape composition, and that it is frequently
defined by characters not originating in the grape. Compounds produced by the yeast
Brettanomyces and other winery and grape flora often make the list of characters
considered typical of a particular "terroir". These characters can be produced in wines
made anywhere in the world regardless of the environment of the grape vines by
encouraging Brettanomyces infestation of the winery. However whether these
barnyard, animal, leather characters are considered desirable or not does depend
upon the rest of the composition of the fruit which is influenced by the environment.
Terroir as a marketing tool, to assure a particular character of the wine, is quite
valuable for the consumer. The term has clear usefulness in the marketplace and
perhaps should not be interpreted so literally.
 Terroir

Terroir characters are defined by the traits of the wines

following elimination of other variables, not from direct
demonstration of the influence of environment on those
characters
●

Recipes for both vineyard and winery procedures are

legislated, minimizing the impact of these decisions on wine
composition across vintages
●

Used in marketing to assure consistency of product for the

consumer

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Copyright 2001 University of California at Davis, University Extension

Copyright 2001 Linda Bisson
Lesson 1: American Viticultural Areas and Wine Quality
The American wine industries have developed a concept similar to terroir also geared
toward characterization of wines by growing region. In this case, wines may be
marketed as coming from a specific region that ideally leads to the appearance of
specific "signature compounds" in the wine as a consequence of the geography of the
area. AVA (American Viticultural Area) approval is generally obtained by first
demonstrating something unique about the climate, topography or soils of the growing
region, and providing information that the region is historically recognized as producing
distinctive wines. This falls far short of a detailed descriptive analysis defining the
unique characteristics of the wines from the region. As with terroir, the principle value
of an AVA designation lies in marketing. AVA status poses no restrictions on vineyard
management strategies or wine making procedures.

AVA

No restrictions on vineyard or winery practices: uniqueness of

wine must be apparent regardless of "recipe"
●

Allows considerable variation in composition of wine while

retaining a regional "signiture"
●

Used in marketing to assure consistency of product for the

consumer

In the case of terroir, operational decisions are frequently controlled, that is, specified
by law and are thus not an influencing factor in wine composition because they do not
change. This is not the case in an AVA designation. Both terms therefore attempt to
define a "regional signature" for the wines, but do not necessarily document that the
characters in question indeed arise because of a specific physiological response of the
vine or the fruit to the environment. It is also important to note that one of the most
important influences of soil and topography is water-holding capacity. Many of the
characteristic changes in composition may be simply due to water limitation or excess.
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Copyright 2001 University of California at Davis, University Extension

Copyright 2001 Linda Bisson
Lesson 1: Wine Composition
The chemical characters that we find in wine basically come from or are influenced by
four sources: the grape, the biological activities of the microorganisms present,
processing decisions and wine age. Some wine styles are more dependent upon
one source of character than others, but all must be considered as impacting the final
chemical composition of the wine at the time of consumption. These sources are also
highly interactive. For example, the microorganisms can metabolize only what is
present in the must at the time of harvest, so metabolic end produces are dependent
upon the nature and presence of precursor molecules. The same is true of aging time.
How characters change depends upon what characters are initially present either from
the grape or that have been produced microbially. What characters appear from the
action of yeast and bacteria is dependent upon what organisms are present and how
those organisms persist during the processing life of the wine. This is directly
influenced by winemaking practices, as we will see in subsequent lectures.

Wine Characters Derive from One of Four Sources:

● Grape
● Activity of microorganisms
● Processing decisions
● Aging

Different wine styles may be more strongly dependent on one sector of the source of
wine characters than other styles of the same varietal.
Several factors can impact each source of chemicals of the finished wine. For
example, grape composition is influenced by many variables.

Grape Composition Influenced by:

● Variety ● Climate
● Clone ❍ Rainfall

● Rootstock ❍ Humidity

● Soil ❍ Sunshine

● Canopy management ❍ Wind speed

● Terrain ● Cluster microclimate

● Pest Pressure ● Seasonal Variation
● Disease Pressure ● Vineyard Practices

Obviously of key importance is the varietal itself. Different varietals of Vitis vinifera
display marked differences in the color, flavors and aromas present in the fruit, which
is a reflection of the differences in genetic composition and expression of enzymatic
activities in the vine. Vines are propagated clonally, meaning that one vine is used as a
source of wood for other vines, so clonal differences my also arise and impact the
chemical composition of wine at harvest. Many important wine varietals perform poorly
in certain types of soil due to disease or pest sensitivity or poor adaptability to the soil
conditions. It is a common practice therefore to graft scion or fruit-bearing stocks to
roots derived from a different variety of grape. The hybrid plant now has a stronger
root system and produces high value fruit. The root has a dramatic influence on berry
composition, as the roots are the principle means of absorption of key micro- and
macronutrients. Biochemical pathways are dependent upon having the optimum
micronutrient availability, so changes in the pattern of root absorption will impact the
enzymatic activities in the fruit and therefore the composition of the berry. Soil
composition also impacts nutrient availability, and is in turn a reflection of the
geography of the region. As described in more detail in subsequent lectures, pest and
disease pressure and vineyard practices likewise greatly influence grape berry
composition.

Several classes of microorganisms are contributors to wine composition. The yeast

Saccharomyces is responsible for the conversion of sugar to alcohol and plays a key
role in the transformation of grapes into wine. Members of the lactic acid bacteria are
responsible for the "malolactic fermentation" the conversion of grape malic acid to
lactic acid, an important deacidification reaction in many wines.

Microbial Contributors to Wine Characters:

● Saccharomyces
● Lactic Acid Bacteria
● Grape Flora
● Inocula

Other microbial flora can have a dramatic impact on wine composition either directly
through the production of detectable end products and indirectly through the impact on
the metabolic activities of other microbes. In this regard, both the grape and winery
flora must be taken into account.

Many processing decisions will impact wine composition as well. The following list is a
summary of the types of options that will have a profound influence on the finished
product. We will consider each of these factors in turn during the rest of the course and
will not discuss them in detail here.
 Processing Decisions Impacting Wine Characters:

● Harvesting conditions ● Clarification

● Maceration decisions ● Filtration
● Extraction conditions ● Fining
● Additions to juice/must ● Blending
● Fermentation conditions ● Stabilization Treatments
● Lees contact

Likewise, choices made in aging of the wine, such as length of time, cooperage used,
exposure to chemically oxidative versus reductive conditions, all impact wine
composition.

Aging Decisions Impacting Wine Characters:

● Time ● Evaporation
● Temperature ● Agitation
● Cooperage ● Oxygen exposure
● pH ● Lees exposure
● Wine composition ● Sanitation practices

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Copyright 2001 University of California at Davis, University Extension

Copyright 2001 Linda Bisson
Lesson 1: Who Controls Definition of Quality?
In an ideal winemaker's world, the definition of quality would be exclusively in the
hands of the producer. However, outside pressures frequently influence the style of
wine produced.

Who Controls Definition of Quality?

● Government
● Producers
● Consumers
● Intermediaries (Wine Critics / Wine Writers / Distributors /
Marketers)

In many regions of the world wine labeling is under strict legal control. This ranges
from extreme limitation of both vineyard and winery operations as in France to more
limited restrictions of the chemical adjustments allowed to juice, must and wine. The
object in all cases is to safeguard the quality of the wine produced which protects
producer and consumer alike. In some cases the producer of the wine has the
ultimate control over the definition of ideal chemical composition. This is clearly the
case in the segment of the market that produces "artisan" wines. In this case the
consumer is purchasing a wine that reflects the artistic talents of the producer. In
contrast, in the "fighting varietal" market segment the consumer controls the definition
of quality by his/her purchasing decisions. The winemaker often times must rely on an
intermediary to sell the wine. In this case the wine must appeal to the intermediary,
that is, meet their definition of quality. This is frequently the case with wine
critics/writers who have a loyal following of consumers. If the wine writer functions as
your principle marketing agent, then the wine will need to match the style and
composition that will garner a strong recommendation. As long as the definition of the
ideal composition of the wine is known, then a clear target can be established at the
winery. It is critical that the winemaker understand the market forces that dictate
product composition and communicate well with the marketing division of the winery.

In this lecture we have surveyed the definitions of wine quality and the various forces
that impact the final chemical composition of the wine. A single winery may have
different concepts of quality depending upon the segment of the market for which the
wine is being produced. It is as important to understand market forces, as it is to
understand wine composition.

We will end this first lecture with a final thought: while you cannot make good wine
from bad grapes, you can make bad wine from good grapes. It has been done many
times.

Bad wine can be made from good grapes...

Wine quality is also dependent upon enological practices and

decisions.

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Copyright 2001 University of California at Davis, University Extension

Copyright 2001 Linda Bisson
Lesson 2: Introduction

Grape Composition and Ripening: Viticulture from the Plant's

Perspective

In this lecture we will consider the factors that influence grape berry composition and
the process of ripening. We will discuss berry maturation from the perspective of the
plant, that is, what is the purpose of fruit production, and how is berry composition
established. We will also cover the topic of the location of various berry components
within the berry itself, as this will impact wine making decisions. In the next lecture we
will take a different view, berry maturation and ripening from the winemaker's
perspective. The principle wine grape species is Vitis vinifera, referred to as the
European variety. This species originated in the temperate Mediterranean and Black
Seas areas. Wine production and the cultivation of grapes begin before recorded
history, and the practice is several thousand years old. The most widely grown
varieties of V. vinifera are Cabernet Sauvignon, Pinot noir, Sauvignon blanc,
Chardonnay, Zinfandel and Riesling. Varieties traditionally used in blends are grown
on more acreage, but these are the most popular varietal wines. V. vinifera is limited to
moderate climates and does not survive prolonged cold stress or in high humidity
regions. other Vitis and non-Vitis (Muscadinia) species may be grown under these less
moderate conditions.

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Copyright 2001 University of California at Davis, University Extension

Copyright 2001 Linda Bisson
Lesson 2: Grapevine Biology
One of the most critical characteristics of plants that dictates much of their biology, is
that they are not mobile, in essence, with the exception of seed dispersal, they are
stuck where they are. As animals, if we are in a place that suddenly becomes
inhospitable, we can migrate to a different location. Seasonal migration is an excellent
strategy in order to avoid environmental extremes of temperature or waterfall, or to
escape disease or pest pressure. Plants by their nature are unable to relocate and
thus must develop biological strategies such as dormancy to survive environmental
stress. The only option available to the plant for relocation is seed dispersal. They
must also cope with pests and diseases of their local environment.

Characteristics of Plants

● Stuck where they are: use chemical strategies to deal with

problems
❍ Nutrient limitation

❍ Competition

❍ Excess/shortage of water

❍ Extremes of temperature

❍ Disease/Pest pressure

❍ Lack of light

● Prioritize nutrient use for survival

● Role of fruit:
❍ Dispersal

❍ Fruit is attractive to mobile agents that will disperse

seed (animal; insects; bird)

❍ Seed itself designed to "taste bad" so it will not be

consumed

The main strategies available to plants to handle various biotic and abiotic stresses are
chemical in nature. Plants can be viewed as masters of chemical warfare. They
produce many compounds inhibitory to other organisms in their environment. They
also produce compounds such as proline to allow cellular metabolic activities that are
dependent upon water to occur in arid environments. For many compounds, multiple
pathways of synthesis exist, so that the plant can optimally utilize limiting macro- and
micronutrients, depending upon availability from the soil. Some biochemical pathways
are sensitive to extremes of temperature and may not be operational under certain
growing conditions. Plants will adjust metabolic rates or adjust the pathway in order
to optimize whatever biological process they are trying to perform. Many of the
phenolic compounds made by plants function in defense against microbial attack,
others are produced to address nutrient limitations of the environment. These
compounds are important from a winemaking perspective as they will be in the fruit at
harvest and therefore in the finished wine.

The next factor to consider is the fruit itself. From the vine's perspective the fruit
contains the seed, but provides no nutrition to the seed. The fruit simply serves the
purpose of dispersal of the seed. The fruit is designed to be attractive to animal
(including human) vectors that will pick the fruit, eat it, but not consume the seed itself.
To discourage seed consumption, plants have evolved strategies to make the seeds
undesirable. This generally means that the seed contains bitter phenolic compounds
that are not pleasant to taste resulting in the vector not damaging the seed. The seed
will be rejected by the vector (removed or spit out) or pass unharmed through the
gastrointestinal track, depending upon the species of plant and the animal in question.
Since animals are motile, the plant has achieved the objective of dispersal of the seed
by producing an attractive package for the seed. Seeds are very important in wine
production. Their removal reduces phenolic extraction into the wine, resulting in a less
bitter end product. Alternately, the seed phenolics may be important contributors to the
tannin structure of a wine, depending upon the varietal and the wine style.

Under conditions of severe nutritional stress, the plant may not devote chemical
energy to the production of attractive fruit. This is in order to assure that tissues critical
for the plant's survival will have a higher priority for nutrients when nutrients are in
short supply. It is also likely that the vine under conditions of nutritional excess with the
general absence of stress might not produce fruit that is that attractive since the need
for seed dispersal is not great. Thus, environmental factors will influence the
"investment" the vine makes in the berry and thereby influence the composition of the
finished wine. Grape vine physiology is complex and not fully understood due to the
difficulty of conducting research on woody perennials. It is believed that moderate
stress is required for production of optimal berry composition, as defined by the
winemaker. Too little stress leads to inferior fruit, as does too much stress. Achieving
the correct amount of stress can be difficult. Different varietals respond to stress
differently, and the resulting alteration in chemical composition of the fruit may be
varietally or clonally specific. One of the most critical challenges to the winemaker is
learning how the physiological responses of the fruit to various environmental factors
impact berry composition. It is important to "know the vineyard" in every sense.
Grape vines possess unique characteristics not commonly found among plants in
general. Grape vines are successful in a wide variety of soils and climates. Of the
cultivated plants, they are commercially grown under the most diverse conditions.

Characteristics of Grapevines

● Grown in a wide variety of soils/climates

● Persist in nutrient deficient soils
● Crop set happens in previous season
● Dormant buds developmentally programmed in prior season
● Extensive root structure: can represent up to 90% of the mass
of the vine

As perennial plants, factors occurring in a given season can impact vine performance
in the following season. In a typical California vintage year, shoots will emerge from the
dormant buds on the vines around April 1st, and the vine will flower about six weeks
later. About two months after flowering the process of veraison or ripening occurs. Fruit
is usually harvested approximately five to six months after bud break. The time of bud
break and length of the growing season is strongly influenced by environmental
factors. Principle among these is temperature. The dormant buds that will develop into
various vine structures, clusters and tendrils for example, are developmentally
programmed the season before. This means that environmental stress might not
impact fruit in the current vintage but may in the following year.

Varieties differ in the amount of heat needed to achieve maturity of the fruit. The
summation of the heat available across a typical season is expressed as degree days.
This is calculated by adding the number of degrees by which the average temperature
exceeds 50°F for each day. It is difficult to mature grapes with less than 1700 degree
days. Fortunately, most growing regions in California range between 2000 and 4000
degree days. California has been divided into five classifications based upon the
average degree days of the region. They have been designated Region I (coolest)
through Region V (warmest). Some grapes do better in specific regions. Chardonnay
and Pinot noir have low heat requirements and are thus better in Region I conditions.
Zinfandel and Cabernet Sauvignon do better in Region II and III.

One of the reasons grape vines are successful in a variety of soils and climates is due
to their root structure. The root system may be 50 to 90% of the mass of the vine
itself. This allows the plant to search far and wide in its immediate vicinity for water and
other nutrients. Grapes can be dry farmed (no irrigation) under conditions that will not
support the growth of other crops, depending upon the rootstock. Because rootstocks
are genetically diverse and may behave differently, it is important to understand the
physiology of the root system used in the vineyard. In particular, it is important to
understand where the vine is obtaining nutrients. This will guide vineyard irrigation and
fertilization regimens. It is equally important to determine when in the growing season
the vines will be active in the translocation of nutrients and time field additions
appropriately.

Previous | Next

Copyright 2001 University of California at Davis, University Extension

Copyright 2001 Linda Bisson
Lesson 2: Grapevine Biology

Characteristics of Plants

● Stuck where they are: use chemical strategies to deal with

problems
❍ Nutrient limitation

❍ Competition

❍ Excess/shortage of water

❍ Extremes of temperature

❍ Disease/Pest pressure

❍ Lack of light

● Role of Fruit:
❍ Dispersal

❍ Fruit is attractive to mobile agents that will disperse

seed (animal; insects; bird)

Seed itself designed to "taste bad" so it will not be
consumed
● Prioritize nutrient use for survival

One of the most critical characteristics of plants that dictates much of their biology, is
that they are not mobile, in essence, with the exception of seed dispersal, they are
stuck where they are. As animals, if we are in a place that suddenly becomes
inhospitable, we can migrate to a different location. Seasonal migration is an excellent
strategy in order to avoid environmental extremes of temperature or waterfall, or to
escape disease or pest pressure. Plants by their nature are unable to relocate and
thus must develop biological strategies such as dormancy to survive environmental
stress. The only option available to the plant for relocation is seed dispersal. They
must also cope with pests and diseases of their local environment.

The main strategies available to plants to handle various biotic and abiotic stresses are
chemical in nature. Plants can be viewed as masters of chemical warfare. They
produce many compounds inhibitory to other organisms in their environment. They
also produce compounds such as proline to allow cellular metabolic activities that are
dependent upon water to occur in arid environments. For many compounds, multiple
pathways of synthesis exist, so that the plant can optimally utilize limiting macro- and
micronutrients, depending upon availability from the soil. Some biochemical pathways
are sensitive to extremes of temperature and may not be operational under certain
growing conditions. Plants will adjust metabolic rates or adjust the pathway in order to
optimize whatever biological process they are trying to perform. Many of the phenolic
compounds made by plants function in defense against microbial attack, others are
produced to address nutrient limitations of the environment. These compounds are
important from a winemaking perspective as they will be in the fruit at harvest and
therefore in the finished wine.

The next factor to consider is the fruit itself. From the vine's perspective the fruit
contains the seed, but provides no nutrition to the seed. The fruit simply serves the
purpose of dispersal of the seed. The fruit is designed to be attractive to animal
(including human) vectors that will pick the fruit, eat it, but not consume the seed itself.
To discourage seed consumption, plants have evolved strategies to make the seeds
undesirable. This generally means that the seed contains bitter phenolic compounds
that are not pleasant to taste resulting in the vector not damaging the seed. The seed
will be rejected by the vector (removed or spit out) or pass unharmed through the
gastrointestinal track, depending upon the species of plant and the animal in question.
Since animals are motile, the plant has achieved the objective of dispersal of the seed
by producing an attractive package for the seed. Seeds are very important in wine
production. Their removal reduces phenolic extraction into the wine, resulting in a less
bitter end product. Alternately, the seed phenolics may be important contributors to the
tannin structure of a wine, depending upon the varietal and the wine style.

Under conditions of severe nutritional stress, the plant may not devote chemical
energy to the production of attractive fruit. This is in order to assure that tissues
critical for the plant's survival will have a higher priority for nutrients when nutrients are
in short supply. It is also likely that the vine under conditions of nutritional excess with
the general absence of stress might not produce fruit that is that attractive since the
need for seed dispersal is not great. Thus, environmental factors will influence the
"investment" the vine makes in the berry and thereby influence the composition of the
finished wine. Grape vine physiology is complex and not fully understood due to the
difficulty of conducting research on woody perennials. It is believed that moderate
stress is required for production of optimal berry composition, as defined by the
winemaker. Too little stress leads to inferior fruit, as does too much stress. Achieving
the correct amount of stress can be difficult. Different varietals respond to stress
differently, and the resulting alteration in chemical composition of the fruit may be
varietally or clonally specific. One of the most critical challenges to the winemaker is
learning how the physiological responses of the fruit to various environmental factors
impact berry composition. It is important to "know the vineyard" in every sense.
Grape vines possess unique characteristics not commonly found among plants in
general. Grape vines are successful in a wide variety of soils and climates. Of the
cultivated plants, they are commercially grown under the most diverse conditions.

Characteristics of Grapevines

● Grown in a wide variety of soils/climates

● Persist in nutrient deficient soils
● Crop set happens in previous season
● Dormant buds developmentally programmed in prior season
● Extensive root structure: can represent up to 90% of the mass
of the vine

As perennial plants, factors occurring in a given season can impact vine performance
in the following season. In a typical California vintage year, shoots will emerge from the
dormant buds on the vines around April 1st, and the vine will flower about six weeks
later. About two months after flowering the process of veraison or ripening occurs. Fruit
is usually harvested approximately five to six months after bud break. The time of bud
break and length of the growing season is strongly influenced by environmental
factors. Principle among these is temperature. The dormant buds that will develop into
various vine structures, clusters and tendrils for example, are developmentally
programmed the season before. This means that environmental stress might not
impact fruit in the current vintage but may in the following year.

Varieties differ in the amount of heat needed to achieve maturity of the fruit. The
summation of the heat available across a typical season is expressed as degree days.
This is calculated by adding the number of degrees by which the average temperature
exceeds 50°F for each day. It is difficult to mature grapes with less than 1700 degree
days. Fortunately, most growing regions in California range between 2000 and 4000
degree days. California has been divided into five classifications based upon the
average degree days of the region. They have been designated Region I (coolest)
through Region V (warmest). Some grapes do better in specific regions. Chardonnay
and Pinot noir have low heat requirements and are thus better in Region I conditions.
Zinfandel and Cabernet Sauvignon do better in Region II and III.

One of the reasons grape vines are successful in a variety of soils and climates is due
to their root structure. The root system may be 50 to 90% of the mass of the vine itself.
This allows the plant to search far and wide in its immediate vicinity for water and other
nutrients. Grapes can be dry farmed (no irrigation) under conditions that will not
support the growth of other crops, depending upon the rootstock. Because rootstocks
are genetically diverse and may behave differently, it is important to understand the
physiology of the root system used in the vineyard. In particular, it is important to
understand where the vine is obtaining nutrients. This will guide vineyard irrigation and
fertilization regimens. It is equally important to determine when in the growing season
the vines will be active in the translocation of nutrients and time field additions
appropriately.

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Copyright 2001 University of California at Davis, University Extension

Copyright 2001 Linda Bisson
Lesson 2: Grapevine Performance
There are several factors that influence grape vine performance. Performance, like
quality, is a term that has many different definitions depending upon the perspective of
the individual and the specific situation. Grapevine performance may be defined in
terms of canopy or crop yield or chemically expressed as a function of the composition,
usually nitrogen, phosphate and/or potassium, of grapevine tissue. The winemaker,
however, will be more concerned with the quality of the fruit than the yield, and desire
the highest quality.

Factors Impacting Grapevine Performance

● Soil
● Topography/Location
● Disease/Pest pressure
● Climate
● Microclimate
● The Human Element

Factors Impacting Grapevine Performance: Soil

Soil is one of the most critical factors impacting grapevine performance. Soil has many
effects. It not only provides nutrients to the plants, but also dictates the amount of
water held in that soil, and the amount of water that is therefore available to the roots.
Soil composition will also influence the microorganisms, principally bacteria and fungi,
capable of interacting with the root structure of the plant. Some of these organisms are
beneficial to the plant, some are neutral and some are harmful. Soil composition
affects not only the nature of the organisms present, but their interactions as well. The
same is true of insect pests. Soil composition will affect insect availability. Some
insects will provide a healthy environment for the vine by limiting other factors that may
negatively impact vine performance while other insects may be detrimental both in and
of themselves or because they spread diseases. The principle soil feature most
impacting vine performance and perceived grape quality is its water holding capacity.

Factors Impacting Grapevine Performance: Topography/Location

The topography of the vineyard, (valley floor, hillside), is likewise quite important.
Soils tend to be shallower the steeper the slope because of erosion. Soils tend to be
deep on the valley floor. The fruit produced under each condition may be very different
in composition.

Factors Impacting Grapevine Performance: Disease and Pest

Pressure

Equally critical is the nature and extent of disease and pest pressure for the vine.
Some stress may be desirable and lead to more complex characters in the fruit, but
excessive pressure almost always reduces fruit yield and quality and may even be
lethal to the vine.

Factors Impacting Grapevine Performance: Climate

● Temperature
● Sunshine
● Humidity
● Rainfall
● Evaporation
● Wind
● Water availability

Climate has a tremendous influence on the composition of the fruit at harvest. This is
because climate has strong effects on grapevine physiology. Since sugar is produced
by photosynthesis, the amount of sunlight available to the plant will impact the amount
of sugar produced that can be translocated to the berry. As mentioned above,
temperature impacts biochemical and chemical reactions which will impact the
metabolic activities of plant tissues and therefore of berry composition. Water is
essential for this process and thus water availability will influence berry composition as
well. Regional humidity is important for several reasons. The higher the humidity the
less water is lost from the vine and the soil, but the higher the disease pressure,
particularly from the fungi. Fungal infection of clusters can lead to reduced yield and to
undesirable alterations in berry chemistry. Fungi consume nutrients needed by the
yeast that conduct the alcoholic fermentation, leading to fermentation problems. It is
important to note that yeast are fungi, so caution must be exerted when using
fungicides in the vineyard. Excessive use or high residual levels on the fruit at harvest
will negatively impact yeast performance and alter the composition of the wine. Recent
studies have suggested that encouragement of the yeast flora of the berry will
discourage mold growth, which has potential effects on the early flora of the wine
fermentation.

Rainfall impacts both humidity and soil water content so can have a positive or
negative impact, depending upon time of occurrence. Rainfall on mature clusters is
generally undesired as this encourages mold proliferation. Wind also has multiple
effects on the grape vine. Severe wind conditions lead to smaller berries with thicker
skins, which may be desirable in some varietals. It also tends to dry clusters, which
would limit mold growth, but may also lead to greater losses of vine water through
enhanced evaporation.

Factors Impacting Grapevine Performance: Microclimate

● Climate of individual vines: heating of vineyard floor

● Climate of individual clusters:
❍ Shading effects

❍ Humidity retention

The local climate of a given vineyard or of sections of the vineyard is also important.
Factors such as the composition of the vineyard floor will impact heat retention and
may serve to keep the local temperature of the vines warmer than would otherwise
occur. Cluster climate is significant as well. Exposed clusters will have a lower humidity
but may not be as protected from sunburn as clusters that are not exposed. Many of
these effects are varietal specific, meaning that what is beneficial for one varietal might
have no or a different effect in another.

One of the, if not the, most important factors impacting grapevine performance and
therefore berry composition is the human element.

Factors Impacting Grapevine Performance: The Human Element

 ● Irrigation practices
● Use of fertilizers
● Timing of treatments
● Canopy management
● Trellising system
● Use of rootstock
● Pruning practices
● Cluster manipulation

Decisions made in the vineyard, such as timing and extent of irrigation and
fertilization will influence the composition of the fruit at harvest. This can have a direct
effect on wine characters, or an indirect effect mediated by microorganisms that are
influenced by berry composition and field practices. For example, foliar applications will
have a direct influence on berry microflora. Nutrient addition to any ecosystem tends to
initially favor the more versatile and rapidly adapting organisms such as the bacteria.
The nature of the trellising system and canopy management strategies will impact
not only yield per vine but cluster exposure. All of these factors will impact the
chemical composition of the fruit, and need to be optimized for each varietal under
each growing condition.

Vine management practices also impact fruit composition and therefore wine flavor
and aroma. The size and shape of a vine can be manipulated by managing the way a
vine grows by training, trellising and pruning. Trellising and training impact light
exposure which affects sugar production in the leaves via photosynthesis. The more
photosynthesis that occurs, the more sugar available for accumulation in the fruit.
Pruning can also be used to control the size of the vine. It determines the number of
dormant buds per vine and the total number of clusters and therefore fruit yield per
vine. If a vine has too few buds it can be excessively vigorous. Excessively vigorous
vines are believed to produce fruit of reduced quality. Alternately if there are too many
buds there will be too much fruit and the vine might not produce enough sugar to fully
ripen all of the fruit. This is called "overcropping". One of the most important factors in
winegrape production is to balance the amount of foliage with the amount of fruit so
that all fruit will ripen. Canopy management or trellising is important in determining the
exposure of the foliage to sunlight.

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Copyright 2001 University of California at Davis, University Extension
Copyright 2001 Linda Bisson
Lesson 2: Berry Structure and Composition
The grape berry is a complex organization of functionally different and therefore
compositionally distinct cell types and tissues. The diagram below was taken from an
article published in the American Journal of Enology and Viticulture by B. G. Coombe
(1987; 38(2):120-127).

The berry is composed of a tri-layered skin, a fleshy mesocarp, a septum and an

extensive vascular system allowing deposition of materials produced elsewhere in the
plant. It serves to house and protect the seed, initially to nurture seed development,
then berry maturation.

Berry Structure
 ● Skin: 3 layers
❍ Epidermis

❍ Hypodermis

❍ Outer mesocarp

● Fleshy mesocarp
● Brush and center septum
● Vascular system
❍ Ovular

❍ Ventral

❍ Dorsal

● Seeds

The skin of the berry is important because it protects both the berry and the developing
seed from pests and diseases as well as from undesirable compositional changes. It is
important from a winemaking perspective because as we will see it contains chemicals
important for the composition of the wine. The color of the fruit can serve to attract
vectors for the dispersal of the seed. In this case, color changes follow maturation of
the seed. In the white or colorless varieties, the aroma of the fruit rather than visual
changes will serve as principle attractant of animal vectors. In this case the
development of these characters also follows seed maturation.

Berry Development: Maturation of fruit follows maturation of seed

1. Flowering/Fertilization
2. Green Berry Stage
❍ Cell division occurs

❍ Acids accumulate

3. Veraison
❍ Color changes occur

4. Ripening
❍ Berry swells and softens

❍ Sugar (increase), Water (increase), Acids (decrease)

Following flowering and fertilization, seed development and maturation occurs. During
this period the berries are green, hard, bitter and astringent. This is to guarantee an
unattractive taste and prevent premature consumption of the fruit by animal vectors.
Once the seed has reached a certain level of maturity, a process known as veraison
occurs, which is marked most distinctly by color changes. This is the actual ripening
process of the fruit. The berry will swell and soften. Sugars will increase. Water content
also increases, so the berries become much larger, and the acidity decreases. This is
partly due to dilution but also due to catabolism - malate is respired for energy in the
berry. The phenolic content softens, making the fruit more palatable. The warmer the
climate the faster berries tend to mature, the lower the acidity, the lower the color, the
higher the pH. Thus climate has a strong impact on berry development. All things
being equal different varietals mature at different rates. Varietals can be described as
early or late ripening, depending upon the region.

Factors Affecting Berry Development and Maturation

Climate: Warmer: mature faster, less acidity, less color, higher pH,
fewer late berry characters

Variety: Mature at different rates

Disease/Pest Pressure: alters compostion of fruit, alters timing of

development

Balance of Vine: carbohydrate demands of vine versus fruit versus

level of photosynthesis

Seasonal and regional differences in disease and pest pressure can impact the timing
and duration of berry maturation as well as impact the final composition of the fruit.
Fruit that is being produced under conditions of biotic stress will tend to be higher in
phenolic content. The carbohydrate demands of other tissues will also impact berry
maturation and composition. Carbohydrates produced as a consequence of
photosynthesis occurring in the leaves serves as carbon and energy source for non-
photosynthetic tissues such as the root. Demands for root growth and metabolism will
take precedence over accumulation of sugar in the berry as an attractant.

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Copyright 2001 University of California at Davis, University Extension
Copyright 2001 Linda Bisson
Lesson 2: Grape Berry Composition
The typical composition of the berry at harvest is shown below, and the most common
ingredient, just as with most biological tissues, is water. About eighty percent of berry
weight is water.

Berry Composition at Harvest

g/L
Sugar: 200
Organic Acids: 10
AminoAcids: 5
Phenolics: 2-5
Volatiles: trace
Water: 800

Sucrose is the circulating product of photosynthesis cleaved to

produce
glucose and fructose in berry fermentation

The next most prevalent compound is sugar, which may range from 17 to 26% (w/v) at
harvest depending upon the style of wine being produced. Organic acids are found at
concentrations of roughly 10 g/L, and will vary with time of harvest. The reasons for
this will be discussed below. Amino acids and other nitrogen sources are present at a
total concentration of about 5 g/L or less. Phenolic compounds, which are important
bitterness and astringency characters and impact the tannin structure of the wine, are
present in low amounts. The volatile compounds, which are the most important
characters as far as we are concerned, are present in trace amounts.

Sugars (hexoses)

● Glucose
● Fructose
● Sucrose
The principle sugars in the berry are glucose and fructose. These are hexoses are
six carbon sugars. As you know, plants make sucrose following photosynthesis as the
circulating sugar. Sucrose is a disaccharide of glucose and fructose. When sucrose
arrives at the berry and it is cleaved by invertase to glucose and fructose. This strategy
allows the berry to accumulate large concentrations of sugar by diffusion. Because
actual levels of sucrose remain low, sucrose can continue to enter the fruit without
requiring an expenditure of energy.

Sugars (pentoses)

● Arabinose
● Xylose

Not metabolized by yeast.

The principle pentoses, or five carbon sugars, are arabinose and xylose. The
pentoses are not used by Saccharomyces in the production of alcohol, but can serve
as energy sources for other organisms, particularly in the presence of molecular
oxygen.

The two principle organic acids are malate and tartrate.

Organic Acids

● Malate
● Tartrate

Malate as you recall from biochemistry, comes from the TCA cycle. It is a tricarboxylic
acid cycle intermediate.
Malate can be consumed via the TCA cycle and electron transport chain to produce
energy. It is the principle energy source in the berry rather than sugar. Why? The aim
of fruit maturation is to accumulate sugar to serve as an attractant for animal vectors.
Consumption of that sugar by the berry tissue itself would defeat the purpose of
accumulation. Therefore the berry is metabolically geared to ignore the abundance of
sugar and to catabolize instead the available malate. How much malate has been
consumed will impact the level of acidity in the fruit at the time of harvest. The longer
the fruit is on the vine post-veraison, the lower the content of malate.

The other principle berry acid is tartaric acid. Tartrate, like malate, is a four-carbon
dicarboxylic acid.

Tartrate looks similar to malate in structure, but it is really an odd compound. In

contrast to malate, tartrate is not metabolized as an energy source and is not very
prevalent in the plant, animal or microbial kingdoms. It is only found in grapes and a
couple of other plants. Tartrate, in contrast to malate, accumulates in a plant organelle
called the vacuole. The vacuole in plants, as well as in yeast, is the site of hydrolysis of
a lot of components no longer of use to the cell but that can be recycled. Proteins can
be broken down into individual amino acids in the vacuole and stored there for later
use in de novo protein synthesis. Components can also be stored in the vacuole for
subsequent use in the cytoplasm. Phosphate and minerals will be deposited in the
vacuole then translocated to the cytoplasm when needed. In this case the vacuole is
the functional equivalent of a closet. While the exact metabolic role of tartrate is still
being debated, one theory postulates that tartaric acid plays a role in cation
sequestration and storage in the vacuole. It serves to neutralize positive charges
allowing accumulation and retention with in the cell of valuable ionic resources.
Tartrate is made from ascorbic acid and 5-ketoglutarate.

The amino acid content of the berry is important as these compounds serve as
nutrients for the yeast and bacteria that conduct the alcoholic and malolactic
fermentations, respectively. These compounds are also important because end
products of amino acid catabolism, the fusel oils and esters, impact the aroma of the
wine thereby influencing wine composition and quality. Deficiencies of these nutrients
can lead to off-character production by the microbes as well as prevent fermentation to
dryness. Typically the five most prevalent amino acids are: glutamate, glutamine,
alanine, arginine and proline. Together these amino acids generally comprise 90% of
the amino acid pool. Ammonia is also important, and levels of this compound will vary
dramatically in the fruit at harvest.

Amino Acids

● Glutamate
● Glutamine
● Arginine
● Alanine
● Proline

Typically comprise 90% of All amino acids

Other amino acids are present in lower concentrations. The relative ratios of available
nitrogen compounds impacts yeast metabolic activities and the spectrum of end
products appearing in the wine. Another principle nitrogen compound that can be
found in grapes is gamma amino butyric acid or GABA. GABA appears to be
synthesized in the fruit post harvest and concentrations of this compound reflect the
time and temperature exposure of the harvested berries. The longer the time and the
higher the temperature post-harvest, the higher the GABA concentration. GABA levels
can be quite high in some juices and musts. It is readily utilized as a nitrogen source
by yeast and bacteria.
Amino Acids

High Gamma-Amino Butryic Acid (GABA) indicates fruit was held at

a high temperature post-harvest

Phenolics

A large variety of phenolic compounds are found in the wine. They are generally
present as tartaric acid esters.

The structure shown here is caftaric acid, the most prevalent phenolic. The diversity of
phenolic compounds and their roles in wine composition and quality will be covered in
subsequent lectures.

The volatile compounds fall into two principle categories, the terpenes and the esters.
We'll be talking about these two categories extensively throughout the course.

Volatile Compounds:

● terpenes
● esters

The sulfur-containing compounds of the berry are principally glutathione, a tripeptide

containing cysteine. Cysteine and methionine can also be found in the fruit at harvest.
Glutathione forms the "grape reaction product" with phenolic compounds, and is
therefore not available to the yeast to use as a source of sulfur. These compounds are
important because their presence can lead to the formation of sulfur volatiles by yeast,
which are almost always objectionable.

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Copyright 2001 University of California at Davis, University Extension
Copyright 2001 Linda Bisson
Lesson 2: Location of Berry Compounds
As described above, the berry is a complex structure comprised of different tissue
types. These tissues have differing chemical compositions. A seminal article on this
topic was written by B. G. Coombe and published in 1987 in the American Journal of
Enology and Viticulture. With their permission, we reproduce some of the key data
from that article. The goal of the study was to investigate the composition of different
regions of the berry. As shown in this figure, cross-sections of the berry were prepared.

Each fraction of the berry was analyzed for chemical composition. Samples were taken
throughout berry development post-veraison.

Let us first consider sugar content.

Early in the season when the specific gravity or Brix value of the grapes is low, sugar
content of the fruit is likewise low. As sugar accumulates in the berry the specific
gravity of the juice of the fruit increases. As seen in this diagram, sucrose
concentration is highest nearest the vascular system of the plant, that is, at the point of
entry into the fruit. Glucose (and fructose) levels are high throughout the mesocarp, but
are low in the skin. Since sugars provide an excellent source of carbon and energy,
their absence in the skin protects this tissue from microbial attack.
Malate is similarly located in the mesocarp, but follows the opposite trend to sugars
during berry maturation. As Brix levels increase, malate levels decrease. This is
because the malate is being consumed as an energy source. In this example, at 26°B,
most of the malate has been consumed. This means that the berry now lacks an
energy source and will start to deteriorate. Tartrate tends to be more uniformly
distributed across the berry, but levels are slightly higher in the skins. There is a slight
decrease over time with berry maturation, most likely due to dilution as water and other
components accumulate in the fruit.
In contrast to the sugars and malate, the concentration of phenolic compounds is
highest in the skin tissues of the plant. They are also high in the seeds, but the seed
data is not shown. If phenolic extraction is desired in the wine, then the skins will need
to be exposed to the juice or wine. It is not surprising that the phenolic compounds
which are produced principally to counter microbial attack and to maintain berry
integrity under conditions of abiotic stress are located in highest concentration in the
tissue that serves as the first line of defense, the skin.
Potassium levels are also highest in the skin of the berry. Potassium is required by the
yeast for optimal fermentation performance in the presence of high ethanol
concentrations. It is important that enough be present to support fermentation to
dryness.
Finally, anion content is highest adjacent to the vascular bundles of the berry and in
the skins. Anions are translocated to the berry from the rest of the plant so it is not
surprising that their content would be highest in and adjacent to the vascular tissue.

This concludes the lecture on berry composition and the influence of environment on
the physiological activities of the vine and ultimately, of the composition of the berry. In
the next lecture we will consider berry composition and development from the
winemaker's perspective and discuss the issues surrounding the harvesting decision.

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Copyright 2001 University of California at Davis, University Extension

Copyright 2001 Linda Bisson
Lesson 3: Introduction

The Harvesting Decision: Viticulture from the Winemaker's

Perspective

One of the most important decisions made by the winemaker is the time of harvesting
of the fruit. The chemical composition of the berry at harvest will largely dictate the
chemical composition of the finished wine. In addition to varietal qualities, grape
composition not only controls the ultimate acid/ethanol balance, but it also determines
what characters will be imparted by microbial activity. In this lecture we will consider
the factors that are taken into account when scheduling the harvest of a particular
vineyard. The ultimate goal is to obtain the ideal berry composition at the time of
harvest. Whether that goal can be achieved or not is dependent upon numerous
factors.

The Winemakers Perspective

Grapes must be harvested at the ideal time for the style of

wine
●

Characters of the finished wine will be largely dictated by the

composition of the fruit at harvest
●

Goal: to have the ideal composition at the time of harvest

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Copyright 2001 University of California at Davis, University Extension

Copyright 2001 Linda Bisson
Lesson 3: Changes in Berry Composition During
Ripening
Two components typically monitored during berry ripening are sugar and acidity.

Sugar accumulation in the berry commences at veraison and continues throughout the
ripening process. At some point, the vine ceases to send further sugar to the berry.
Following this point the sugar level may still increase in the fruit but this is due to
dehydration or water loss. It is important to determine the time at which net synthesis
terminates to avoid excessive raisining of the fruit, unless this is wanted stylistically. If
higher sugar concentrations are desired, other techniques such as concentrate
addition or blending with a high Brix juice should be considered.
Berry acid levels also change during the ripening process. As mentioned in the
previous lecture, malate accumulates in the berry during the green berry stage prior to
veraison. At veraison, malate levels will decrease due to catabolism of this acid as an
energy source by the cells of the berry. This is an exaggerated graph, with the malate
levels dropping sharply. Tartrate levels also rise during early berry development, but
then plateau. There may be a slight increase in tartrate as the berry dehydrates, if the
fruit is left on the vine that long.

Another compound that is sometimes monitored during ripening is arginine.

Arginine levels rise during the early phase of berry development and remain fairly
constant through late developmental stages. If the fruit is held on the vine for a long
time, arginine levels will drop. Some winemakers believe that this drop signifies a
deterioration of the fruit, and will harvest immediately.

Probably the most important character to monitor is berry flavor and aroma. Below is a
typical profile of the change in flavor characters during ripening that has been
described for red fruit. Immediately post veraison the fruit tastes very vegetative, that
is, it is reminiscent of vegetation.

It then becomes more herbaceous, more like straw and dried vegetation. The fruit then
advances to unripe fruit, signifying the beginning of production of fruit characters, but
the fruit is still quite bitter and bland. I am most reminded of unripe apples simple
because that is the unripe fruit with which I have the most experience. The berry then
begins production of the positive fruit components. Initially the red fruit characters
emerge, things like cherry, raspberry, strawberry and apple. As the fruit continues to
age, more of the black fruit characters, black cherry and plum, are noted. If the fruit
remains on the vine, the fruit characters take on the jamminess of processed fruit and
some dried fruit characters, such as prune and date, may also become apparent.
Spice characters may also appear at this time, enhancing the perception of the wine as
processed jelly or jam. The emergence of the ripe characters and the disappearance of
unripe components can vary in timing. Some seasons there may be no
herbaceousness at the same time as the black fruit traits emerge and in other seasons
both may be present at the same time. Some years the fruit may start to deteriorate
before the intense jam character appears. None of the flavor and aroma compounds
are directly correlated with sugar and acidity either. In some vintages the red fruit
characters may appear at a lower sugar value than in other vintages. In order to detect
the character of the phenolic compounds, I will frequently remove a bit of grape skin
and taste that independently of the sweeter fleshy part of the berry. For me, it is easier
to detect the "ripeness" of the phenolic compounds without the interference from the
sugar. It may also be important to focus on the absence of undesired or unripe
characters rather than just on the appearance of positive characters.

In addition to berry composition as an index of ripeness, the stems must also be

considered, even in cases where the grapes are destemmed prior to crushing and
fermentation. There are three categories of stems.

Stems:

Unripe: Green = vegetal, leafy

Ripe: Brown = resinous wood, spices: clove, pepper, cinnamon
Over-ripe: Brittle Brown = dried leaf, tea, herbal

Unripe stems, which are called green stems in the French literature, are very vegetal
and leafy tasting. Green in this case refers to much more than the color of the stems
themselves. If you are using a crusher that breaks up the stems or the stems are
present during fermentation (whole berry fermentation), some of these characters can
be noticed. Stem maturation is dependent upon the varietal. In some cases they never
mature past the vegetation phase. Thus the practice of whole berry fermentation is not
advised for all varietals. Stems can be tasted to determine the impact that they may
have on wine composition. Ripe stems are brownish in color. They have resinous
characters, clove, pepper, cinnamon, and other components of the spice family. Over-
ripe stems are very brittle and brown looking, and they have a lot of the tea and herbal
notes, reminiscent of dried leaf characters. These characters are not necessarily bad,
depending upon the wine that you are producing.

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Copyright 2001 University of California at Davis, University Extension

Copyright 2001 Linda Bisson
Lesson 3: The Harvesting Decision
Many factors influence the decision to harvest the fruit. One of the principle factors is
sugar content, as this will define the amount of alcohol present in the wine at the end of
fermentation.

Decision to Harvest

● Sugar
● pH
● Acids
● Balance of sugar and acidity
● Arginine levels
● Ratio of malate to tartrate
● Taste
● Phenolics/Anthocyanin
● Terpene content
● Environmental factors
● Tank capacity/limitation
● Labor availability
● Cost/Economics
● Availability of fruit
● Style of wine

Sugar

Sugar ranges from 19-26 Brix

● Depends upon style of wine

● Maturity of flavors
● 1.7% sugar = 1% ethanol

Sugar content may be monitored in several ways, either directly through the
assessment of glucose and fructose (usually enzymatically or by virtue of an HPLC
analysis), or can be estimated from measuring a trait of the juice that is associated with
sugar concentration, such as specific gravity or density. These latter methods are
usually easier to perform, and do not require sophisticated winery analytical equipment.
Sugar levels at time of harvest range from 19 to 26 on the Brix scale. This roughly
translates to 19 to 26% sugar on a weight-by-weight basis. The Brix scale uses
hydrometry to assess the specific gravity of the solution. At high sugar levels the
specific gravity is largely a function of the sugar content. The Brix scale is set such that
20 g of sucrose in 100 g of total solution at 20°C is 20°Brix. Since specific gravity is a
function of temperature, tables have been constructed that give the temperature
corrections for the Brix readings. As ethanol is produced, the specific gravity drops
below that of water and negative Brix readings will be obtained late in fermentation.
Thus Brix is a fairly accurate assessment of sugar in juices and musts, but not so late in
fermentation.

Lower Brix levels coincide with reduced varietal character. Fruit would be harvested
early when it was desirable to minimize varietal character such as during the production
of some sparkling wines. Higher Brix values generally coincide with intense varietal
characteristics, and if too high may yield excessive ethanol concentrations that will
detract from wine quality.

pH

pH: 3.0-3.8

● Affects solubility of tartrates and proteins

● Affects microbial populations

The pH of the juice at harvest is also an important variable. Wine pH will impact both
tartrate and protein stability and affects the rates of key phenolic reactions. Equally
important, juice and wine pH will impact the nature of microorganisms that can persist
in the fermentation and subsequently in the wine. Juice pH typically ranges from 3.0 to
3.8 under ideal conditions, but may be much lower (with early harvest in a cool growing
region) or higher (with late harvest in a warm growing region). Many bacteria are
unable to survive pH values below 3.5. In contrast Saccharomyces and the other yeast
grape flora are quite acid tolerant, and are not inhibited until the pH drops below 2.5. If
the must is at pH 3.5 or above, many, many more microbial species will be present in
the juice, and therefore have the opportunity to impact the chemical composition of the
finished wine. This may be either stylistically desirable or undesirable depending upon
the situation and the microbes present.

Acids

● Contribute Sourness and Tartness

● Titratable Acidity:
Whites (0.7-0.9 g/L)
Reds (0.6-0.8 g/L)

The acidity level of the grapes at harvest is very important to the structure of the wine
as well as to the composition of the finished wine. Acids contribute sourness, while both
acidity and pH influence tartness. There are many ways to evaluate wine acidity, but
the most common is to use a simple acid/base titration to estimate the amount of
released protons. The amount of base used in titration to a specific end point is then
expressed as the equivalent amount of acid. In the United States for example, titratable
acidity or TA is expressed as grams tartaric acid equivalents per liter. This is not a
direct measurement of the anionic species of tartrate, so it is important to not be
confused by this convention. In France the titratable acidity is expressed as grams
sulfuric acid. The titratable acidity at the time of harvest is a complex function of the pH,
the concentration of anionic species of malate and tartrate, and of the potassium level.
TA levels for white wines range from 0.7 to 0.9 grams tartaric acid equivalents/L, and
are slightly lower in red wines, 0.6 to 0.8 g/L.

Balance of Sugar and Acidity

● Brix/TA = 30 or less
❍ 22 Brix/0.8 TA = 27.5

● (Brix)(pH)² = 220-260
❍ (22 Brix)(3.2)² = 225.3

The balance between sugar and acidity in the grape at harvest will reflect the
balance between ethanol and acidity post fermentation. There are two conventions for
determining the balance of these components. The first is to divide the Brix value by
that for the TA, with a goal of obtaining a number less than 30. This indicates that these
two parameters are well matched. The second convention is to multiply the Brix value
by the square of the pH, aiming for a number between 220 and 260. These conventions
are dynamic and change with the styled wine being produced. Late harvest fruit also
does not meet these criteria.

Arginine

We have noted above that arginine levels are sometimes monitored as an index of
berry deterioration. This practice is not that common across the industry because of the
difficulty of the arginine assay, and the variation in arginine levels. That is an important
point to bring up - factors that we can readily measure frequently take on a higher value
than those that we cannot, but this might not reflect their relative importance as
indicators of berry ripeness and quality.

Ratio of Malate to Tartrate

In some cases it is desirable to have some malate in the juice at the time of harvest.
This is generally to make sure that the malolactic conversion will occur. As mentioned
earlier, this conversion is an important deacidification of the wine, so why would one
want high acidity if it will simply be removed later in the wine making process? The
organisms that conduct the malate to lactate conversion, the malolactic (ML)
bacteria, produce other end products desirable in some wine styles. These organisms
are responsible for some cream and buttery characteristics, and can produce more
complex aromas as well. If these characters are desired, then the malate must be
present to stimulate their production. Malate can be legally added to wine to stimulate
the ML bacteria, but many winemakers feel that the wine is simply a better product if
the malate is present at the onset of fermentation.

Taste

One of the most important characteristics of the fruit at the point of harvest is the taste -
the flavor and aroma characteristics of the berry are largely responsible for the
characteristics of the wine, especially in varietal wine production. The rest of the
chemistry might be technically perfect, but if the appropriate flavors are not yet present
in the fruit, the wine will not achieve the stylistic goals of the winemaker.

Phenolics/Anthocyanin
The phenolic composition of the fruit at harvest is important for a variety of reasons.
The phenolic compounds are responsible for bitterness and astringency and for the
ultimate tannin structure of the wine. In the case of red varieties, anthocyanin content is
crucial, since these compounds are responsible for red wine color. The anthocyanin
pigments are located exclusively in the skins for the vast majority of the varieties
commonly used in winemaking. Color changes and is lost upon wine aging so the initial
level of extraction, which is dictated by the initial composition of the fruit, is of great
consequence.

Terpene Content

One of the important classes of volatile aroma compounds is the terpenes. Terpenes
are responsible for the characteristic Muscat flavors, such as the intense fruity and
floral notes. Terpene structure will be described in a later lecture, but for now it is
important to note that the terpene content is set at the time of harvest. That is, terpenes
are not synthesized in the fruit post harvest. Terpenes exist in one of two forms, bound
and unbound. Unbound terpenes are volatile and this is the form that can be detected
by our olfactory sensors. Bound terpenes are the same compound with an attached
sugar molecule. They are referred to as glycosylated terpenes as a group. Bound
terpenes hydrolyze as the wine ages, thus releasing the detectable volatile form. Thus,
what is most critical for the harvesting decision is the total amount of terpenes present
in the wine and the ratio of bound to unbound. This can be determined by assay, and
used to identify the optimal time of harvest.

Other compounds important in wine aroma and flavor are also present as non-volatile
glucosyl-glucose (GG) precursors. Enzymatic treatments can be used to cleave the GG
moieties from all flavorant precursors. The amount of GG released can be assayed and
used as an indicator of the total precursor population. GG values can then be used to
define the optimal maturity of the fruit and define the harvest date.

Environmental Factors

● Rain
● Humidity
● Temperature
● Disease Pressure
All of the other factors discussed to this point relate to the chemical composition of the
fruit and the determination of the optimal composition. In and ideal world, this is all that
would matter. However, since this is not an ideal world, other factors must also be
taken into account when deciding that it is time to harvest. Principle among these are
the environmental factors. While the ideal time of harvest may be based upon the
chemical composition of the fruit, Mother Nature may change your plans.

Rain is problematic because it generally results in higher humidity, which fosters the
growth of molds on the fruit. In contrast to yeasts and bacteria, molds produce mycelia
and can invade grape berry tissue. This not only consumes grape nutrients, it can lead
to loss of grape varietal characters and can result in a general microbial bloom. This
leads to high microbial loads in the initial juice and increases the risk of off-character
production. It has been our experience that mold infestation post-harvest is not nearly
as damaging to wine quality as infestation of clusters on the vine. Thus, if the weather
conditions are such that mold infestation of the fruit will occur, it is better to harvest the
berries early than to wait for a balanced chemistry that will never appear in infected
fruit.

Temperature is also very important. For example, if temperatures drop to near freezing
this can damage the berries unless you are interested in making ice wine. In this case
you may need to harvest and process the fruit before the change in the weather can
cause damage.

Disease or pest pressure can also influence the harvesting decision depending upon
the region in which the fruit is produced and what type of crops might be grown in the
vicinity of the fruit. In this case, the grower may need to harvest the crop before an
insect pest displaced by harvest of another commodity in the region invades the
vineyard.

In addition to compositional and environmental factors, issues relating to internal

operations within the winery may also impact the harvesting decision.

Tank Capacity/Limitation

Tank capacity and tank limitation are important factors to consider when deciding
upon the harvesting date. That is, the fruit may be ready to harvest but the winery is
swamped and is unable to process the fruit. For example, if tank capacity is limiting, it
will dictate what can be handled by the winery. Tank limitation is difficult to predict from
one vintage to the next as different varietals ripen at different times. One could assume
worst-case scenario, but there is a balance between overbuilding your winery and
having an excessive amount of unused tank capacity and being short maybe one or
two seasons out of every ten. In my experience, overbuilt wineries have a tendency to
increase production and thus do not maintain an excess fermentative capacity.

Labor Availability

Another important issue is labor availability. Grape harvesting is obviously a seasonal

job and in many regions seasonal workers are in short supply. Mechanical harvesting
can accommodate this, which will be discussed below, but if the wine style is
dependent upon hand-harvested fruit, the availability of labor will definitely impact the
timing of harvest.

Cost/Economics

The decision to harvest may be influenced as well by economic factors. For example,
harvesting costs may vary seasonally. In some regions of the United States, High
School and College students provide the seasonal labor for harvesting the grapes. If
the grapes are not harvested before classes resume, other laborers may need to be
hired at a higher pay rate. Also, if purchasing fruit on the open market, it might not be
economically feasible for a grower to continue to farm the fruit, that is, the grower's
return from the sale of the fruit will not cover additional expenditures in the vineyard. In
this case, the grapes will be harvested and sold to whoever is willing to receive them.

Availability of Fruit

Thus fruit availability may be an important factor in the harvest decision if delay in
acceptance of fruit means that the winery will not obtain the needed amount. Many
wine producers address this issue by having long-term contracts with growers, but this
is problematic if the fruit from the vineyard does not meet the winery's chemical
specifications.

Style of Wine

Stylistic considerations will also influence the decision to harvest. Different wine
styles may require that the chemistry of the berries at harvest be different. For example,
in the case of Cabernet Sauvignon, one winery might want some of the classic bell
pepper and herbaceous notes as this is part of their style while another might desire a
more intense jamminess and no bell pepper. The ideal time of harvest for each winery
of the same vineyard would differ because their definitions of quality and style differ.

The last topic to consider under factors influencing the harvesting decision is the
human element. In our case we harvest the fruit from the Davis vineyards upon the
return of the students in the last week in September. It does not matter what the
chemistry of the fruit is, we must wait until the students are present. While uncommon
in new world growing regions, a similar situation does exist in other winemaking regions
of the world. In some cases harvest commences on a specific date, perhaps associated
with a particular Saint's feast day or the lunar cycle. In these cases the chemistry of the
fruit is secondary to the cultural habits of the region.

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Copyright 2001 University of California at Davis, University Extension

Copyright 2001 Linda Bisson
Lesson 3: Vineyard Sampling
Many of the above characteristics used in determining the optimal time of harvesting
are dependent upon berry chemistry. It is therefore important to assess the
composition of a representative cross section of the fruit in the vineyard. This is not as
easy as it seems.

Sampling of Vineyard

● Unbiased representation of entire crop

● Statistically significant evaluation

It is important to develop vineyard sampling protocols that result in an unbiased

sampling of the vineyard and that lead to statistically significant values for the
composition of the fruit.

Types of Sampling

● Berry: 100-200 berries randomly picked

● Cluster: 20-50 clusters also randomly chosen
● Vine: select typical vine and sample all clusters

Individual berries, clusters or vines can be sampled. The most statistically robust
method is berry sampling. It is important to take a representative sample of the entire
vineyard. This first necessitates walking through the vineyard and determining the
relative homogeneity of the soil and topography of the area that is planted. If soil
and/or topography differ, then it will be necessary to establish the relative locations of
differing growth conditions and the relative percentage of the vines in those conditions.
In the final sampling strategy, fruit should be represented in the final mixture at the
same percentage that the particular topographical condition under which it was grown
is present in the vineyard.

In berry sampling, a typical sample size is 200 berries. If the vineyard is large and 200
berries does not cover 10% of the planted area, multiple samples totaling 200 berries
can be taken, processed and analyzed separately and the values obtained averaged.
The berries must be chosen randomly - not always from the same location in the
cluster and not always from exposed clusters. Berries should also be harvested
without damaging them as this may change the chemical composition before analysis.
Computer programs exist that will generate a random sampling protocol from entered
vineyard data. These can be quite useful if it becomes apparent that sampling bias is
an issue. This becomes quite obvious when the composition of the fruit post harvest
does not match that predicted from the sampling.

Cluster sampling has the advantages or avoiding berry damage and of bias in the
selection of berries from the cluster. However, to be statistically robust, more fruit is
harvested in the sampling process. Whole vine sampling is only advised if the soil and
topography of the vineyard are fairly uniform. If this is the case, then sampling of an
entire vine that has been randomly chosen eliminates both berry and cluster bias. The
ideal situation seems to be to have multiple individuals perform berry sampling and to
average the values obtained from separate analysis of the sampling lots. Of course,
this is only feasible in larger vineyard and winery operations.

Berry sampling is most accurate but harvester must be careful not

to damage fruit prior to processing analysis

The most statistically robust method of vineyard sampling is a combination of berry

and cluster sampling. Clusters are sampled from the vineyard and brought intact to the
winery. All berries are carefully removed from each cluster and the berries are mixed
together in a tray. Numerical strategies are then used to obtain a 200 berry sample
from all of the berries in the tray. Multiple 200 berry samples can be taken from the
same set of clusters.

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Copyright 2001 University of California at Davis, University Extension

Copyright 2001 Linda Bisson
Lesson 3: Harvesting Options

Once the decision has been made that it is time to harvest, the
winemaker/vineyard manager must then decide how the fruit is to
be harvested

Several options are available for harvesting that will impact the character of the
harvested fruit. Thus the winemaker must also be involved in the decision of how
harvesting will proceed.

Harvesting Options

● Temperature
● Machine
● Hand

The three main factors that have to be considered when harvesting are temperature,
and whether the fruit will be harvested by machine or by hand. These factors will
impact the extraction of compounds from the berry and the amount of damage and pre-
fermentation microbial activity that can occur. The higher the temperatures at harvest,
the higher the temperature of the fruit at the time of crushing. Higher temperatures lead
to greater extraction of skin components. Thus, as described in a subsequent lecture, if
skin extraction is desired such as in red wine production warmer temperatures may be
preferred. In contrast, if extraction is not desired such as in white wine production
because of excessive bitterness or astringency, then the winemaker might want to
harvest at cooler temperatures to minimize extraction even with damage of the fruit. In
some regions fruit can be harvested at night, when the temperature is at its lowest.
Mechanical harvesters must be matched to the trellising system. Some are more
selective, only heavy, riper clusters are dislodged while others are not.

Temperature of Harvest
 ● Lower temperature
❍ Less flavor loss

❍ Less extraction from skins

❍ Less microbial activity

● Elevated temperature
❍ More extraction

❍ Initiate fermentation earlier

It is also important to remember that higher temperatures stimulate both the growth
and metabolic activities of microorganisms. Harvesting conditions that damage fruit
significantly and will result in stimulation of microbial activity. This will be reduced
somewhat at lower ambient temperatures, but if the damage to the fruit is extensive, it
may be desirable to inoculate the fruit at the point of harvest rather than waiting until it
arrives at the winery.

The next decision that must be made is how the fruit will be harvested, that is, will it be
harvested mechanically or by hand.

Machine Harvesting

● Faster
● Cheaper
● Can be done day or night
● Less gentle
● Mixture of "good" and "bad" clusters
● More "MOG" (material other than grapes)
● Berries can be crushed
❍ Juice loss

❍ Oxidation

❍ Microbial Growth

Machine harvesting has the advantages of being much faster than hand harvesting
and much more efficiently done at night. It is cheaper than hand harvesting, as labor
costs are minimal. However, it is not selective, bad or unripe clusters may be
harvested along with the ripe clusters, and there will be material other than grapes
(affectionately known as MOG) present in with the fruit. Mechanical harvesters do not
treat the fruit gently so there will be considerable berry damage. Depending upon
conditions, this may lead to juice oxidation and loss of yield in addition to the
encouragement of microbial growth.

Hand Harvesting

● Slower
● More labor intensive
● More expensive
● More selective of clusters
● Less MOG
● Lower yield

In contrast to mechanical harvesting, hand harvesting is more expensive, more labor

intensive, and slower. However there is much less berry damage and better control
over MOG. Hand harvesting allows selection for good clusters eliminating those that
display mold infestation or are unripe (second crop). The yield will be lower simply
because it is a more selective process. Which method, hand or machine harvesting, is
most appropriate depends again upon many issues. Principle among these are desired
yield, cost and labor availability. In some areas, hand harvesting is not an option
because of the lack of availability of labor. In other areas the terrain is such that
machine harvesting is not an option. If mechanical harvesting is to be used, then it is
important that the vineyard sampling protocol reflect this. Meaning, that if ripe and
unripe clusters will both be picked, the sampler must determine the ratio of ripe to
unripe and maintain the same percentage of first and second crop in the sample.

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Copyright 2001 University of California at Davis, University Extension

Copyright 2001 Linda Bisson