New Urbanism in New Delhi Gupta
New Urbanism in New Delhi Gupta
Urb
banism in N
New Delhii
Dipu Guptaa
The econoomic growth and rapid urbanization
u of India has resulted in
n
widespread d development in New De elhi. For the m
most part this growth is in n
the form off exurbs and ribbon growtth, a pattern of unsustainaable sprawl. A A
matter of local concern is that the innefficiencies of poor planning will sloww
economic ggrowth and d discourage tru ue prosperityy. Of global cooncern is thaat
the type off growth Indiaa chooses is o
one of the vittal environmeental issues oof
the comingg decades. Th his paper exaamines the efffects of New w Urbanism in n
1
New Delhi and sets a paath for increassed engagem ment.
Figure 1: Ou
utline of India showing the lo
ocation of New
w Delhi
1
In 2007 the International Network for Traditional Building, Architecture & Urbanism
(INTBAU) held a conference in New Delhi with the goal of setting a local New Urbanist
agenda that would be based on existing Indian patterns of urbanism. The New Urbanism in
the United States can look at town and city patterns from available American and
Continental models that have proven successful and sustainable. Into these existing models
it incorporates the advantages (and requirements) of contemporary life. In India the term
New Urbanism has a different usage. New Urbanism means getting the city right for the
first time. There are not past or existing models that are politically acceptable2, sustainable
or able to incorporate the contemporary needs of Indian life.
This paper will look at which principles of the New Urbanism can be generalized outside of
a North American context and which cannot. One of the advantages of New Urbanism is
that it reinforces a sense of place. As a basis of urban design in North India, the local
historical models which are desirable and attractive are in Rajasthan. These cities, such as
Jaipur, are essentially organic and medieval in structure. While often suggested as a model
for indigenous urban place making throughout North India, it has proven difficult to accept
the necessarily small scale of the pre‐modern city. Additionally, the idea of planning
‘organic’ growth is counterintuitive though it is interesting to speculate on a set of form‐
based codes that would encourage these appealing cities to develop further as
contemporary organic cities. A significant group, the middle‐class, has only recently made
its impact on urban form in India. The question of what is often called ‘the growing middle
class’ is linked to a central tenant of capitalism: the idea that individual selfishness and
competitive behavior will result in good societies. It is generally accepted that if India’s (and
China’s) population lived a Western middle class lifestyle with the attendant levels of
carbon emissions the global environment would be severely strained. It is crucial to work
toward types of growth which are both sustainable and also meet middle class aspirations.
A critical research agenda is in ‘no‐growth urbanism’: an urbanism where desirable urban
form can be built that creates value without the reliance on the consumption of land and
natural resources.
2
Of tthe existing p
patterns of urrban developm
ment in Delhii, none seem well suited to
o
con
ntemporary u
urban planning. Reasons raange from thee cultural memories associated with
Colonial Baroque planning to
o the auto‐dependency of the later residential subdivisions (or
colonies, as theyy are called). While differe
ent in form, b oth Mughal O
Old Delhi and Lutyens’
Colonial Baroque New Delhi aare highly ord
dered imperiaal visions of aa city with strong central
Delhi, previoussly a walled ccity called Shaahjahanabad of 1500 acress, has an
autthority. Old D
orgganic structure redolent off a European Medieval cityy. However, the society that
gen
nerated the city form was unlike a Euro
opean medievval town whicch was largelyy a
marketplace.3 Dominated by the Red Fort and the Jam a Masjid, Shaahjahanabad was a
sovvereign city w
where daily life
e was organizzed both literrally and figurratively aroun
nd the
urt.4 Besides tthe practical p
cou problems of aadapting the scales of pre‐‐modern urbaan form to
con
ntemporary life, the image
ery of civic life
e as synonym
mous with cou
urt life is an
inappropriate m
model for a contemporary d
democracy. LLutyens’ Baro
oque planningg has, for
obvvious reasonss, unpleasant associations with coloniallism.5 Additio
onally the plan
n was
con
nceived with cclass divisions in mind: the
e lower classees were to livve at the perip
phery and
outtside the centtral zone.
Figu
ure 2: Lutyens’’ Baroque plann
ning for New D
Delhi
3
Figu
ure 3: Outline o with patterns off urban form
of New Delhi w
The
e overall urbaan structure o
of New Delhi iis in some waays the reversse of a US cityy. In New
Dellhi, the center is much lesss dense than the surroundding areas. Th
he growth hass been
con
ncentric with roughly three ure 3). 6 First:: the historic plan consists of wide
e phases (Figu
leafy avenues co
onnected thro
ough roundab
bouts. With t he exception
n of certain prrominent
buildings and syymbols like Ind
dia Gate, the Baroque plannning is disorrienting. One of the great
quaalities of the B
Baroque, thatt we know wh
here we are, is missing. Th
his is a result of the vast
scale, vistas which do not terrminate and tthe lack of meemorable places. Filling in the area
bettween the Baroque diagon
nals are large plots of land . One acre orr more is com
mmon. These
4
are bungalow residences for the powerful and other upper class enclaves such as private
clubs. Changing these plots into well designed density would not entail seizing private
property. The government owns most of this land and allocates the properties. High
government positions typically come with housing. Second: the ring of upper and middle
class colonies. These are relatively dense suburbs with multi‐family and extended‐family
houses varying from three to four and half stories high, typically the maximum number of
floors allowable. Forty people living to the acre is common. Third: large areas past these
colony suburbs which follow a pattern common to developing nations. These are essentially
exurbs, different from exurbs in the US but strangely similar to cities like, say,
Johannesburg7 and Bangkok. In these areas the buildings are of wildly different sizes from
single story shacks to forty story high rises, built with little overall organization of land use
and with an improvised relationship to transportation infrastructure. These are types
residential development for those who can afford housing. The fourth layer of housing is
slum development. Slums infill land that no one else wants. There is almost universal
agreement that this process of informal housing will continue.
When I asked one of India’s leading architects about New Urbanism he told me “there is no
such thing as urbanism in India.” He was completely serious. How has it come to pass that
a country which is a world leader in medical services and information technology, to name
just two areas, uses urban planning ideas that are demonstrably unsustainable and have
been intellectually discredited for 50 years? There are two main answers: firstly, the
inability to manage urban complexity which is common in many fast growing countries. In
the words of a Delhi architect: “In India we build first and then we plan.” And secondly, all
too often the case wherever one looks, the ‘planning’ is in fact done by traffic engineering.
This is one of a series of parallels with Western planning. Although it is widely noted that
Western, typically Modernist, planning was never suited to India, it is also widely accepted
that this is the model that has been followed.8
5
Figure 4: Patterns of urban form drawn at the sam
me scale
6
In 1957 the Delhi Development Authority (DDA) was established to manage the problems
of urban growth.9 It has controlled and developed a huge amount of urban land. The DDA’s
record has been controversial. A primary part of its mission is to provide affordable
housing. Of course all housing is affordable, it is a question of who can afford it. The DDA
provides housing in two ways, through allocating land for private development and building
housing itself. It is clear that the DDA has provided decent housing to people who
otherwise could not afford it, by one calculation 260,000 units.10 Criticisms of the Authority
cite its lack of transparency and failure to provide sufficient quantities of housing for the
poor. Most serious are the allegations that the DDA may in reality be running a reverse
subsidy in which profits from projects for the lower class are used to subsidize housing for
the middle class and in extreme cases the wealthy. The DDA is the sole authority for the
implementation of New Delhi’s Master Plan though almost no one thinks it actually has the
power to do so. Another challenge to sustainable urban development in Delhi are the many
layers of government. Multiple agencies appear to have overlapping jurisdictions with
unclear chains of accountability to higher levels of government.11 A contrasting example
would be Singapore, known for its flat government in which many decisions can be made at
one level. Singapore is ranked as one of the easiest places in the world to open a business.
Besides its general outward expansion, the most visible urban changes in the past decades
in the Indian capital city concern auto use. Road capacity is being added due to increased
car ownership. It has been measurable for half a century that strategies of adding traffic
lanes only increase demand. This principle of diminishing returns is sadly but predictably
observable in Delhi. One of the prominent congestion relieving strategies was the
construction of flyovers at major intersections. Through traffic on one arterial road, instead
of stopping at an intersection, ‘flies’ over the other road on an elevated piece of highway.
The flyovers were completed only within the last few years. This strategy worked initially
but the traffic jams have returned, this time up in the air. The flyover construction has a
similar look and feel to the highways that run through the downtowns of US cities. Unlike
the resulting blight in US cities, the population pressure in India is such that areas adjacent
to the flyover remain crowded, but the public realm of the street becomes scaled to
vehicular transportation and is increasingly hostile to pedestrians.
7
Delhi has recently opened a world‐class metro. Its success has resulted in the immediate
planning of new lines. This praiseworthy investment in public transportation aside, why the
resource dedication to auto use? It is typical for a high level job in India to come with a car
and driver. Important politicians and bureaucrats who make transportation decisions are
chauffeured through the city. They do not walk and they do not take public transportation.
Can their personal interest and experience help but shape the policies for which they are
responsible? The question of what types of infrastructure are funded based on the social
class of the decision maker is a highly relevant and under‐examined area, but not a new
one. The powerful in India, the higher classes, historically have seen urban infrastructure
equating to infrastructure that facilitated commerce, primarily roads. They have been
willing to respond to the needs for other urban infrastructure, such as sanitary and health
improvements for the masses, when the decisions and investments could be justified on
commercial grounds.12 Therefore, a New Urbanism argument for improved urban form on
the grounds of its economic value would be contiguous with the manner in which these
advances have been made in the past.
The pedestrian experience in Delhi is frightening. At first it appears that this is because of
severe congestion coupled with casual observance of traffic laws. But the hostility of the
public realm has a deeper cause: transportation is a class issue. The car owner has the right
of way and takes precedence. Car ownership has extended to the middle class but the
legacy of the auto as a thing of prestige carrying a person of power remains. Pedestrians
(the poor) are expected to exercise caution. The very idea of infrastructure serving the
entire public is recent. Urban infrastructure is funded from the tax base. The English
colonial administrators were reluctant to tax the princes and merchants on whom their
control of India largely depended. Under later post‐colonial governments taxation was
justified by using it to provide for the tax paying classes. Merchants and businessmen
wanted roads which could support commercial use not public transportation.13 Of course
Delhi roads are not filled only with the powerful. Growing middle class car ownership is
becoming widespread for reasons of mobility (until the opening of the metro Delhi’s public
transportation network was entirely busses) and status. Practical urban results have a good
chance of success if they work with human nature. The growing middle class wants to buy a
8
car as a status symbol as well as a mode of transport. Due to the density of Indian cities, car
ownership that requires the relatively wealthy users to pay the real costs14 (including
externalities) could provide great benefits to a large number of the poor.
For the land that is available in New Delhi prices are high and the acquisition process
opaque. Adding well designed density on existing urban sites is virtually impossible. The
large scale development that does occur, for the same reasons as in the US, is that which is
relatively easy to approve and construct. For example, a large development company,
called DLF, has built extensively for purely short term profit. They are of course not alone.
Most new large scale development is at the periphery of Delhi and is speculative, following
the profitable pattern of auto‐dependent high‐rise ‘luxury’ buildings on greenfield sites.
The real costs of road infrastructure and air pollution are externalities paid for by the
public. DLF is responsible for many of the luxury high rise buildings that segregate the
population by class and are entirely auto dependent. No attempt is made to connect to the
larger urban area, in fact quite the opposite, they are gated communities. DLF also builds
malls. Predictably, when the streets and public places become unpleasant and in fact
dangerous, people respond to the controlled environment of the shopping mall. The real
short term success will no doubt encourage more of the same but it is not a long term
sustainable solution from either an environmental or societal point of view.
Corrupt practices carry a heavy environmental burden as well as a social one. The
newspapers detail nearly daily scandals related to housing schemes and illegal land use.
There is a widespread assumption that construction activity and bribery are inextricably
linked, in fact bribe money is openly estimated and factored as a soft cost of development.
If high level government officials expect bribes for work in their jurisdiction, planning in all
but the most piecemeal way becomes impossible. Both slum dwellers and the middle class
have engaged in illegal construction. Whereas most slum dwellings are completely
untenured, the middle class typically adds a violation to a legal property in the form of, for
example, an extra half floor. Past policy changes have regularized these violations, a policy
rarely extended to the poor.15
9
e city has writtten and will likely approve a new mastterplan called
The d Delhi 2021. The plan
com
mmits future growth to en
nvironmental standards, offten embodieed in physical form
req hat would be welcome in tthe New Urbaanism. What is the local professional
quirements, th
opinion? “No on
ne even know
ws about it an
nd it can’t be enforced. You can throw iit in the
trassh.” This was a particularlyy strong state
ement of frusstration that rreflects an ovverall
ntiment: Indiaan professional architects have given upp on compreh
sen hensive urban
n planning
in D
Delhi.
Fiigure 5: A typiccal neighborho
ood park in a reesidential colon
ny
w Delhi has a large amoun
New pace, often inn the form of ggardens and green
nt of public sp
spaaces, and it is sometimes ccasually referrred to as a Gaarden City wh
hich is it not. TThe Delhi
Maaster Plan from nbelt16 which was neither successfully
m 1961 did caall for a green
imp
plemented no
or controlled.. In both its arrrangement oof form and ccertainly in itss planned
10
social organization the plan for New Delhi was unlike Ebenezer Howard’s program of
Garden Cities of To‐morrow. Howard was not primarily interested in the physical form of
the city, he was interested in a complete change in the nature of society and social
relations. In general and unfortunately, subsequent ‘garden city’ planning has tended to
take the physical aspects of Howard’s ideas and ignore the social ones. But nonetheless,
Delhi is a city with gardens and indeed it was common for each residential colony to be
planned with one. Largely due to the surrounding density, open green spaces in Delhi are
successful in ways they are not in North America. The example above (Figure 5) shows a
typical neighborhood park, in this case in the Safdarjung Development Area, which is
bordered by three story residences and contains green space as well as a temple.
The population pressure in Delhi, already a crowded city, comes from large numbers of
people moving to the city from the poorer surrounding states in search of work. The influx
is a supply of mostly unskilled labor for which, in past rural to urban migrations, there was
demand. That there is a need for this type of workforce in contemporary India’s
increasingly service based economy remains to be seen. There is a difference between
looking for work and coming because there is work. In the latter case the absorption of the
poor into an urban working class is probable, a situation which is by no means clear in the
contemporary city. The risk is that the complex ecosystem of the slum which used to
promote a rise in social and economic class may become a simple mono‐system, a holding
place for a permanent underclass.17 While it is broadly recognized that slum populations
are not only increasing but will be one of the main forms of urbanization in the coming
decades, more could be done to generate ideas for how slum building typology and urban
form could generate increased social justice.
Real and tangible gains of the New Urbanism movement in New Delhi measured through
built projects are few. Acceptance in theory, however, of many of the tenants of the New
Urbanism are widespread. For example, a recent manual of street design18 is a ‘complete
streets’ manual adapted to Indian streets. Professionals are conversant and largely in
agreement with New Urbanism ideas though of course there is also debate. One of the
central differences between India and North America is in implementation. If a policy
11
doccument such as a zoning co
ode is adopte
ed in India it m
may be unenfforceable in vvery
sign
nificant ways including beiing completely ignored. Coode violations, innocent or not, are of
cou
urse common merica as well,, but flagrant violations (an
n in North Am n extra floor on a
building) are rarre.
ere are severaal important aareas of urbaan research foor New Delhi:: how to imprrove the
The
livin
ng conditionss for the grow
wing urban po
opulation in s lums, how to
o allow for ind
dividual
eco
onomic impro
ovement with
hout destroyin
ng the overal l society’s pro
osperity, and how
incremental de‐centralized urbanism could make inroaads where maaster planningg has failed.
Incremental urb
banism was ho
ow urbanism was always ddone; we did not have thee idea of
mprehensive master‐plann
com ning of an existing city andd the means tto execute it u
until the
Ren
naissance. In this way masster‐planning is atypical whhereas decen
ntralized urban
devvelopment waas the norm. Medieval urb
banism was ppiecemeal, orgganic in naturre, yet
resulted in endu
uring urban places of value
e. Using Rajassthani urban fform, to name one
posssible example, as a model for urban prrojects may hhave the best chance not o
only of
being built but o
of reinforcing a sense of place. These prrojects can seerve as positivve
exaamples and le
ead to a widerr acceptance of the value of urbanism, an idea whicch has been
larggely lost in co
ontemporary Indian culture
e still rushingg to modernizze. The process and
pattterns of urbaan growth in India are vitall environmenntal and humaan welfare isssues of the
com
ming decadess. Given the faailures and frustrations aroound overall planning atteempts,
emerging practices of increm
mental urbanissm have greaat possibilitiess. It will be diffficult to
work in India in the way that US firms are working in C hina, and ourr first export may not be
ourr expertise in executing real projects se
erving as exam
mples. Given tthe complexities of
working in India, New Urbaniism should fo
ocus on engagging at the levvel of ideas and
dem
monstrating tthat true prossperity is achiieved throughh sustainablee urban growtth.
12
Endnotes
1
This paper was completed in April of 2012 and was based on primary source material and
academic research. Additional material and quotes come from meetings and interviews
conducted in New Delhi over a 6 week period in 2011 with architects, urban designers, and
academics in New Delhi. All maps and drawings are by the author.
2
See Menon, A. G. Krishna Imaging the Indian City (Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 32,
No. 46 Nov. 15‐21, 1997) and Chandavarkar, writing about Bombay but in what could be
said to a large extent about New Delhi:
“In Bombay, the specific circumstances created by poverty and limitations of the
Indian economy, the particular interests of the colonial state and the perceptions of
colonial rulers, and the absence of any significant precursory urban structure, made
social policy a particularly savage arena in which social relations were played out.”
(Chandavarkar, History, Culture, and the Indian City: essays p.33)
3
Morris writes that “the entire medieval town was a marketplace.” Morris, A. E. J., History
Of Urban Form: Before The Industrial Revolutions
4
Blake, Stephen, Shahjahanabad: The Sovereign City in Mughal India, 1639‐1739; p. xii;
Cambridge University Press/Cambridge; New York, 1991
5
See generally: Metcalf, Thomas R.; An Imperial Vision: Indian Architecture and Britain's
Raj, Oxford University Press, 2002
6
This paper will not address the urban villages, the Lal Dora, though they are a fascinating
part of the urban form of New Delhi and have been suggested as an important model for
indigenous urban place‐making. See Menon’s “Imaging the Indian City” where he discusses
this possibility.
7
A further parallel: as with the building of Sandton as a replacement city for what was seen
as a hopeless downtown Johannesburg, Gurgaon represents in part an attempt to abandon
the existing city of New Delhi as hopelessly difficult to develop.
8
Das, Biswaroop; Urban Planning in India, Social Scientist, Vol. 9, No. 12 (Dec., 1981), p.58
9
This section on the DDA and the planning mechanisms in New Delhi draws generally from
Maitra, Sipra, Housing in Delhi: DDA's Controversial Role, Economic and Political Weekly,
Vol. 26, No. 7 (Feb. 16, 1991), pp. 344‐346.
10
Maitra (1991), p.345
11
Bagchi, Soumen; Governance in Delhi: Too Many Cooks; Economic and Political Weekly,
Vol. 38, No. 46 (Nov. 15‐21, 2003), pp. 4831‐4832
13
12
Chandavarkar, Rajnarayan, History, culture, and the Indian city: essays; p.41, Cambridge
England; New York 2009
13
Chandavarkar, Rajnarayan, History, Culture, and the Indian City: essays p.35, Cambridge
England; New York 2009
14
Mishra, Sanjay, Forestalling Transport Chaos in Delhi; Economic and Political Weekly, Vol.
35, No. 24 (Jun. 10‐16, 2000), pp. 2061‐2065
15
Kundu, Amitabh, Politics and Economics of Land Policies: Delhi's New Master Plan
Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 38, No. 34 (Aug. 23‐29, 2003), pp. 3530‐3532
16
See Ewing, Jeffrey R, Town Planning in Delhi: A Critique (Economic and Political Weekly,
Vol. 4, No. 40 (October 4, 1969), pp. 1591‐1600) for an interesting view of the state of New
Delhi planning in the 1960’s.
17
“Moreover, the rate of urbanization remains slow: the rural population having grown
twice as fast as the urban since 1941. Nevertheless, the rapid growth of India’s largest cities
is probably symptomatic of agrarian decline and rural deprivation rather than economic
development.” (Chandavarkar, Rajnarayan; History, Culture, and the Indian City: essays;
p.225, Cambridge England; New York 2009)
18
The manual is called “Better Streets, Better Cities: A Guide To Street Design In Urban
India” and is available at [Link]/betterstreets.
14
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