1.

1 Sentence Types based on clauses

Clauses: Independent and dependent

Independent clauses: contains a subject and verb; express a complete thought and can stand alone.

Dependent clauses: contains a subject and verb but does not express a complete thought. If left
alone, a fragment will result.

Types

a. Simple sentence: is one independent clause with no subordinate clause. It contains only a single
clause. It can be quite long and also as short as one word. For example: Run! is one word and
can be considered as a simple sentence.

Eg: Ethiopia is a poor country.

b. Compound sentence: is a sentence where two simple sentences are joined by coordinating
conjunctions. It has two or more independent clauses with no subordinate clause.

Eg: Ethiopia is a poor country, but still it has many rich people.

Coordinating conjunctions
When your sentences are clearly focused, you'll find it much easier to join sentences that are logically
related. Now, you will practice using the seven coordinators. The easiest way to remember them is to
remember the word FANBOYS, which is an acronym, a word made up of the first letters of the names of
the seven coordinators. In the example sentences below, notice the logical relationships that the
coordinators express:
Coordinators Logical Relationships
FOR: Mary enjoys math, for it is challenging. result/cause
AND: Judy has won several trophies, and she is an honor student. Addition
NOR: Judy doesn't work, nor does she want a job. addition of negatives
BUT: Nabil is pretty good at gymnastics, but he prefers swimming. Contrast
OR: Jaime needs a vacation, or he'll go crazy. alternative
YET: Irma doesn't earn much, yet she spends money like a millionaire. contrast
SO: The coach praised the team excessively, so the players stopped believing him. cause/result

c. Complex sentence: is a sentence with one independent clause with one subordinate.

Eg: Although Ethiopia is a poor country, it has many rich people.

N:B - A complex sentence is very different from a simple or a compound sentence because it
makes clear which ideas are most important. Suppose you write:

My friend invited me to a party. I do not want to go.

Or even

My friend invited me to a party, but I do not want to go.

 The reader will have trouble knowing which piece of information is most important to you.
When you write the subordinating conjunction “although” at the beginning of the first clause,
however, you make it clear that the fact that your friend invited you is less important than, or
subordinate, to the fact that you do not want to go.

Although my friend invited me to a party, I do not want to go.

d. Compound-complex sentence: is a sentence with at least two independent and at least one
subordinate clause.

Eg: Because the students work hard, they will pass, and they will be happy.

The class was difficult; however, the students will pass because they worked hard.

Building Basic Sentences

Sentences are built using one of four structures:
Simple
A simple sentence has a subject and verb. Either may be compound, and both may
have words and phrases that modify them. For example:
The pad fell.
Simple sentence; subject pad, verb fell
The red personalized mouse pad fell off the desk and onto the floor.
Subject: pad
Verb: fell
Words modifying the subject: the, red, personalized, mouse
Phrases modifying the verb: off the desk, onto the floor
The mouse pad and mouse fell off the desk.
Compound subjects: pad and mouse
Verb: fell
Words modifying the subject: the, mouse
Phrases modifying the verb: off the desk
Compound
A compound sentence is made of two simple sentences joined together. A comma
marks where the two simple sentences are joined. For example:
The mouse pad fell on the floor, and the mouse landed on top.
First simple sentence: The mouse pad fell on the floor.
Second simple sentence: The mouse landed on top.
Complex
A complex sentence is a simple sentence with a subordinate clause added. For example:
The mouse pad fell on the floor when the cat jumped on the desk.
Simple sentence: The mouse pad fell on the floor.
Subordinate clause: when the cat jumped on the desk
 Compound-Complex
A compound-complex sentence has two simple sentences and at least one subordinate
clause. For example:
When the cat jumped on the desk, the mouse pad fell on the floor, and the mouse
landed on top.
First simple sentence: The mouse pad fell on the floor.
Second simple sentence: The mouse landed on top.
Subordinate clause: when the cat jumped on the desk

1.2 Sentence Kinds based on purpose

It has to do with the purpose the sentence serves and the manner in which the thought is
expressed.

a. Declarative/Assertive sentence: states a fact, opinion or idea followed by a period (.).

Eg: I like to eat fish.

He sold his car to his girl-friend.

b. Imperative sentence: gives a command or a request followed by a period. In some instances i.e.
when commands are very strong it is followed by exclamation. Sometimes the subject of an
imperative sentence (you) is understood.

Eg: Open the window. (You, Open the window.)

Go to your room.

Stop!

c. Interrogative sentence: asks a question and is followed by a question mark (?).

Eg: Who took my wallet?

Have you ever seen a flying fish?

d. Exclamatory sentence: expresses strong feeling. It always ends with an exclamation point (!).

Eg: That sounds incredible!

I can’t believe that you didn’t show up!

1.3 Faulty sentences
1.3.1 Fragments

A sentence fragment is a word group that is attempting to function as a sentence but lacking an
independent clause.

Eg: The army in the north. There is no verb present to make the statement a complete thought.

I gathered the materials from all of the usual places. The same databases and newspapers.
In the second part of this example, there is no verb present to complete the thought.
Therefore, “the same databases and newspapers” is a fragment.

N:B - Fragments are not always errors, although they are more common in creative or informal
writing than in academic and professional writing. Only use them for effect.

1.3.2 Run-ons
A run-on sentence occurs when independent clauses are not joined correctly. Run-on sentences are
occasionally referred to as fused sentences. In a fused sentence, the two independent clauses are joined
with no punctuation mark or coordinating conjunction.

Example of a run-on: The family drove to the beach it was a beautiful day.

Correct forms: The family drove to the beach; it was a beautiful day.

The family drove to the beach, and it was a beautiful day.

To correct these sentences, one may use either a semicolon or a comma with a coordinating
conjunction.

N:B - If you use a semi-colon then never use a coordinating conjunction and if you use a comma
then use a coordinating conjunction.

1.3.3 Comma splices

Comma splices are another common error that create run-on sentences. A comma splice occurs when
two or more independent clauses are joined by a comma without a coordinating conjunction.

Example: The baby is in his crib, he is sleeping.

In this sentence, the two independent clauses are combined using only a comma.
Correction: The baby is in his crib; he is sleeping.
The baby is in his crib, and he is sleeping.
To correct these sentences, one may use either a semicolon or a comma with a coordinating
conjunction.
1.3.4 Modifiers

A modifier is an adjective, an adverb, a phrase, or a clause acting as an adjective or adverb. A modifier

provides the reader with further information about the word or phrase a modifier modifies.
Limiting modifiers limit or restrict the meaning of a word or phrase within the sentence. These
modifiers should be placed directly in front of the word they modify. Common Limiting modifiers include
only, even, almost, nearly, and just.

Example: We go out for ice cream only when we win the game.

Misplaced Modifier:

Modifiers should be placed as close as possible to the word they are modifying. A misplaced modifier is
a modifier separated so from its subject that it becomes unclear what it modifies.

Ex. Broken and beaten, the messy locker room looked like a prison to the exhausted football team.

In the above example, the modifier “broken and beaten” appears to describe the locker room. This
meaning, however, is probably not what the author intended. “Broken and beaten” is really supposed to
modify the football team. To fix a misplaced modifier, simply shuffle your sentence around.

Ex. Broken and beaten, the exhausted football team saw the messy locker room as a prison.

Dangling modifiers:

A dangling modifier occurs when the object or person being modified is missing from the sentence. In
other words, Dangling modifiers are word groups that do not immediately follow or precede the noun it
describes.

Eg: Having finished the assignment, the TV was turned on.

Correct form: Having finished the assignment, Jill turned on the TV.
In the first sentence, since the doer of the action has not been clearly stated it is said to be a dangling
modifier.
Eg: Without knowing his name, it was difficult to introduce him.
Correct: Because Maria did not know his name, it was difficult to introduce him.
Eg: After reading the original study, the article remains unconvincing.
Correct: After reading the original study, I found the article unconvincing.

1.3.6 Agreement errors

Subject-Verb Agreement. A singular subject must have a singular verb (i.e., with an -s or -es in
third person).

Ex. The chicken crosses the road.

Ex. Hector prays daily.
A plural subject must have a plural verb (i.e., without an -s or -es in third person).

Ex. The chickens cross the road.

Ex. The fifth graders pray daily.

Make sure to find the true subject of the verb. Sometimes an intervening clause confuses things.

Ex. (correct) The mother, along with her three small children, is sick.
Ex. (incorrect) The mother, along with her three small children, are sick.

Noun-Pronoun Agreement. Pronouns are words, like he, she, they, his, and hers, that refer back
to or hold the place of nouns. Pronouns should agree with the nouns they’re representing. Plural
nouns should take the pronoun they and possessive pronoun their.

Ex. The Beatles wanted their music to convey a message, so they created music and lyrics that
others would remember.

Singular nouns should take the gender corresponding singular pronoun and singular possessive
pronoun.

Ex. (masculine) Jerry wanted to spend his weekend camping, but he knew he’d have to talk
Linda into it.
Ex. (feminine) Linda had wanted to spend her weekend at the spa, but she knew Jerry wanted to
go camping.

Collective Nouns. The simple rules above can become complicated with the introduction of
collective nouns and pronouns—words like everyone, all, everybody, committee, and staff. A
word that refers to each individual in a group—everybody, everyone, each—
takes a singular verb and singular pronoun.

Ex. Everyone in this store is buying chips.

Ex. Everybody needs to bring his or her book to the meeting.

A word that refers to individuals as one group—committee, staff, faculty—takes a singular verb
and singular pronoun.

Ex. The committee is making a decision.

A word that refers to a group of individuals—all, some—takes a plural verb and plural pronoun.

Ex. Some people are going to the movies.

Ex. All people listen to their own type of music.

In informal writing and speech, and sometimes to be gender neutral, they can be used with a
singular but genderless pronoun such as everyone.

Ex. Everyone has their own opinion.

Many people consider this an error and prefer the use of his, her, or his/her. A good compromise
is to shift to a plural noun or pronoun.

Ex. We all have our own opinions.

Verb Tense. Sometimes writers change verb tenses halfway through a paragraph, causing
confusion. Instead, make sure the verb tenses are consistent.

Ex. (incorrect) The method we use is interview and survey. We found that most people voted
for the candidate whose name is familiar, regardless of the candidate’s political leanings.

Ex. (correct) The method we use is interview and survey. Our findings indicate that people vote
for the candidate whose name is familiar, regardless of the candidate’s political leanings.

Ex. (correct) The method we used was interview and survey. We found that most people voted
for the candidate whose name was familiar, regardless of the candidate’s political leanings.

The subject of a sentence specifies who or what the sentence is about. The subject consists of a simple
subject and a complete subject. The simple subject is the main noun or pronoun that the sentence is
about. The complete subject consists of the simple subject and all the words that modify it.

Examples: The blue shoes are on the shelf.

In this sentence the simple subject is “shoes.” The complete subject is “the blue shoes.”

Subject-Verb Agreement relies on both the subject and verb being either singular or plural.

Incorrect: The students was late for class.

In this sentence, the subject “students” is plural while the verb “was” is singular.

Correct: The students were late for class.

In this sentence, both the subject “students” and the verb “were” are plural. Thus, the
subject and verb are in agreement.

Incorrect: Jessica take the bus to school.

In this sentence, the subject “Jessica” is singular while the verb “take” is plural.

Correct: Jessica takes the bus to school.

In this sentence, both the subject “Jessica” and the verb “takes” are singular. Thus the
subject and verb are in agreement.
1.4 Diction
Faulty Diction 1
Faulty Diction is when you choose wrong words in a sentence. We may use the word ‘feared’ instead of
‘scared’ in the sentence – She was scared in the dark room. Common errors are using in an
inappropriate manner the Relative Pronouns like who, whose, whom, which, that and what.
For example: The boy whose fell off his bicycle has hurt his leg.
The correct usage of the Relative Pronoun should be who.

Use of Relative Pronouns

 Who is used for persons only.
For example: Those who work hard are blessed.
I know the hero whom you admire.
 Which is used for animals and things without life.
For example: Tom found the cat which was lost.
 That is used for persons, animals and things.
For example: The expensive dress that she was wearing had been bought in Paris.
 What is used for things only.
For example: She said what she meant.

Faulty Diction 2

Another common error in diction occurs when Adjectives and Adverbs are used erroneously. In other
words an adjective is used instead of an adverb and vice versa.
An adjective adds details to the noun (or the pronoun) or describes it. For example: She has a beautiful
face.
Adverbs tell us something about the action in a sentence by modifying a verb, an adjective, an adverb, a
prepositional phrase, a sentence or a conjunction.
The following sentences show how adverbs affect the meaning of a sentence.
Compare: Tom has left. Tom has just left.
She has finished her packing. She has nearly finished her packing.

1.6 Punctuation and Capitalization

APOSTROPHES

When do we use Apostrophes?

There are two basic uses of the apostrophe in English:

1 - To show that letters or numbers are missing.

In contractions, we use an apostrophe to indicate that a letter is missing:

  Isn't = is not
 '72 = 1972

2 - To show possession

If something belongs to a person or thing, we use an apostrophe to show ownership:

 Jane's house is in a nice area. (The house belongs to Jane)

We put the apostrophe after the letter ‘s’ in a plural:

 The girls' mother collected them from school. (There were two or more girls)

NB: With irregular plurals, we put the apostrophe before the letter s:

 The children's teacher was very popular.

The apostrophe with plurals

We very rarely use the apostrophe to show plurals and only under special circumstances:

 Some people use them with acronyms (words made from the first letters of a phrase, like
CD for Compact Disc)- CD's. Others do not use the apostrophe here.
 Numbers- Some people write the 1990's and others write the 1990s.

Other than these circumstances, the apostrophe should not be used in plurals unless they are
showing possession.

Comma Splices

Where a sentence has two parts that could stand alone as sentences, with only a comma to
separate them, it is a comma splice:

 I went outside, I needed a break.

The two parts here are both complete sentences and should not be joined by a comma. There are
three basic ways of avoiding this:

1. Write them as two independent sentences: I went outside. I needed a break. (However,
using this too often can make the writing rather choppy if there are too many short
sentences.)
2. Separate them with a semi-colon: I went outside; I needed a break.
3. Use a conjunction: I went outside because I needed a break.
The Colon

When do we use the colon in English?

1) To introduce quotes

A colon can be used before a quote, especially if the quote is given on a separate line.

 A quote can be introduced like this:

Quote Quote Quote Quote Quote Quote Quote Quote Quote Quote Quote Quote Quote Quote
Quote Quote Quote
(Source)

2) Before a list

A colon can introduce a list in a sentence.

A list can be introduced like this: item, item, item.

3) Before an explanation

A colon can introduce an explanation.

 The police made several arrests: there was a lot of trouble after the match.

4) To separate titles from sub-headings.

 Punctuation: the colon.

The Semi-Colon

When do we use the semi-colon in English?

1) To connect two grammatically independent items that are closely connected through meaning

To link two things that could function as independent sentences, but work better together in the same
sentence, we separate them with a semi-colon:

Some people love it; others hate it.

2) To separate items in a list

Semi-colons can be used in lists, especially useful when the list is complicated or contains words like
'and':

The government has listed its key areas for policy: law and order; the war on drugs; tax cuts and other
economic incentives; ...