48520

Electronics and
Circuits

Lecture Notes
2015

1 1H i (t )

vs 1F 1H

+5 V

3 7 20 k
3 k 3 k
8
REF
G=100 AD620B 6 IN
499 
3 k 3 k 1 5 DIGITAL
10 k ADC DATA
2 4 OUTPUT

AD705 AGND
20 k

PMcL
Preface

These notes comprise part of the learning material for 48520 Electronics and
Circuits. They are not a complete set of notes. Extra material and examples
may also be presented in the lectures and tutorials.

Using the electronic version of these notes

These notes are hyperlinked. All green text is a link to somewhere else within
this document. For example the contents page links to the appropriate page in
the text, the numbers in the index link to the page reference, the word Index in
the footer of most pages links to the index and the page numbers in the header
on each page link back to the contents page.

There are also some internal linked words that take you to the relevant text.
Links to external web pages are red in colour. Provided your PDF reader (e.g.
Adobe Acrobat Reader) is set up correctly these links should open the
appropriate page in your web browser.

Contact

If you discover any errors or feel that some sections need clarifying, please do
not hesitate in contacting me:

Peter McLean
School of Electrical, Mechanical and Mechatronic Systems
Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology
University of Technology, Sydney

Office: CB11.9.128 - Building 11 (Broadway), Level 9, Room 9.128

Voice : +61-2-9514-2339
Email : [email protected]
Web : http://www.uts.edu.au/staff/peter.mclean
 i

Contents

1 Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

Introduction ..................................................................................................... 1.3
1.1 Current ....................................................................................................... 1.4
1.2 Voltage....................................................................................................... 1.5
1.3 Circuit Elements and Types of Circuits ..................................................... 1.6
1.3.1 Active Circuit Elements ................................................................ 1.6
1.3.2 Passive Circuit Elements .............................................................. 1.6
1.3.3 Types of Circuits........................................................................... 1.6
1.4 Independent Sources .................................................................................. 1.7
1.4.1 The Independent Voltage Source.................................................. 1.7
1.4.2 The Independent Current Source .................................................. 1.9
1.5 The Resistor and Ohm’s Law .................................................................. 1.10
1.5.1 The Short-Circuit ........................................................................ 1.13
1.5.2 The Open-Circuit ........................................................................ 1.14
1.5.3 Conductance ............................................................................... 1.14
1.6 Practical Resistors.................................................................................... 1.15
1.6.1 Preferred Values and the Decade Progression ............................ 1.16
1.6.2 The ‘E’ Series Values ................................................................. 1.16
1.6.3 Marking Codes............................................................................ 1.18
1.7 Kirchhoff’s Current Law ......................................................................... 1.21
1.8 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law ......................................................................... 1.25
1.9 Combining Resistors................................................................................ 1.28
1.9.1 Series Resistors ........................................................................... 1.28
1.9.2 Parallel Resistors ........................................................................ 1.29
1.10 Combining Independent Sources ........................................................... 1.32
1.10.1 Combining Independent Voltage Sources in Series ................... 1.32
1.10.2 Combining Independent Current Sources in Parallel ................. 1.34
1.11 The Voltage Divider Rule...................................................................... 1.36
1.12 The Current Divider Rule ...................................................................... 1.38
1.13 Dependent Sources ................................................................................ 1.40
1.13.1 The Dependent Voltage Source .................................................. 1.40
1.13.2 The Dependent Current Source .................................................. 1.42
1.14 Power ..................................................................................................... 1.44
1.14.1 Power Absorbed in a Resistor .................................................... 1.50

PMcL Index

2015 Contents
 ii

1.15 Amplifiers .............................................................................................. 1.51

1.15.1 Units of Gain ............................................................................... 1.52
1.15.2 Amplifier Power Supplies ........................................................... 1.54
1.15.3 Saturation .................................................................................... 1.55
1.15.4 Circuit Model .............................................................................. 1.56
1.16 The Operational Amplifier ..................................................................... 1.57
1.16.1 Feedback ..................................................................................... 1.58
1.16.2 Circuit Model .............................................................................. 1.59
1.16.3 The Ideal Op-Amp ...................................................................... 1.60
1.16.4 Op-Amp Fabrication and Packaging ........................................... 1.62
1.17 Negative Feedback ................................................................................. 1.63
1.17.1 Negative Feedback in Electronics ............................................... 1.64
1.17.2 An Amplifier with Negative Feedback ....................................... 1.65
1.18 The Noninverting Amplifier .................................................................. 1.68
1.18.1 The Noninverting Amplifier with an Ideal Op-Amp .................. 1.71
1.18.2 Input Resistance of the Noninverting Amplifier ......................... 1.73
1.18.3 Equivalent Circuit of the Noninverting Amplifier ...................... 1.73
1.18.4 The Buffer ................................................................................... 1.76
1.19 The Inverting Amplifier ......................................................................... 1.77
1.19.1 Input Resistance of the Inverting Amplifier ............................... 1.79
1.19.2 Equivalent Circuit of the Inverting Amplifier............................. 1.79
1.20 Summary ................................................................................................ 1.81
1.21 References .............................................................................................. 1.86
Exercises ........................................................................................................ 1.87

Index PMcL

Contents 2015
 iii

2 Nodal and Mesh Analysis

Introduction ..................................................................................................... 2.2
2.1 Nodal Analysis .......................................................................................... 2.3
2.1.1 Circuits with Resistors and Independent Current Sources Only .. 2.6
2.1.2 Nodal Analysis Using Branch Element Stamps ........................... 2.9
2.1.3 Circuits with Voltage Sources .................................................... 2.12
2.1.4 Circuits with Dependent Sources ............................................... 2.14
2.1.5 Summary of Nodal Analysis ....................................................... 2.17
2.2 Mesh Analysis ......................................................................................... 2.20
2.2.1 Planar Circuits ............................................................................ 2.20
2.2.2 Paths, Loops and Meshes ............................................................ 2.21
2.2.3 Mesh Current .............................................................................. 2.22
2.2.4 Mesh Analysis Methodology ...................................................... 2.23
2.2.5 Circuits with Resistors and Independent Voltage Sources Only 2.24
2.2.6 Circuits with Current Sources ..................................................... 2.26
2.2.7 Circuits with Dependent Sources ............................................... 2.28
2.2.8 Summary of Mesh Analysis ....................................................... 2.30
2.3 Summary.................................................................................................. 2.31
2.4 References ............................................................................................... 2.31
Exercises ........................................................................................................ 2.32
Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824-1887) .......................................................... 2.35

3 Circuit Analysis Techniques

Introduction ..................................................................................................... 3.2
3.1 Linearity..................................................................................................... 3.3
3.2 Superposition ............................................................................................. 3.4
3.2.1 Superposition Theorem ................................................................. 3.6
3.3 Source Transformations ........................................................................... 3.10
3.3.1 Practical Voltage Sources ........................................................... 3.10
3.3.2 Practical Current Sources ........................................................... 3.12
3.3.3 Practical Source Equivalence ..................................................... 3.14
3.3.4 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem .......................................... 3.16
3.4 Thévenin’s and Norton’s Theorem .......................................................... 3.20
3.4.1 Summary of Finding Thévenin Equivalent Circuits ................... 3.28
3.5 Summary.................................................................................................. 3.32
3.6 References ............................................................................................... 3.32
Exercises ........................................................................................................ 3.33

PMcL Index

2015 Contents
 iv

4 Linear Op-Amp Applications

Introduction ...................................................................................................... 4.2
4.1 Summing Amplifier ................................................................................... 4.3
4.2 Difference Amplifier .................................................................................. 4.6
4.3 Inverting Integrator .................................................................................... 4.9
4.4 Differentiator............................................................................................ 4.11
4.5 Negative Impedance Converter................................................................ 4.12
4.6 Voltage-to-Current Converter .................................................................. 4.14
4.7 Noninverting Integrator ........................................................................... 4.16
4.8 Summary .................................................................................................. 4.18
4.9 References ................................................................................................ 4.21
Exercises ........................................................................................................... 22

5 Reactive Components
Introduction ...................................................................................................... 5.2
5.1 The Capacitor ............................................................................................. 5.3
5.1.1 Capacitor v-i Relationships ........................................................... 5.5
5.1.2 Energy Stored in a Capacitor ........................................................ 5.7
5.1.3 Summary of Important Capacitor Characteristics ....................... 5.10
5.2 The Inductor ............................................................................................. 5.11
5.2.1 Inductor v-i Relationships ........................................................... 5.14
5.2.2 Energy Stored in an Inductor ...................................................... 5.19
5.2.3 Summary of Important Inductor Characteristics ......................... 5.22
5.3 Practical Capacitors and Inductors ........................................................... 5.23
5.3.1 Capacitors.................................................................................... 5.23
5.3.2 Electrolytic Capacitors ................................................................ 5.24
5.3.3 Inductors...................................................................................... 5.25
5.4 Series and Parallel Connections of Inductors and Capacitors ................. 5.27
5.4.1 Inductors...................................................................................... 5.27
5.4.2 Capacitors.................................................................................... 5.30
5.5 Circuit Analysis with Inductors and Capacitors ...................................... 5.32
5.5.1 DC Circuits ................................................................................. 5.32
5.5.2 Nodal and Mesh Analysis ........................................................... 5.34
5.6 Duality...................................................................................................... 5.36
5.7 Summary .................................................................................................. 5.40
5.8 References ................................................................................................ 5.41
Exercises ........................................................................................................ 5.42

Index PMcL

Contents 2015
 v

6 Diodes and Basic Diode Circuits

Introduction ..................................................................................................... 6.2
6.1 The Silicon Junction Diode ....................................................................... 6.3
6.1.1 The Forward-Bias Region............................................................. 6.4
6.1.2 The Reverse-Bias Region ............................................................. 6.6
6.1.3 The Breakdown Region ................................................................ 6.6
6.1.4 Diode Symbol ............................................................................... 6.7
6.2 Breakdown Diodes .................................................................................... 6.7
6.2.1 Zener Breakdown.......................................................................... 6.7
6.2.2 Avalanche Breakdown .................................................................. 6.7
6.3 Other Types of Diode ................................................................................ 6.8
6.3.1 The Photodiode ............................................................................. 6.8
6.3.2 The Light Emitting Diode (LED) ................................................. 6.8
6.3.3 The Schottky Diode ...................................................................... 6.9
6.3.4 The Varactor Diode ...................................................................... 6.9
6.4 Analysis Techniques ................................................................................ 6.10
6.4.1 Graphical Analysis...................................................................... 6.10
6.4.2 Numerical Analysis .................................................................... 6.12
6.5 Diode Models .......................................................................................... 6.14
6.5.1 The Ideal Diode Model ............................................................... 6.15
6.5.2 The Constant Voltage Drop Model............................................. 6.17
6.5.3 The Piece-Wise Linear Model .................................................... 6.19
6.5.4 The Small Signal Model ............................................................. 6.21
6.6 Basic Diode Circuits ................................................................................ 6.25
6.6.1 Half-Wave Rectifier.................................................................... 6.25
6.6.2 Full-Wave Rectifier .................................................................... 6.27
6.6.3 Limiter Circuits ........................................................................... 6.28
6.7 Summary.................................................................................................. 6.30
6.8 References ............................................................................................... 6.32

PMcL Index

2015 Contents
 vi

7 Source-Free RC and RL Circuits

Introduction ...................................................................................................... 7.2
7.1 Differential Operators ................................................................................ 7.3
7.2 Properties of Differential Operators........................................................... 7.5
7.3 The Characteristic Equation ....................................................................... 7.9
7.4 The Simple RC Circuit ............................................................................. 7.13
7.5 Properties of the Exponential Response .................................................. 7.16
7.6 Single Time Constant RC Circuits ........................................................... 7.19
7.7 The Simple RL Circuit ............................................................................. 7.21
7.8 Single Time Constant RL Circuits ........................................................... 7.24
7.9 Summary .................................................................................................. 7.28
7.10 References .............................................................................................. 7.28
Exercises ........................................................................................................ 7.29

8 Nonlinear Op-Amp Applications

Introduction ...................................................................................................... 8.2
8.1 The Comparator ......................................................................................... 8.3
8.2 Precision Rectifiers .................................................................................... 8.7
8.2.1 The Superdiode ............................................................................. 8.8
8.2.2 Precision Inverting Half-Wave Rectifier .................................... 8.10
8.2.3 Precision Full-Wave Rectifier ..................................................... 8.15
8.2.4 Single-Supply Half-Wave and Full-Wave Rectifier ................... 8.17
8.3 Peak Detector ........................................................................................... 8.18
8.4 Limiter...................................................................................................... 8.23
8.5 Clamp ....................................................................................................... 8.25
8.6 Summary .................................................................................................. 8.27
8.7 References ................................................................................................ 8.28
Exercises ........................................................................................................ 8.29

Index PMcL

Contents 2015
 vii

9 The First-Order Step Response

Introduction ..................................................................................................... 9.2
9.1 The Unit-Step Forcing Function ................................................................ 9.3
9.2 The Driven RC Circuit ............................................................................... 9.7
9.3 The Forced and the Natural Response ..................................................... 9.11
9.3.1 Finding a Particular Solution using the Inverse Differential
Operator ...................................................................................... 9.13
9.3.2 Finding a Particular Solution by Inspection ............................... 9.15
9.3.3 Finding a Particular Solution using an Integrating Factor .......... 9.16
9.4 Step-Response of RC Circuits ................................................................. 9.19
9.5 Analysis Procedure for Single Time Constant RC Circuits..................... 9.29
9.6 RL Circuits ............................................................................................... 9.30
9.7 Analysis Procedure for Single Time Constant RL Circuits ..................... 9.32
9.8 Summary.................................................................................................. 9.33
9.9 References ............................................................................................... 9.33
Exercises ........................................................................................................ 9.34
Leonhard Euler (1707-1783) (Len´ ard Oy´ ler) ........................................... 9.38

10 Op-Amp Imperfections
Introduction ................................................................................................... 10.2
10.1 DC Imperfections .................................................................................. 10.3
10.1.1 Offset Voltage ............................................................................. 10.4
10.1.2 Input Bias Currents ..................................................................... 10.5
10.2 Finite Open-Loop Gain .......................................................................... 10.8
10.2.1 Noninverting Amplifier .............................................................. 10.8
10.2.2 Inverting Amplifier ..................................................................... 10.9
10.2.3 Percent Gain Error .................................................................... 10.11
10.3 Finite Bandwidth ................................................................................. 10.12
10.4 Output Voltage Saturation ................................................................... 10.13
10.5 Output Current Limits ......................................................................... 10.14
10.6 Slew Rate ............................................................................................. 10.15
10.6.1 Full-Power Bandwidth .............................................................. 10.16
10.7 Summary.............................................................................................. 10.17
10.8 References ........................................................................................... 10.18
Exercises ...................................................................................................... 10.19

PMcL Index

2015 Contents
 viii

11 The Phasor Concept

Introduction .................................................................................................... 11.2
11.1 Sinusoidal Signals .................................................................................. 11.4
11.2 Sinusoidal Steady-State Response ......................................................... 11.6
11.3 The Complex Forcing Function ........................................................... 11.12
11.4 The Phasor ........................................................................................... 11.18
11.4.1 Formalisation of the Relationship between Phasor and Sinusoid
................................................................................................... 11.21
11.4.2 Graphical Illustration of the Relationship between a Phasor and its
Corresponding Sinusoid ............................................................ 11.22
11.5 Phasor Relationships for R, L and C .................................................... 11.23
11.5.1 Phasor Relationships for a Resistor .......................................... 11.23
11.5.2 Phasor Relationships for an Inductor ........................................ 11.25
11.5.3 Phasor Relationships for a Capacitor ........................................ 11.27
11.5.4 Summary of Phasor Relationships for R, L and C .................... 11.29
11.5.5 Analysis Using Phasor Relationships ....................................... 11.30
11.6 Impedance ............................................................................................ 11.31
11.7 Admittance ........................................................................................... 11.36
11.8 Summary .............................................................................................. 11.38
11.9 References ............................................................................................ 11.38
Exercises ...................................................................................................... 11.39
Joseph Fourier (1768-1830) (Jo´ sef Foor´ yay) .......................................... 11.44
References ............................................................................................... 11.46

12 Circuit Simulation
Introduction .................................................................................................... 12.2
12.1 Project Flow ........................................................................................... 12.3
12.1.1 Starting a New Project ................................................................ 12.3
12.1.2 Drawing the Schematic ............................................................... 12.4
12.1.3 Simulation ................................................................................... 12.4
12.2 Schematic Capture ................................................................................. 12.5
12.2.1 Ground ........................................................................................ 12.5
12.2.2 SI Unit Prefixes ........................................................................... 12.6
12.2.3 All Parts Must Have Unique Names ........................................... 12.6
12.2.4 Labeling Nodes ........................................................................... 12.7
12.3 Simulation .............................................................................................. 12.8
12.3.1 DC Bias ....................................................................................... 12.8
12.3.2 Time-Domain (Transient) Simulations ....................................... 12.8
12.3.3 AC Sweep / Noise Simulations ................................................. 12.11
Exercises ...................................................................................................... 12.16
Index PMcL

Contents 2015
 ix

13 The Sinusoidal Steady-State Response

Introduction ................................................................................................... 13.2
13.1 Analysis using Phasors .......................................................................... 13.3
13.2 Nodal Analysis ...................................................................................... 13.4
13.3 Mesh Analysis ....................................................................................... 13.6
13.4 Superposition ......................................................................................... 13.8
13.5 Thévenin’s Theorem .............................................................................. 13.9
13.6 Norton’s Theorem................................................................................ 13.11
13.7 Phasor Diagrams .................................................................................. 13.13
13.8 Power in the Sinusoidal Steady-State .................................................. 13.21
13.8.1 Instantaneous Power ................................................................. 13.21
13.8.2 Average Power.......................................................................... 13.22
13.8.3 Root-Mean-Square (RMS) Values ........................................... 13.24
13.8.4 RMS Value of a Sinusoid ......................................................... 13.25
13.8.5 Phasors and RMS Values ......................................................... 13.26
13.8.6 Average Power Using RMS Values ......................................... 13.27
13.8.7 Apparent Power ........................................................................ 13.27
13.8.8 Power Factor ............................................................................. 13.27
13.8.9 Complex Power ........................................................................ 13.28
13.8.10 Reactive Power ......................................................................... 13.29
13.8.11 Summary of Power in AC Circuits ........................................... 13.31
13.9 Summary.............................................................................................. 13.34
13.10 References ......................................................................................... 13.34
Exercises ...................................................................................................... 13.35
Oliver Heaviside (1850-1925) ..................................................................... 13.41
References ............................................................................................... 13.44

PMcL Index

2015 Contents
 x

14 Amplifier Characteristics
Introduction .................................................................................................... 14.2
14.1 Amplifier Performance .......................................................................... 14.3
14.1.1 Voltage Gain ............................................................................... 14.4
14.1.2 Current Gain ................................................................................ 14.4
14.1.3 Power Gain .................................................................................. 14.4
14.2 Cascaded Amplifiers .............................................................................. 14.5
14.3 Power Supplies and Efficiency .............................................................. 14.8
14.3.1 Efficiency .................................................................................... 14.9
14.4 Amplifier Models ................................................................................. 14.10
14.4.1 Voltage Amplifier ..................................................................... 14.10
14.4.2 Current Amplifier ...................................................................... 14.11
14.4.3 Transconductance Amplifier ..................................................... 14.12
14.4.4 Transresistance Amplifier ......................................................... 14.13
14.5 Amplifier Impedances .......................................................................... 14.14
14.6 Frequency Response ............................................................................ 14.17
14.6.1 AC Coupling and Direct Coupling............................................ 14.18
14.6.2 Half-Power Frequencies and Bandwidth .................................. 14.20
14.7 Linear Waveform Distortion ................................................................ 14.21
14.7.1 Amplitude Distortion ................................................................ 14.21
14.7.2 Phase Distortion ........................................................................ 14.21
14.7.3 Distortionless Amplification ..................................................... 14.25
14.8 Step Response ...................................................................................... 14.26
14.9 Harmonic Distortion ............................................................................ 14.27
14.10 Summary ............................................................................................ 14.29
14.11 References .......................................................................................... 14.30

Index PMcL

Contents 2015
 xi

15 Frequency Response
Introduction ................................................................................................... 15.2
15.1 Frequency Response Function ............................................................... 15.3
15.2 Frequency Response Representation ..................................................... 15.4
15.3 Determining the Frequency Response from Circuit Analysis ............... 15.5
15.4 Magnitude Responses ............................................................................ 15.7
15.5 Phase Responses .................................................................................. 15.11
15.6 Determining the Frequency Response Experimentally ....................... 15.13
15.7 Bode Plots ............................................................................................ 15.14
15.7.1 Bode Plot Factors ...................................................................... 15.16
15.7.2 Approximating Bode Plots ....................................................... 15.18
15.8 Approximate Bode Plot Frequency Response Factors ........................ 15.21
15.9 Summary.............................................................................................. 15.22
15.10 References ......................................................................................... 15.22
Exercises ...................................................................................................... 15.23

16 First-Order Op-Amp Filters

Introduction ................................................................................................... 16.2
16.1 Bilinear Frequency Responses............................................................... 16.3
16.1.1 Bilinear Magnitude Response ..................................................... 16.5
16.1.2 Bilinear Phase Response ............................................................. 16.7
16.1.3 Summary of Bilinear Frequency Responses ............................. 16.11
16.2 Frequency and Magnitude Scaling ...................................................... 16.12
16.2.1 Frequency Scaling (Denormalising) ......................................... 16.13
16.2.2 Magnitude Scaling .................................................................... 16.14
16.3 Cascading Circuits ............................................................................... 16.15
16.4 Inverting Bilinear Op-Amp Circuit ..................................................... 16.16
16.5 Inverting Op-Amp Circuits .................................................................. 16.18
16.6 Cascade Design.................................................................................... 16.19
16.7 Summary.............................................................................................. 16.22
16.8 References ........................................................................................... 16.22
Exercises ...................................................................................................... 16.23

PMcL Index

2015 Contents
 xii

17 The Second-Order Step Response

Introduction .................................................................................................... 17.2
17.1 Solution of the Homogeneous Linear Differential Equation ................. 17.3
17.1.1 Distinct Real Roots ..................................................................... 17.4
17.1.2 Repeated Real Roots ................................................................... 17.5
17.1.3 Only Real Roots .......................................................................... 17.6
17.1.4 Distinct Complex Roots .............................................................. 17.8
17.1.5 Repeated Complex Roots .......................................................... 17.10
17.2 The Source-Free Parallel RLC Circuit ................................................. 17.11
17.3 The Overdamped Parallel RLC Circuit ................................................ 17.14
17.4 The Critically Damped Parallel RLC Circuit ....................................... 17.18
17.5 The Underdamped Parallel RLC Circuit .............................................. 17.22
17.6 Response Comparison .......................................................................... 17.26
17.7 The Source-Free Series RLC Circuit.................................................... 17.27
17.8 Complete Response of the RLC Circuit ............................................... 17.28
17.8.1 Forced Response ....................................................................... 17.29
17.8.2 Natural Response ...................................................................... 17.30
17.8.3 Maximum Value and Peak Time .............................................. 17.37
17.9 Summary .............................................................................................. 17.39
17.10 References .......................................................................................... 17.39
Exercises ...................................................................................................... 17.40
William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) (1824-1907) ............................................ 17.44
The Age of the Earth ............................................................................... 17.46
The Transatlantic Cable .......................................................................... 17.49
Other Achievements ................................................................................ 17.52
References ............................................................................................... 17.53

18 Waveform Generation
Introduction .................................................................................................... 18.2
18.1 Open-Loop Comparator ......................................................................... 18.3
18.2 Comparator with Hysteresis (Schmitt Trigger)...................................... 18.4
18.3 Astable Multivibrator (Schmitt Trigger Clock) ..................................... 18.6
18.4 Waveform Generator ............................................................................. 18.9
18.5 Summary .............................................................................................. 18.12
18.6 References ............................................................................................ 18.13

Index PMcL

Contents 2015
 xiii

19 Second-Order Frequency Response

Introduction ................................................................................................... 19.2
19.1 Resonance .............................................................................................. 19.3
19.2 Parallel Resonance ................................................................................. 19.5
19.2.1 Phasor Diagram of the Parallel RLC Circuit............................... 19.8
19.3 Quality Factor ........................................................................................ 19.9
19.4 Second-Order Circuit Relations........................................................... 19.12
19.5 Bandwidth ............................................................................................ 19.13
19.6 Series Resonance ................................................................................. 19.17
19.7 Other Resonant Forms ......................................................................... 19.19
19.8 The Second-Order Lowpass Frequency Response .............................. 19.25
19.8.1 Peak Frequency......................................................................... 19.27
19.8.2 Bandwidth ................................................................................. 19.29
19.8.3 Bode Plots ................................................................................. 19.34
19.9 The Second-Order Highpass Frequency Response ............................. 19.35
19.9.1 Peak Frequency......................................................................... 19.37
19.9.2 Bandwidth ................................................................................. 19.37
19.10 Standard Forms of Second-Order Frequency Responses .................. 19.38
19.11 Summary............................................................................................ 19.39
19.12 References ......................................................................................... 19.39
Exercises ...................................................................................................... 19.40
James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879) ............................................................. 19.44
References ............................................................................................... 19.48

20 Second-Order Op-Amp Filters

Introduction ................................................................................................... 20.2
20.1 Filter Design Parameters ....................................................................... 20.2
20.2 The Lowpass Biquad Circuit ................................................................. 20.4
20.3 The Universal Biquad Circuit ................................................................ 20.9
20.4 Approximating the Ideal Lowpass Filter ............................................. 20.11
20.5 The Butterworth Lowpass Filter .......................................................... 20.13
20.6 Summary.............................................................................................. 20.16
20.7 References ........................................................................................... 20.16
Exercises ...................................................................................................... 20.17

PMcL Index

2015 Contents
 xiv

21 Complex Frequency
Introduction .................................................................................................... 21.2
21.1 Complex Frequency ............................................................................... 21.3
21.2 The Damped Sinusoidal Forcing Function ............................................ 21.7
21.3 Generalized Impedance and Admittance ............................................. 21.11
21.4 Frequency Response as a Function of  ............................................ 21.14
21.5 Frequency Response as a Function of  ............................................ 21.18
21.6 The Complex-Frequency Plane............................................................ 21.23
21.7 Visualization of the Frequency Response from a Pole-Zero Plot ........ 21.29
21.8 Summary .............................................................................................. 21.32
21.9 References ............................................................................................ 21.32
Exercises ...................................................................................................... 21.33

22 Specialty Amplifiers
Introduction .................................................................................................... 22.2
22.1 Differential and Common-Mode Signals ............................................... 22.3
22.2 Difference Amplifiers ............................................................................ 22.4
22.2.1 Difference Amplifier Deficiencies .............................................. 22.6
22.2.2 Difference Amplifier ICs ............................................................ 22.6
22.3 Instrumentation Amplifiers .................................................................... 22.7
22.3.1 In-Amp Advantages .................................................................... 22.8
22.3.2 In-Amp Disadvantages ................................................................ 22.9
22.3.3 In-Amp Application .................................................................. 22.10
22.4 Programmable Gain Amplifiers ........................................................... 22.11
22.4.1 PGA Design Issues.................................................................... 22.12
22.4.2 PGA Example ........................................................................... 22.12
22.5 Isolation Amplifiers ............................................................................. 22.13
22.6 Summary .............................................................................................. 22.16
22.7 References ............................................................................................ 22.16
Exercises ...................................................................................................... 22.17

Index PMcL

Contents 2015
 xv

23 Transfer Functions
Introduction ................................................................................................... 23.2
23.1 Transfer Functions ................................................................................. 23.3
23.1.1 Characteristic Equation ............................................................... 23.4
23.1.2 Pole-Zero Plot ............................................................................. 23.4
23.1.3 Transfer Function Form .............................................................. 23.5
23.1.4 Relationship to Differential Equation ......................................... 23.6
23.1.5 Circuit Abstraction...................................................................... 23.7
23.2 Forced Response .................................................................................... 23.8
23.3 Frequency Response ............................................................................ 23.12
23.4 Natural Response ................................................................................. 23.15
23.5 Complete Response ............................................................................. 23.21
23.6 Summary.............................................................................................. 23.24
23.7 References ........................................................................................... 23.25
Exercises ...................................................................................................... 23.26
Pierre Simon de Laplace (1749-1827) ......................................................... 23.29

24 Sensor Signal Conditioning

Introduction ................................................................................................... 24.2
24.1 Sensors ................................................................................................... 24.3
24.2 Process Control Systems ....................................................................... 24.4
24.3 Programmable Logic Controllers .......................................................... 24.5
24.4 Smart Transducers ................................................................................. 24.6
24.5 Programmable Automation Controllers................................................. 24.7
24.6 Bridge Circuits ....................................................................................... 24.8
24.6.1 Bridge Design Issues ................................................................ 24.12
24.6.2 Amplifying and Linearizing Bridge Outputs ............................ 24.13
24.6.3 Driving Remote Bridges ........................................................... 24.16
24.6.4 Integrated Bridge Transducers .................................................. 24.19
24.7 Strain, Force, Pressure and Flow Measurements ................................. 24.20
24.8 High Impedance Sensors ..................................................................... 24.22
24.9 Temperature Sensors ........................................................................... 24.23
24.10 Summary............................................................................................ 24.25
24.11 References ......................................................................................... 24.25
Exercises ...................................................................................................... 24.26

PMcL Index

2015 Contents
 xvi

25 System Modelling
Introduction .................................................................................................... 25.2
25.1 Differential Equations of Physical Systems ........................................... 25.3
25.2 Linear Approximations of Physical Systems ......................................... 25.5
25.3 The Transfer Function............................................................................ 25.8
25.4 Block Diagrams ..................................................................................... 25.9
25.5 Feedback .............................................................................................. 25.16
25.6 Summary .............................................................................................. 25.19
25.7 References ............................................................................................ 25.19
Exercises ...................................................................................................... 25.20

26 Revision

Matrices - Quick Reference Guide

Answers

Index PMcL

Contents 2015
 1.1

1 Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

Contents

Introduction ..................................................................................................... 1.3

1.1 Current ....................................................................................................... 1.4
1.2 Voltage....................................................................................................... 1.5
1.3 Circuit Elements and Types of Circuits ..................................................... 1.6
1.3.1 Active Circuit Elements ................................................................ 1.6
1.3.2 Passive Circuit Elements .............................................................. 1.6
1.3.3 Types of Circuits........................................................................... 1.6
1.4 Independent Sources .................................................................................. 1.7
1.4.1 The Independent Voltage Source.................................................. 1.7
1.4.2 The Independent Current Source .................................................. 1.9
1.5 The Resistor and Ohm’s Law .................................................................. 1.10
1.5.1 The Short-Circuit ........................................................................ 1.13
1.5.2 The Open-Circuit ........................................................................ 1.14
1.5.3 Conductance ............................................................................... 1.14
1.6 Practical Resistors.................................................................................... 1.15
1.6.1 Preferred Values and the Decade Progression ............................ 1.16
1.6.2 The ‘E’ Series Values ................................................................. 1.16
1.6.3 Marking Codes............................................................................ 1.18
1.7 Kirchhoff’s Current Law ......................................................................... 1.21
1.8 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law ......................................................................... 1.25
1.9 Combining Resistors................................................................................ 1.28
1.9.1 Series Resistors ........................................................................... 1.28
1.9.2 Parallel Resistors ........................................................................ 1.29
1.10 Combining Independent Sources ........................................................... 1.32
1.10.1 Combining Independent Voltage Sources in Series ................... 1.32
1.10.2 Combining Independent Current Sources in Parallel ................. 1.34
1.11 The Voltage Divider Rule...................................................................... 1.36
1.12 The Current Divider Rule ...................................................................... 1.38
1.13 Dependent Sources ................................................................................ 1.40
1.13.1 The Dependent Voltage Source .................................................. 1.40
1.13.2 The Dependent Current Source .................................................. 1.42
1.14 Power ..................................................................................................... 1.44
1.14.1 Power Absorbed in a Resistor .................................................... 1.50

PMcL Contents Index

2015 1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

 1.2

1.15 Amplifiers .............................................................................................. 1.51

1.15.1 Units of Gain ............................................................................... 1.52
1.15.2 Amplifier Power Supplies ........................................................... 1.54
1.15.3 Saturation .................................................................................... 1.55
1.15.4 Circuit Model .............................................................................. 1.56
1.16 The Operational Amplifier ..................................................................... 1.57
1.16.1 Feedback ..................................................................................... 1.58
1.16.2 Circuit Model .............................................................................. 1.59
1.16.3 The Ideal Op-Amp ...................................................................... 1.60
1.16.4 Op-Amp Fabrication and Packaging ........................................... 1.62
1.17 Negative Feedback ................................................................................. 1.63
1.17.1 Negative Feedback in Electronics ............................................... 1.64
1.17.2 An Amplifier with Negative Feedback ....................................... 1.65
1.18 The Noninverting Amplifier .................................................................. 1.68
1.18.1 The Noninverting Amplifier with an Ideal Op-Amp .................. 1.71
1.18.2 Input Resistance of the Noninverting Amplifier ......................... 1.73
1.18.3 Equivalent Circuit of the Noninverting Amplifier ...................... 1.73
1.18.4 The Buffer ................................................................................... 1.76
1.19 The Inverting Amplifier ......................................................................... 1.77
1.19.1 Input Resistance of the Inverting Amplifier ............................... 1.79
1.19.2 Equivalent Circuit of the Inverting Amplifier............................. 1.79
1.20 Summary ................................................................................................ 1.81
1.21 References .............................................................................................. 1.86
Exercises ........................................................................................................ 1.87

Index Contents PMcL

1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers 2015

 1.3

Introduction
Electric circuit theory and electromagnetic theory are the two fundamental
theories upon which all branches of electrical engineering are built. Many
branches of electrical engineering, such as power, electric machines, control,
electronics, communications, and instrumentation, are based on electric circuit
theory. Circuit theory is also valuable to students specializing in other branches
of the physical sciences because circuits are a good model for the study of
energy systems in general, and because of the applied mathematics, physics,
and topology involved.

Electronic circuits are used extensively in the modern world – society in its
present form could not exist without them! They are used in communication
systems (such as televisions, telephones, and the Internet), digital systems (such
as personal computers, embedded microcontrollers, smart phones), and
industrial systems (such as robotic and process control systems). The study of
electronics is therefore critical to electrical engineering and related professions.

One goal in this subject is to learn various analytical techniques and computer
software applications for describing the behaviour of electric circuits. Another
goal is to study various uses and applications of electronic circuits.

We will start by revising some basic concepts, such as KVL, KCL and Ohm’s
Law. We will then introduce the concept of the electronic amplifier, and then
study a device called an operational amplifier (op-amp for short), which has
been used as the building block for modern analog electronic circuitry since its
invention in the 1960’s.

PMcL Introduction Index

2015 1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

 1.4

1.1 Current
Charge in motion represents a current. The current present in a discrete path,
such as a metallic wire, has both a magnitude and a direction associated with it
– it is a measure of the rate at which charge is moving past a given reference
point in a specified direction. Current is symbolised by i and thus:

Current defined as
dq
i
the rate of change of
charge moving past (1.1)
a reference dt

The unit of current is the ampere (A) and is equivalent to Cs -1 . In a circuit

current is represented by an arrow:

Representation of
current in a circuit
i

Figure 1.1

The arrow does not indicate the “actual” direction of charge flow, but is simply
part of a convention that allows us to talk about the current in an unambiguous
manner.

The use of terms such as “a current flows through the resistor” is a tautology
Correct usage of the
term “current” and should not be used, since this is saying a “a charge flow flows through the
resistor”. The correct way to describe such a situation is “there is a current in
the resistor”.

A current which is constant is termed a direct current, or simply DC. Examples

DC and AC defined of direct currents are those that exist in circuits with a chemical battery as the
source. A sinusoidal current is often referred to as alternating current, or AC1.
Alternating current is found in the normal household electricity supply.

1
Later we shall also see that a periodic current (e.g. a square wave), with no DC term, can also
be referred to as an alternating current.

Index Current PMcL

1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers 2015

 1.5

1.2 Voltage
A voltage exists between two points in a circuit when energy is required to
move a charge between the two points. The unit of voltage is the volt (V) and
is equivalent to JC-1 . In a circuit, voltage is represented by a pair of +/- signs:
Representation of
voltage in a circuit
A

Figure 1.2

Once again, the plus-minus pair does not indicate the “actual” voltage polarity.

EXAMPLE 1.1 Voltage Polarity

Note the voltages across the circuit elements below:

A A

v = -5 V v=5V

B B

(a) (b)

In both (a) and (b), terminal B is 5 V positive with respect to terminal A.

A A

v=5V v = -5 V

B B

(c) (d)

In both (c) and (d), terminal A is 5 V positive with respect to terminal B.

PMcL Voltage Index

2015 1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

 1.6

1.3 Circuit Elements and Types of Circuits

A circuit element is an idealised mathematical model of a two-terminal
electrical device that is completely characterised by its voltage-current

Ideal circuit
relationship. Although ideal circuit elements are not “off-the-shelf” circuit
elements are used components, their importance lies in the fact that they can be interconnected
to model real circuit
elements (on paper or on a computer) to approximate actual circuits that are composed
of nonideal elements and assorted electrical components – thus allowing for the
analysis of such circuits.

Circuit elements can be categorised as either active or passive.

1.3.1 Active Circuit Elements

Active circuit elements can deliver a non-zero average power indefinitely.

Active circuit
element defined There are four types of active circuit element, and all of them are termed an
ideal source. They are:
 the independent voltage source
 the independent current source
 the dependent voltage source
 the dependent current source
1.3.2 Passive Circuit Elements

Passive circuit elements cannot deliver a non-zero average power indefinitely.

Passive circuit Some passive elements are capable of storing energy, and therefore delivering
element defined
power back into a circuit at some later time, but they cannot do so indefinitely.

There are three types of passive circuit element. They are:

 the resistor
 the inductor
 the capacitor
1.3.3 Types of Circuits

The interconnection of two or more circuit elements forms an electrical

Network and circuit network. If the network contains at least one closed path, it is also an electrical
defined
circuit. A network that contains at least one active element, i.e. an independent
Active and passive or dependent source, is an active network. A network that does not contain any
circuits defined
active elements is a passive network.

Index Circuit Elements and Types of Circuits PMcL

1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers 2015

 1.7

1.4 Independent Sources

Independent sources are ideal circuit elements that possess a voltage or current
value that is independent of the behaviour of the circuits to which they belong.

1.4.1 The Independent Voltage Source

An independent voltage source is characterised by a terminal voltage which is

completely independent of the current through it. The representation of an Independent voltage
source defined
independent voltage source is shown below:

vs

Figure 1.3

If the value of the voltage source is constant, that is, does not change with time, An ideal battery is
then we can also represent it as an ideal battery: equivalent to an
independent voltage
source that has a
constant value

Vs Vs

Figure 1.4

Although a “real” battery is not ideal, there are many circumstances under
which an ideal battery is a very good approximation.

PMcL Independent Sources Index

2015 1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

 1.8
In general, however, the voltage produced by an ideal voltage source will be a
function of time. In this case we represent the voltage symbolically as vt  .

A few typical voltage waveforms are shown below. The waveforms in (a) and
(b) are typical-looking amplitude modulation (AM) and frequency modulation
(FM) signals, respectively. Both types of signals are used in consumer radio
communications. The sinusoid shown in (c) has a wide variety of uses; for
example, this is the shape of ordinary household voltage. A “pulse train”, such
as that in (d), can be used to drive DC motors at a variable speed.

v v

t t

(a) (b)
v v

t
(c) (d)

Figure 1.5

Since the voltage produced by a source is in general a function of time, then the
most general representation of an ideal voltage source is as shown below:
The most general
representation of an
ideal independent
voltage source

vs ( t ) vs ( t )

"intuitive" AS 1102
IEC 60617

Figure 1.6
Index Independent Sources PMcL

1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers 2015

 1.9
1.4.2 The Independent Current Source

An independent current source establishes a current which is independent of Independent current

the voltage across it. The representation of an independent current source is source defined
shown below:

Terminal 1

is

Terminal 2

Figure 1.7

In other words, an ideal current source is a device that, when connected to

anything, will always push i s out of terminal 1 and pull i s into terminal 2.

Since the current produced by a source is in general a function of time, then the
most general representation of an ideal current source is as shown below:
The most general
representation of an
ideal independent
current source

is ( t ) is ( t )

"intuitive" AS 1102
IEC 60617

Figure 1.8

PMcL Independent Sources Index

2015 1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

 1.10

1.5 The Resistor and Ohm’s Law

In 1827 the German physicist George Ohm published a pamphlet entitled “The
Galvanic Circuit Investigated Mathematically”. It contained one of the first
efforts to measure currents and voltages and to describe and relate them
mathematically. One result was a statement of the fundamental relationship we
now call Ohm’s Law.

Consider a uniform cylinder of conducting material, to which a voltage has

been connected. The voltage will cause charge to flow, i.e. a current:
A simple resistor

i
A

v
v conductor l


Figure 1.9

Ohm found that in many conducting materials, such as metal, the current is
always proportional to the voltage. Since voltage and current are directly
proportional, there exists a proportionality constant R, called resistance, such
that:

Ohm’s Law
v  Ri (1.2)

This is Ohm’s Law. The unit of resistance (volts per ampere) is referred to as
the ohm, and is denoted by the capital Greek letter omega, Ω.

We refer to a construction in which Ohm’s Law is obeyed as a resistor.

Index The Resistor and Ohm’s Law PMcL

1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers 2015

 1.11

The ideal resistor relationship is a straight line through the origin:

The resistor is a
linear circuit element
v

R
1

Figure 1.10

Even though resistance is defined as R  v i , it should be noted that R is a

purely geometric property, and depends only on the conductor shape and the
material used in the construction. For example, it can be shown for a uniform
resistor that the resistance is given by:

l The resistance of a
R (1.3) uniform resistor
A
where l is the length of the resistor, and A is the cross-sectional area. The
resistivity,  , is a constant of the conducting material used to make the
resistor.

The circuit symbol for the resistor is shown below, together with the direction
of current and polarity of voltage that make Ohm’s Law algebraically correct:

The circuit symbol

for the resistor
i i
v R v R

"intuitive" AS 1102
IEC 60617

Figure 1.11
PMcL The Resistor and Ohm’s Law Index

2015 1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

 1.12
EXAMPLE 1.2 Ohm’s Law with a Voltage Source

Consider the circuit shown below.

i1

10 V v 1 k

i2

The voltage across the 1 kΩ resistor is, by definition of an ideal voltage source,
vt   10 V . Thus, by Ohm’s Law, we get:

v 10
i1    0.01 A  10 mA
R 1000

and:

 v  10
i2    0.01 A  10 mA
R 1000

Note that i2  i1 , as expected.

EXAMPLE 1.3 Ohm’s Law with a Current Source

Consider the circuit shown below.

i (t )

3cos( t ) A v( t ) 50 

Ohm’s Law yields:

vt   Ri t 
 50  3 cos t 
 150 cos t  V

Index The Resistor and Ohm’s Law PMcL

1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers 2015

 1.13
1.5.1 The Short-Circuit

Consider a resistor whose value is zero ohms. An equivalent representation of

such a resistance, called a short-circuit, is shown below:

The short-circuit

i( t ) i( t )
arbitrary arbitrary
v( t ) R= 0  v( t )
circuit circuit

Figure 1.12

By Ohm’s Law:

v  Ri
 0i
0V (1.4)

Thus, no matter what finite value it  has, vt  will be zero. Hence, we see that
a zero-ohm resistor is equivalent to an ideal voltage source whose value is zero
volts, provided that the current through it is finite.

PMcL The Resistor and Ohm’s Law Index

2015 1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

 1.14

1.5.2 The Open-Circuit

Consider a resistor having infinite resistance. An equivalent representation of

such a resistance, called an open-circuit, is shown below:

The open-circuit

i i
arbitrary arbitrary
v R =  v
circuit circuit

Figure 1.13

By Ohm’s Law:

v
i
R
v


0A (1.5)

Thus, no matter what finite value vt  has, it  will be zero. Thus, we may
conclude that an infinite resistance is equivalent to an ideal current source
whose value is zero amperes, provided that the voltage across it is finite.

1.5.3 Conductance

The reciprocal of resistance is called the conductance, G:

Conductance
1
defined
G (1.6)
R
The unit of conductance is the siemen, and is abbreviated S. The same circuit
symbol is used to represent both resistance and conductance.

Index The Resistor and Ohm’s Law PMcL

1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers 2015

 1.15

1.6 Practical Resistors

There are many different types of resistor construction. Some are shown below:

Some types of
resistors

carbon composition carbon film metal film

wire wound wire wound array

with heat sink

chip array
chip - thick film chip - thin film

Figure 1.14 – Some types of resistors

The “through-hole” resistors are used by hobbyists and for prototyping real
designs. Their material and construction dictate several of their properties, such
as accuracy, stability and pulse handling capability.

The wire wound resistors are made for accuracy, stability and high power
applications. The array is used where space is a premium and is normally used
in digital logic designs where the use of “pull-up” resistors is required.

Modern electronics utilises “surface-mount” components. There are two

varieties of surface-mount chip resistor – thick film and thin film.

PMcL Practical Resistors Index

2015 1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

 1.16
1.6.1 Preferred Values and the Decade Progression

Fundamental standardization practices require the selection of preferred values

within the ranges available. Standard values may at first sight seem to be
strangely numbered. There is, however, a beautiful logic behind them, dictated
by the tolerance ranges available.

The decade progression of preferred values is based on preferred numbers

Component values generated by a geometric progression, repeated in succeeding decades. In 1963,
have been
standardized by the the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) standardized the preferred
IEC
number series for resistors and capacitors (standard IEC 60063). It is based on
the fact that we can linearly space values along a logarithmic scale so a
percentage change of a value results in a linear change on the logarithmic scale.

Component values For example, if 6 values per decade are desired, the common ratio is
are spaced
equidistantly on a 6
10  1.468 . The six rounded-off values become 100, 150, 220, 330, 470, 680.
logarithmic scale
1.6.2 The ‘E’ Series Values

The IEC set the number of values for resistors (and capacitors) per decade
based on their tolerance. These tolerances are 0.5%, 1%, 2%, 5%, 10%, 20%
and 40% and are respectively known as the E192, E96, E48, E24, E12, E6 and
The ‘E’ series E3 series, the number indicating the quantity of values per decade in that
values explained
series. For example, if resistors have a tolerance of 5%, a series of 24 values
can be assigned to a single decade multiple (e.g. 100 to 999) knowing that the
possible extreme values of each resistor overlap the extreme values of adjacent
resistors in the same series.

Any of the numbers in a series can be applied to any decade multiple set. Thus,
for instance, multiplying 220 by each decade multiple (0.1, 1, 10 100, 1000
etc.) produces values of 22, 220, 2 200, 22 000, 220 000 etc.

The ‘E’ series of preferred resistor and capacitor values according to

IEC 60063 are reproduced in Table 1.1.

Index Practical Resistors PMcL

1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers 2015

 1.17
0.5% 1% 2% 0.5% 1% 2% 0.5% 1% 2% 0.5% 1% 2% 0.5% 1% 2%
E192 E96 E48 E192 E96 E48 E192 E96 E48 E192 E96 E48 E192 E96 E48
100 100 100 169 169 169 287 287 287 487 487 487 825 825 825
101 172 291 493 835
102 102 174 174 294 294 499 499 845 845
104 176 298 505 856
105 105 105 178 178 178 301 301 301 511 511 511 866 866 866
106 180 305 517 876
107 107 182 182 309 309 523 523 887 887
109 184 312 530 898
110 110 110 187 187 187 316 316 316 536 536 536 909 909 909
111 189 320 542 920
113 113 191 191 324 324 549 549 931 931
114 196 328 556 942
115 115 115 196 196 196 332 332 332 562 562 562 953 953 953
117 198 336 569 965
118 118 200 200 340 340 576 576 976 976
120 203 344 583 988
121 121 121 205 205 205 348 348 348 590 590 590
123 208 352 597 5% 10% 20% 40%
124 124 210 210 357 357 604 604 E24 E12 E6 E3
126 213 361 612
127 127 127 215 215 215 365 365 365 619 619 619 100 100 100 100
129 218 370 626 110
130 130 221 221 374 374 634 634 120 120
132 223 379 642 130
133 133 133 226 226 226 383 383 383 649 649 649 150 150 150
135 229 388 657 160
137 137 232 232 392 392 665 665 180 180
138 234 397 673 200
140 140 140 237 237 237 402 402 402 681 681 681 220 220 220 220
142 240 407 690 240
143 143 243 243 412 412 698 698 270 270
145 246 417 706 300
147 147 147 249 249 249 422 422 422 715 715 715 330 330 330
149 252 427 723 360
150 150 255 255 432 432 732 732 390 390
152 259 437 741 430
154 154 154 261 261 261 442 442 442 750 750 750 470 470 470 470
156 264 448 759 510
158 158 267 267 453 453 768 768 560 560
160 271 459 777 620
162 162 162 274 274 274 464 464 464 787 787 787 680 680 680
164 277 470 796 750
165 165 280 280 475 475 806 806 820 820
167 284 481 816 910
Table 1.1 – IEC standard ‘E’ series of values in a decade

PMcL Practical Resistors Index

2015 1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

 1.18
1.6.3 Marking Codes

The IEC also defines how manufacturers should mark the values of resistors
and capacitors in the standard called IEC 60062. The colours used on fixed
leaded resistors are shown below:
IEC labelling for
leaded resistors
4 bands 22  , 5%

5 bands 2200  , 1%

6 bands 100 k , 0.1%, 15 ppm

silver 0.01 10%

gold 0.1 5%
black 0 0 0 0 1 200 ppm

brown 1 1 1 1 10 1% 100 ppm

red 2 2 2 2 100 2% 50 ppm

orange 3 3 3 3 1k 15 ppm

yellow 4 4 4 4 10k 25 ppm

green 5 5 5 5 100k 0.5%

blue 6 6 6 6 1M 0.25% 10 ppm

violet 7 7 7 7 10M 0.1% 5 ppm

grey 8 8 8 8 1 ppm

white 9 9 9 9 Tolerance
Multiplier Temperature
Significant Figures Coefficient

Figure 1.15 – Colour code marking of leaded resistors

The resistance colour code consists of three or four colour bands and is
followed by a band representing the tolerance. The temperature coefficient
band, if provided, is to the right of the tolerance band and is usually a wide
band positioned on the end cap.

Index Practical Resistors PMcL

1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers 2015

 1.19

The resistance colour code includes the first two or three significant figures of
the resistance value (in ohms), followed by a multiplier. This is a factor by
which the significant-figure value must be multiplied to find the actual
resistance value. (i.e. the number of zeros to be added after the significant
figures).

Whether two or three significant figures are represented depends on the

tolerance: ±5% and wider require two band; ±2% and tighter requires three
bands. The significant figures refer to the first two or three digits of the
resistance value of the standard series of values in a decade, in accordance with
IEC 60063 as indicated in the relevant data sheets and shown in Table 1.1.

The colours used and their basic numerical meanings are recognized
internationally for any colour coding used in electronics, not just resistors, but
some capacitors, diodes, cabling and other items.

The colours are easy to remember: Black is the absence of any colour, and
therefore represents the absence of any quantity, 0. White (light) is made up of
all colours, and so represents the largest number, 9. In between, we have the The resistor colour
code explained
colours of the rainbow: red, orange, yellow, green, blue and violet. These take
up the numbers from 2 to 7. A colour in between black and red would be
brown, which has the number 1. A colour intermediate to violet and white is
grey, which represents the number 8.

PMcL Practical Resistors Index

2015 1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

 1.20

When resistors are labelled in diagrams, such as schematics, IEC 60062 calls
for the significant figures to be printed as such, but the decimal point is
replaced with the SI prefix of the multiplier. Examples of such labelling are
shown below:

IEC labelling for

diagrams Resistor Value IEC Labelling

0.1  0R1
1 1R0
22  22R
3.3 k 3K3
100 k 100K
4.5 M 4M5

Note how the decimal point is expressed, that the ohm symbol is shown as an
R, and that 1000 is shown as a capital K. The use of a letter instead of a
decimal point solves a printing problem – the decimal point in a number may
not always be printed clearly, and the alternative display method is intended to
We use a letter in
place of a decimal help misinterpretation of component values in circuit diagrams and parts lists.
point for labelling
component values
In circuit diagrams and constructional charts, a resistor’s numerical identity, or
designator, is usually prefixed by ‘R’. For example, R15 simply means resistor
number 15.

A portion of a schematic diagram showing designators and IEC labelling is

shown below:

Figure 1.16 – Schematic portion showing IEC labelling

Note that resistor R4 has the value 4.7 Ω and resistor R12 has the value 330 Ω.
Index Practical Resistors PMcL

1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers 2015

 1.21

1.7 Kirchhoff’s Current Law

A connection of two or more elements is called a node. An example of a node
is depicted in the partial circuit shown below:

R1 R2
v R3

R4 i

Figure 1.17

Even if the figure is redrawn to make it appear that there may be more than one
node, as in the figure below, the connection of the six elements actually
constitutes only one node.

R2
R1
v R3

node
R4 i

Figure 1.18

PMcL Kirchhoff’s Current Law Index

2015 1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

 1.22

Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) is essentially the law of conservation of

electric charge. If currents directed out of a node are positive in sense, and
currents directed into a node are negative in sense (or vice versa), then KCL
can be stated as follows:

KCL defined
KCL: At any node of a circuit, the
(1.7)
currents algebraically sum to zero.

If there are n elements attached to a node then, in symbols, KCL is:

i
k 1
k 0 (1.8)

KCL can also be stated as: The sum of the currents entering a node is equal to
the sum of the currents leaving a node.

EXAMPLE 1.4 Kirchhoff’s Current Law for a Node

As an example of KCL, consider a portion of some circuit, shown below:

i1 R3 i6

i2 i5
i3 i4

Choosing the positive sense to be leaving, we apply KCL at the node and
obtain the equation:

 i1  i2  i3  i4  i5  i6  0

Note that even if one of the elements – the one which carries i3 – is a short-
circuit, KCL holds. In other words, KCL applies regardless of the nature of the
elements in the circuit.

Index Kirchhoff’s Current Law PMcL

1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers 2015

 1.23
EXAMPLE 1.5 Kirchhoff’s Current Law for a Two-Node Circuit

We want to find the voltage v, in the two-node circuit shown below:

i1 i2 i3
13 A 1 v 2 2A 3

The directions of i1 , i 2 , i3 and the polarity of v were chosen arbitrarily (the

directions of the 13 A and 2 A sources are given). By KCL (at either of the two
nodes), we have:

 13  i1  i2  2  i3  0

From this we can write:

i1  i2  i3  11

By Ohm’s Law:

v v v
i1  i2  i3 
1 2 3

Substituting these into the previous equation yields:

v v v

       11
1  2  3
v v
v    11
2 3
6v  3v  2v
 11
6
11v
 11
6
v  6V

Having solved for v, we can now find that:

v 6 v 6 v 6
i1    6A i2      3 A i3    2A
1 1 2 2 3 3

PMcL Kirchhoff’s Current Law Index

2015 1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

 1.24

Just as KCL applies to any node of a circuit, so must KCL hold for any closed
region, i.e. to satisfy the physical law of conservation of charge, the total
current leaving (or entering) a region must be zero.

EXAMPLE 1.6 Kirchhoff’s Current Law for a Closed Region

In the circuit shown below, three regions have been identified:

i5
i1 i2

Region 3

a i b

Region 1 i3 Region 2 i4

Applying KCL to Region 1, we get:

i0

For Region 2:

i1  i3  i4  i2

For Region 3:

i2  i5  i4

You may now ask, “Since there is no current from point a to point b (or vice
versa) why is the connection (a short-circuit) between the points there?” If the
connection between the two points is removed, two separate circuits result. The
voltages and currents within each individual circuit remain the same as before.
Having the connection present constrains points a and b to be the same node,
and hence be at the same voltage. It also indicates that the two separate
portions are physically connected (even though there is no current between
them).

Index Kirchhoff’s Current Law PMcL

1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers 2015

 1.25

1.8 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

Starting at any node in a circuit, we form a loop by traversing through elements
Loop defined
(open-circuits included!) and returning to the starting node, never encountering
any other node more than once.

For example, the paths fabef and fdcef are loops:

1 2
a b c

v1 v2

6 v6 v7 3
3V
v3
v8
4
f e d

v4
2A
5

v5

Figure 1.19
whereas the paths becba and fde are not:

1 2
a b c

v1 v2

6 v6 v7 3
3V
v3
v8
4
f e d

v4
2A
5

v5

Figure 1.20
PMcL Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law Index

2015 1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

 1.26
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) is essentially the law of conservation of
energy. If voltages across elements traversed from – to + are positive in sense,
and voltages across elements that are traversed from + to – are negative in
sense (or vice versa), then KVL can be stated as follows:

KVL defined
KVL: Around any loop in a circuit, the
(1.9)
voltages algebraically sum to zero.

If there are n elements in the loop then, in symbols, KVL is:

v
k 1
k 0 (1.10)

KVL can also be stated as: In traversing a loop, the sum of the voltage rises
equals the sum of the voltage drops.

EXAMPLE 1.7 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law Around a Loop

In the circuit shown in Figure 1.19, we select a traversal from – to + to be

positive in sense. Then KVL around the loop abcefa gives:

 v1  v2  v3  v8  v6  0

and around loop bcdeb, we have:

 v 2  3  v 4  v7  0

In this last loop, one of the elements traversed (the element between nodes b
and e) is an open-circuit; however, KVL holds regardless of the nature of the
elements in the circuit.

Index Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law PMcL

1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers 2015

 1.27

EXAMPLE 1.8 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law Around a Circuit

We want to find the current i, in the one-loop circuit shown below:

2 i
v1 34 V
10 V 4 v2
6
v3

The polarities of v1 , v2 , v3 and the direction of i were chosen arbitrarily (the

polarities of the 10 V and 34 V sources are given). Applying KVL we get:

10  v1  34  v2  v3  0

Thus:

v1  v2  v3  24

From Ohm’s Law:

v1  2i v2  4i v3  6i

Substituting these into the previous equation yields:

2i   4i    6i   24

2i  4i  6i  24
12i  24
i  2 A

Having solved for i, we now find that:

v1  2i  2 2  4 V
v 2  4i  4 2  8 V
v3  6i   6 2  12 V

PMcL Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law Index

2015 1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

 1.28

1.9 Combining Resistors

Relatively complicated resistor combinations can be replaced by a single
equivalent resistor whenever we are not specifically interested in the current,
voltage or power associated with any of the individual resistors.

1.9.1 Series Resistors

Consider the series combination of N resistors shown in (a) below:

R1 R2 RN
i i
arbitrary v1 v2 vN arbitrary
circuit v circuit v R eq

(a) (b)

Figure 1.21

We apply KVL:

v  v1  v2  v N (1.11)

and Ohm’s Law:

v  R1i  R2i   RN i
 R1  R2   RN i
(1.12)

and then compare this result with the simple equation applying to the
equivalent circuit shown in Figure 1.21b:

v  Req i (1.13)

Thus, the value of the equivalent resistance for N series resistances is:

Combining series
resistors Req  R1  R2    RN (series) (1.14)

Index Combining Resistors PMcL

1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers 2015

 1.29
1.9.2 Parallel Resistors

A similar simplification can be applied to parallel resistors. Consider the

parallel combination of N conductances shown in (a) below:

i
i
i1 i2 iN
arbitrary
circuit v G1 G2 GN
arbitrary
circuit v Geq

(a) (b)

Figure 1.22

We apply KCL:

i  i1  i2  iN (1.15)

and Ohm’s Law:

i  G1v  G2v  GN v

 G1  G2  GN v
(1.16)

whereas the equivalent circuit shown in Figure 1.22b gives:

i  Geq v (1.17)

and thus the value of the equivalent conductance for N parallel conductances is:

Geq  G1  G2    GN
Combining parallel
(parallel) (1.18) conductances

PMcL Combining Resistors Index

2015 1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

 1.30

In terms of resistance instead of conductance:

1 1 1 1
Combining parallel
resistors    (parallel) (1.19)
Req R1 R2 RN

The special case of only two parallel resistors is needed often:

Combining two R1R2

resistors in Req  (parallel) (1.20)
parallel… R1  R2

Note that since Geq  G1  G2 then we may deduce that:

Geq  G1 and Geq  G2 (1.21)

Hence:

1 1 1 1
 and  (1.22)
Req R1 Req R2

or:
…results in an
equivalent
resistance smaller Req  R1 and Req  R2 (1.23)
than either resistor

Thus the equivalent resistance of two resistors in parallel is less than the value
of either of the two resistors.

The special case of N resistors of equal value R in parallel is:

Combining the same

R
valued resistors in
parallel
Req  (parallel) (1.24)
N

Index Combining Resistors PMcL

1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers 2015

 1.31
EXAMPLE 1.9 Series and Parallel Resistors

We want to find the current i in the circuit below:

i 5 1

28 V 4 3 v

In order to find i, we can replace series and parallel connections of resistors by

their equivalent resistances. We begin by noting that the 1  and 3  resistors
are in series. Combining them we obtain:

i 5

28 V 4 4

Note that it is not possible to display the original voltage v in this figure. Since
the two 4  resistors are connected in parallel, we can further simplify the
circuit as shown below:

i 5

28 V 2

Here, the 5  and 2  resistors are in series, so we may combine them into
one 7  resistor. Then, from Ohm’s Law, we have:

28
i  4A
7

PMcL Combining Resistors Index

2015 1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

 1.32

1.10 Combining Independent Sources

An inspection of the KVL equations for a series circuit shows that the order in
which elements are placed in a series circuit makes no difference. An
inspection of the KCL equations for a parallel circuit shows that the order in
which elements are placed in a parallel circuit makes no difference. We can use
these facts to simplify voltage sources in series and current sources in parallel.

1.10.1 Combining Independent Voltage Sources in Series

It is not possible to combine independent voltage sources in parallel, since this

would violate KVL. However, consider the series connection of two ideal
voltage sources shown in (a) below:

a a

v2
arbitrary arbitrary
v circuit veq v circuit
v1
b b

(a) (b)

Figure 1.23

From KVL we know that v  v1  v2 , and by the definition of an ideal voltage

source, this must be the voltage between nodes a and b, regardless of what is
connected to them. Thus, the series connection of two ideal voltage sources is
equivalent to a single independent voltage source given by:
Combining
independent voltage
sources in series veq  v1  v2 (series) (1.25)

Clearly, the obvious generalization to N voltage sources in series holds.

Index Combining Independent Sources PMcL

1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers 2015

 1.33
EXAMPLE 1.10 Combining Independent Voltage Sources in Series

In a previous example we determined the current i in the one-loop circuit

shown below:

2 i
v1 34 V
10 V 4 v2
6
v3

By rearranging the order in this one loop circuit (of course this does not
affect i), we obtain the circuit shown below:

i 2

34 V v1
10 V 4 v2

6
v3

We can now combine the series independent voltage sources and the series
resistors into single equivalent elements:

-24 V v 12 

By Ohm’s Law:

 24
i  2 A
12

PMcL Combining Independent Sources Index

2015 1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

 1.34
1.10.2 Combining Independent Current Sources in Parallel

It is not possible to combine independent current sources in series, since this

would violate KCL. However, consider the parallel connection of two ideal
current sources shown in (a) below:

i a i a

i1 i2 arbitrary i eq arbitrary
circuit circuit

b b

(a) (b)

Figure 1.24

From KCL we find that i  i1  i2 , and by the definition of an ideal current

source, this must always be the current into the arbitrary circuit. Thus, the
parallel connection of two ideal current sources is equivalent to a single
independent current source given by:

Combining
independent current ieq  i1  i2 (parallel) (1.26)
sources in parallel

Clearly, the obvious generalization to N current sources in parallel holds.

Index Combining Independent Sources PMcL

1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers 2015

 1.35

EXAMPLE 1.11 Combining Independent Current Sources in Parallel

In a previous example, we determined the voltage v in the two-node circuit

shown below:

13 A 1 v 2 2A 3

Combining the parallel independent current sources into a single equivalent

source, we obtain the circuit:

11 A 1 v 2 3

Since the equivalent resistance of the three resistors in parallel is given by:

1 1 1 1 6  3  2 11
    
Req 1 2 3 6 6

we obtain:

6
Req  
11

Then, from Ohm’s Law:

v
6
11  6 V
11

PMcL Combining Independent Sources Index

2015 1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

 1.36

1.11 The Voltage Divider Rule

It can be quite useful to determine how a voltage appearing across two series
resistors “divides” between them. Consider the circuit shown below:

i R1
v1
arbitrary
circuit v R2 v2

Figure 1.25

By Ohm’s Law, the current in the resistors is:

v
i (1.27)
R1  R2
By application of Ohm’s Law again, the voltage across R1 is:

v1 R1i (1.28)

and therefore:

Voltage divider rule

R1
defined v1  v (1.29)
R1  R2

Similarly, the voltage across R2 is:

R2
v2  v (1.30)
R1  R2

These equations describe how the voltage is divided between the resistors.
Because of this, a pair of resistors in series is often called a voltage divider.

Index The Voltage Divider Rule PMcL

1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers 2015

 1.37
EXAMPLE 1.12 Voltage Divider Rule

We want to find the voltage v in the circuit below:

i 5 1

28 V 4 v1 3 v

Combining the series connection of the 1  and 3  resistors, we obtain the

circuit below:

i 5

28 V 4 v1 4

Now the pair of 4  resistors in parallel can be combined as shown below:

i 5

28 V 2 v1

By voltage division:

2 56
v1   28  8V
25 7

Returning to the original circuit and applying voltage division again yields:

3 3
v v1   8  6 V
3 1 4

PMcL The Voltage Divider Rule Index

2015 1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

 1.38

1.12 The Current Divider Rule

It can be quite useful to determine how a current entering two parallel resistors
“divides” between them. Consider the circuit shown below:

i
i1 i2
arbitrary
v
circuit R1 R2

Figure 1.26

We replace the parallel connection of R1 and R2 by its equivalent resistance.

Thus, Ohm’s Law gives:

R1R2
v  Reqi  i (1.31)
R1  R2
By application of Ohm’s Law again, the current in R1 is i1  v R1 and thus:

Current divider rule

R2
defined i1  i (1.32)
R1  R2

Similarly, the current in R2 is:

R1
i2  i (1.33)
R1  R2

These equations describe how the current is divided between the resistors.
Because of this, a pair of resistors in parallel is often called a current divider.
Note that a larger amount of current will exist in the smaller resistor – thus
current tends to take the path of least resistance!

Index The Current Divider Rule PMcL

1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers 2015

 1.39
EXAMPLE 1.13 Current Divider Rule

We want to find the current i in the circuit below:

i1 4 
i

36 sin(100 t ) V 6 3

The total current delivered by the source is:

36 sin 100t 
i1 
4  63 6  3
 6 sin 100t  A

Therefore the desired current is:

i1   6 sin 100t   4 sin 100t  A

6 2
i
63 3

The current divider rule can also be derived using conductances. Referring to
Figure 1.26, the voltage across the parallel resistors is:

i i
v  Reqi   (1.34)
Geq G1  G2

The current in resistor R1 is i1  G1v and thus:

G1
i1 i (1.35)
G1  G2

A similar result obviously holds for current i 2 . The advantage of this form of
the current divider rule is that it is the dual of the voltage divider rule – we
replace voltages with currents, and resistors with conductances.

PMcL The Current Divider Rule Index

2015 1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

 1.40

1.13 Dependent Sources

An ideal source, either voltage or current, whose value depends upon some
parameter (usually a voltage or current) in the circuit to which the source
belongs is known as a dependent or controlled source.

1.13.1 The Dependent Voltage Source

A dependent voltage source establishes a voltage across its terminals,

independent of the current through it, which is determined by the voltage or
Dependent voltage
sources defined current at some other location in the electrical system. There are two types of
dependent voltage source – the voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS) and
the current-controlled voltage source (CCVS).

Kvx rm i x

VCVS CCVS

Figure 1.27

Note that the dependent source is represented by a diamond-shaped symbol so

as not to confuse it with an independent source.

These sources are mathematical models that are useful in modelling real
circuits and systems, e.g. they are used in modelling operational amplifiers.

Index Dependent Sources PMcL

1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers 2015

 1.41

EXAMPLE 1.14 Circuit with a Dependent Voltage Source

Consider the circuit shown below. This circuit contains a dependent source
whose value in this case depends on the voltage across the 4 Ω resistor – it is a
VCVS.

3v2
i 2

v1
12 V 4 v2

To analyse the circuit, we apply KVL and obtain:

v1  3v2  v2  12

or:

v1  2v2  12

By Ohm’s Law:

v1  2i and v2  4i

Therefore:

2i  24i   12
2i  8i  12
 6i  12
i  2 A

Hence:

v2  4i  8 V

and the value of the dependent voltage source is:

3v2  24 V

PMcL Dependent Sources Index

2015 1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

 1.42

1.13.2 The Dependent Current Source

A dependent current source establishes a current, which is independent of the

Dependent current voltage across it, that is determined by the voltage or current at some other
sources defined
location in the electrical system. There are two types of dependent current
source – the voltage-controlled current source (VCCS) and the current-
controlled current source (CCCS).

Ki x gm vx

CCCS VCCS

Figure 1.28

These sources are mathematical models that are useful in modelling real
circuits and systems, e.g. they are used in modelling transistors.

Index Dependent Sources PMcL

1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers 2015

 1.43

EXAMPLE 1.15 Circuit with a Dependent Current Source

Consider the circuit shown below. In this circuit the value of the dependent
current source is specified by a voltage – it is a VCCS.

i1 i2
2A 3 v 4v 5

To solve for v, we apply KCL and obtain:

i1  i2  4v  2

Thus:

v v
  4v  2
3 5
8v
 4v  2
15
 52v
2
15
 30 15
v  V
52 26

Consequently:

30
4v   A
13

and this is the value of the dependent current source, in amperes. The other
variables in the circuit are:

v 5 v 3
i1    A and i2   A
3 26 5 26

PMcL Dependent Sources Index

2015 1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

 1.44

1.14 Power
Power is the rate at which work is done or energy is expended. Taking the
product of voltage (energy per unit charge) and current (charge per unit time)
we get a quantity that measures energy per unit time. It’s for this reason that we
define p , the instantaneous power absorbed by an electrical circuit element, to
be the product of voltage and current:

Instantaneous
power defined p  vi (1.36)

The fundamental unit of power is the watt (W) and is equivalent to Js -1 . In

using the formula for instantaneous power, we need to be careful in
establishing the correct voltage polarity and current direction. Consider the
circuit element:

A i

Figure 1.29

If one terminal of the element (A) is v volts positive with respect to the other
Passive sign terminal (B), and if a current i is entering the element through terminal A, then
convention defined
– it gives power a power p  vi is being absorbed or delivered to the element. When the
absorbed by a
circuit element current arrow is directed into the element at the plus-marked terminal, we
satisfy the passive sign convention. If the numerical value of the power using
this convention is negative, then we say that the element is generating or
delivering power.

Index Power PMcL

1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers 2015

 1.45

EXAMPLE 1.16 Power Absorbed

Note the power in the circuit elements below:

3A

2V

p = (2)(3) = 6 W absorbed

-2 V

-3 A
p = (-2)(-3) = 6 W absorbed

-5 A

4V

p = (4)(-5) = -20 W absorbed

(20 W generated)

PMcL Power Index

2015 1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

 1.46

EXAMPLE 1.17 Power Absorbed by a Resistor

Consider the circuit shown below:

i( t )

325cos(100 t ) V 100 

By Ohm’s Law:

vt  325
it    cos100t  A
R 100

By definition, the power absorbed by the resistor is:

p R t   vt it 
325 2
 cos 2 100t 
100
 1056 cos 2 100t  W

In particular, at time t  0 the power absorbed by the resistor is:

p R 0  1056 cos 2 0

 1056 W

At time t  5 ms , however, since:

 
 
cos 100  5  10 3  cos   0
2

then the resistor absorbs 0 watts.

Index Power PMcL

1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers 2015

 1.47

EXAMPLE 1.18 Power Absorbed by Circuit Elements

Consider the circuit shown below:

i
i1 i2 i3
5V 1 2 9A 3

We shall determine the power absorbed in each of the elements.

Note that the voltage across each of the elements is 5 V since all the elements
are in parallel. Therefore, by Ohm’s Law:

5 5 5
i1   5A i2  A i3  A
1 2 3

and the powers absorbed in the 1  , 2  and 3  resistors are:

p1  5i1  55  25 W

 5  25
p 2  5i2  5   W
2 2

 5  25
p3  5i3  5   W
 3 3

respectively, for a total of:

25 25 150  75  50 275
25     W
2 3 6 6

absorbed by the resistors.

PMcL Power Index

2015 1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

 1.48

By KCL:

5 5 5
i  9  i1  i2  i3   
1 2 3

or:

30  15  10 1
i 9  A
6 6

Thus the power delivered by the voltage source is:

5
pv  5i  W
6

Also, the power delivered by the current source is:

pi  59  45 W

Hence the total power delivered by the sources is:

5 270  5 275
45    W
6 6 6

We see that the total power delivered by the sources is equal to the total power
absorbed by the resistors. Since power delivered by a circuit element is equal to
the negative of the power absorbed, this is equivalent to saying that the total
power absorbed by all circuit elements is zero. Thus, the principle of
conservation of energy (and therefore power) is satisfied in this circuit (as it is
in any circuit).

Index Power PMcL

1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers 2015

 1.49

EXAMPLE 1.19 Power Conservation

Consider the circuit shown below, which is identical to the previous example
except for the value of the current source:

i
i1 i2 i3
5V 1 2 10 A 3

In this case:

25 25
p1  25 W p2  W p3  W
2 3

as before. By KCL, however:

i  10  i1  i2  i3

and thus:

55 5
i  10   A
6 6

Therefore, the powers delivered by the sources are:

 5
pi  510  50 W
25
pv  5     W
 6 6

Hence the total power absorbed is:

275 25
p1  p 2  p3  pv  pi    50  0 W
6 6

and again energy (power) is conserved. However, in this case not only do the
resistors absorb power, but so does the voltage source. It is the current source
that supplies all the power absorbed in the rest of the circuit.

PMcL Power Index

2015 1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

 1.50
1.14.1 Power Absorbed in a Resistor

The power absorbed in every resistor is always a nonnegative number.

Consider the resistor shown below:

i R

Figure 1.30

By definition, the power absorbed in the resistor is p  vi . But by Ohm’s Law,

v  Ri . Thus p  Ri i , or:

p  Ri 2 (1.37)

Also, i  v R , so that p  vv R  , or:

v2
p (1.38)
R

A real resistor Both formulas for calculating power absorbed in a resistor R demonstrate that p
always absorbs
power is always a nonnegative number when R is positive. Therefore a resistor always
absorbs power.

In a physical resistor, this power is dissipated as radiation (light and/or heat). In

some types of resistors (such as an incandescent bulb, a toaster, or an electric
heater), this property is desirable in that the net result may be light or warmth.
In other types of resistors, such as those found in electronic circuits, the heat
dissipated in a resistor may be a problem that cannot be ignored.

Real resistors have The physical size of a resistor determines the amount of power it can safely
a power rating that
dissipate. A power dissipation that exceeds the rating of a resistor can
must not be
exceeded physically damage the resistor. In many electronic applications, resistors need
dissipate only small amounts of power, allowing their use in integrated circuits.
Index Power PMcL

1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers 2015

 1.51

1.15 Amplifiers
A linear amplifier is a device that increases the amplitude of a signal (a voltage
Amplifier defined
or a current) whilst preserving waveform shape. The circuit symbol for an
amplifier is a triangle which clearly shows the direction of signal travel.

An example of a voltage amplifier is shown below:

The amplifier’s
circuit symbol and
vo its transfer
characteristic
K
1
vi K vo
vi
input output

(a) circuit symbol (b) transfer characteristic

Figure 1.31

Note the use of subscript notation: i for input, and o for output. The
relationship between the input and output for the voltage amplifier is:
The input-output
vo  Kvi (1.39)
relationship for an
ideal linear voltage
amplifier

The quantity K is referred to as the gain. If the gain is a positive number, then
the amplifier is said to be non-inverting. If the gain is a negative number, then
the amplifier is said to be inverting. Note that a negative number does not
imply a decrease in the signal – it implies an inversion.

Since the purpose of an amplifier is to increase signal amplitude, we normally

have K  1 . Circuits with K  1 are said to attenuate, but as we shall see,

they may still be implemented with an “amplifier”.

Amplifiers are used in numerous places and form one of the basic building-
blocks of electronic circuits. For example, signals in telecommunications that
come from antennas are particularly “weak” and could be in the microvolt or
millivolt range. Reliable processing of these small signals is made easier if the
signal magnitude is much larger.
PMcL Amplifiers Index

2015 1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

 1.52
1.15.1 Units of Gain

The gain K of a voltage amplifier can be expressed in two ways. The first way
is as a straight voltage ratio, with units “volts per volt”:

Amplifier gain vo
expressed in volts
per volt
K V/V
vi (1.40)

Note that K must be a dimensionless quantity.

The second way comes from the historical development of amplifiers which
were first used extensively throughout telecommunication systems. In these
applications, since signals were audio in nature, it became common to compare
signal amplitudes in terms of the audio power they could deliver. Thus, we can
express the voltage gain with units of decibels:2

Amplifier gain
vo
expressed in
decibels
K  20 log10 dB (1.41)
vi

The dB unit of voltage gain is useful when circuits are cascaded – a cascade
occurs when the output of one circuit is fed into the input of another (and it has
been ensured, through careful design, that one circuit does not “load” the next,
i.e. each individual circuit’s behaviour is independent of the load placed on it).
For cascaded circuits you can add the voltage gains in dB instead of
multiplying the standard voltage gains.

2
Historically the Bel (named after Alexander Graham Bell – the inventor of the first
commercially viable and practical telephone) was used to define ratios of audio loudness i.e.
ratios of power. In the metric system, a convenient unit to use is the decibel (dB):
1 decibel  10 log10 Po Pi  . If electrical power is assumed to be dissipated across equal

resistors, then since P  V 2 R , the power ratio is 20 log10 Vo Vi . This power ratio became a

way to express the voltage gain of amplifiers. Note that the decibel is dimensionless, so it can
be applied to any dimensionless ratio, if one wished.

Index Amplifiers PMcL

1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers 2015

 1.53

EXAMPLE 1.20 Cascaded Amplifiers and Circuits

A cascade of amplifiers and circuits is shown below, with the gain (or
attenuation) expressed in V/V and dB.

vi v1 v2 vo
A1 R A2
input output

amplifier circuit amplifier

v1 v2 1 vo
vi = A1 = -10 V/V v1 = K = 2 V/V v2 = A2 = 20 V/V
| A1 | = 20 dB | K | = -6 dB | A2 | = 26 dB

The overall gain can be expressed as:

vo v1 v2 vo
  A1KA2  10  12  20  100 V/V
vi vi v1 v2

Note that when the gain in V/V is negative, then the signal is inverted.

The gain expressed in decibels is:

vo
 20 log10 A1KA2
vi
 20 log10 A1  20 log10 K  20 log10 A2
 20  6  26
 40 dB

As a check, we can perform the dB calculation directly on the overall V/V

gain:

vo
 20 log10  100  20  2  40 dB
vi

When the gain is expressed in dB, it refers to the magnitude of the gain only –
it conveys no phase information. When the gain in dB is a negative number,
then we have attenuation.

PMcL Amplifiers Index

2015 1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

 1.54

1.15.2 Amplifier Power Supplies

Amplifiers require a separate and independent power supply to operate. Some

amplifiers are bipolar, meaning that they are designed to amplify both positive
and negative signals. These amplifiers require a bipolar DC power supply. For
example, it is common to power bipolar amplifiers with +15 V and -15 V. A lot
of amplifier power supply labelling is used to reflect the technology it is
implemented with, or is based on historical precedent. For example, it is
common to see bipolar power supplies represented on amplifiers as:

A bipolar amplifier
showing the power
supply connections VCC (positive supply)

vi K vo
input output

VEE (negative supply)

Figure 1.32

where VCC  15 V and VEE  15 V , with respect to a circuit “common”. The
“CC” subscript in this case refers to the voltage at a “collector” of a transistor
inside the amplifier package, and the “EE” to an “emitter” of a transistor.

Some amplifiers are unipolar, which means they are designed to amplify
signals that are of one polarity only. These amplifiers only require a single DC
power supply, such as +5V.

A unipolar amplifier
showing the power
supply connections VCC (positive supply)

vi K vo
input output

Figure 1.33

Index Amplifiers PMcL

1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers 2015

 1.55
1.15.3 Saturation

Real amplifiers can only output a voltage signal that is within the capabilities
of the internal circuitry and the external DC power supplies. When amplifier
outputs approach their output limitation, they are said to saturate – they cannot
provide the output that is required by a linear characteristic. The resulting
transfer characteristic, with the positive and negative saturation levels denoted
L and L respectively, is shown below:

The transfer
characteristic of a
real amplifier,
vo showing that it
L+ saturates eventually

vi

Figure 1.34

Each of the two saturation levels is usually within a volt or so of the voltage of
the corresponding power supply. Obviously, in order to avoid distorting the
output signal waveform, the input signal swing must be kept within the linear
range of operation. If we don’t, then the output waveform becomes distorted
and eventually gets clipped at the output saturation levels.
The input signal and
the output signal of
a saturated amplifier
showing clipping

Figure 1.35
PMcL Amplifiers Index

2015 1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

 1.56
1.15.4 Circuit Model

For an ideal voltage amplifier, the output voltage is independent of both the
source resistance and the load resistance. Thus, to model an ideal voltage
amplifier, we would use a voltage-controlled voltage source:
The model of an
ideal voltage
amplifier

vi Kv i vo

Figure 1.36

Real voltage amplifiers have a finite input resistance as well as a finite output
resistance. Thus, a model of a real amplifier is:
A linear model of a
real voltage
amplifier

Rout

vi Rin Kv i vo

Figure 1.37

This model is only valid in its linear region of operation. Also note that the
amplifier is unilateral – there is no “path” for a voltage at the output to appear
in some way at the input of the amplifier. Thus, the use of the voltage-
controlled voltage source creates a “one way path” for the voltage from the
input to the output.
Index Amplifiers PMcL

1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers 2015

 1.57

1.16 The Operational Amplifier

An operational amplifier (op-amp) is an integrated circuit amplifier consisting
Op-amps defined
of dozens of transistors. An op-amp amplifies the voltage difference between
its two input terminals, and produces a single-ended output voltage, i.e. the
output voltage is with respect to the power supply “common”. The circuit
symbol for the op-amp is shown below:

An op-amp circuit
symbol showing all
positive connections
supply
VCC

v
inputs vo output
v

VEE
negative
supply

Figure 1.38

In many circuit diagrams it is customary to omit the power supply and common
connections (the output being understood to be taken with respect to the circuit
common), and so we normally draw:

A simplified op-amp
circuit symbol

v
vo
v

Figure 1.39

The input labelled v  is termed the noninverting terminal, and the input

labelled v  is termed the inverting terminal. This naming is a result of the op-
amps ability to amplify the difference between these two voltages.
PMcL The Operational Amplifier Index

2015 1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

 1.58
1.16.1 Feedback

The op-amp is an amplifier intended for use with external feedback elements,
where these elements determine the resultant function, or operation3. As we
shall see, op-amp circuits can perform a variety of mathematical operations,
such as addition, subtraction, integration and differentiation of voltage signals.

The feedback elements are connected between the op-amp’s output and its
inverting terminal, thus providing what is known as negative feedback.

input
output

vi
vo
Feedback
Network

Figure 1.40

In the figure, the input is applied between the op-amp (+) input and a common,
or reference point, as denoted by the “ground” symbol. This reference point is
also common to the output, the feedback network and the power supply.

The feedback network can be resistive or reactive, linear or nonlinear, or any

combination of these. More detailed analysis, shown later, shows that the
circuit’s overall gain characteristic is predominantly determined by the
feedback network. It is critically important to note that op-amps are never
intended for use without a feedback network.

3
The naming of the operational amplifier occurred in the classic paper by John R. Ragazzini,
Robert H. Randall and Frederick A. Russell, “Analysis of Problems in Dynamics by Electronic
Circuits,” Proceedings of the IRE, Vol. 35, May 1947, pp. 444-452. This paper references the
op-amp circuits (feedback amplifiers) used by Bell Labs in the development of the “M9 gun
director”, a weapon system which was instrumental in winning WWII.

Index The Operational Amplifier PMcL

1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers 2015

 1.59
1.16.2 Circuit Model
Op-amps are voltage amplifiers. They are designed to have an extremely large
input resistance, a very low output resistance, and a very large gain. Even
though they are comprised of dozens of transistors, a simple linear macro-
model of a real op-amp – valid over a certain range of operating conditions – is
shown below:

A simple linear
model of a real
op-amp
Rout
v vo

Rin AOL ( v - v )

Figure 1.41

Note that, under open-circuit conditions on the output (i.e. no load is attached
to the op-amp output terminal), the op-amp’s output voltage is given by:
The open-loop
vo  AOL v  v  (1.42)
output voltage of an
op-amp, under no-
load conditions

The gain of the amplifier under these conditions, AOL , is termed the open-loop
gain, hence the “OL” subscript. The reason for this name will become apparent
shortly.

The model parameters for a general purpose op-amp, such as the TL071, are
tabulated below:

Parameter Symbol Typical Value

Open-loop voltage gain AOL 200 000 V/V

Input resistance Rin 1 TΩ

Output resistance Rout 200 Ω

PMcL The Operational Amplifier Index

2015 1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

 1.60
1.16.3 The Ideal Op-Amp

The “ideal op-amp” is a theoretical device that pushes the typical op-amp
parameters to their ideal values:

Parameter Symbol Ideal Value

Open-loop voltage gain AOL ∞ V/V

Input resistance Rin ∞Ω

Output resistance Rout 0Ω

Thus, the ideal op-amp has the circuit model:

Model of an ideal
op-amp

v vo

AOL ( v - v )

v
AOL= 

Figure 1.42

There are several interesting characteristics of this model that will be useful
when analysing (and designing) circuits with ideal op-amps.

Index The Operational Amplifier PMcL

1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers 2015

 1.61

The first characteristic is due to the infinite input resistance:

An ideal op-amp
An ideal op-amp draws no input current (1.43) draws no input
current

The second characteristic of the model is that the output voltage is constrained
by a dependent voltage source (there is no output resistance), and thus:

An ideal op-amp has

An ideal op-amp has an output voltage an output voltage
(1.44) that is independent
that is independent of its load of the load placed
on it

The last and most important characteristic is due to the infinite open-loop gain.
At first glance the idealisation that AOL   appears problematic from a circuit
analysis viewpoint, since for a finite input voltage difference the output will be
infinite. However, the ideal op-amp can produce a finite output voltage, but
only so long as the input voltage is zero. Thus, for an ideal op-amp to produce a
finite output voltage v o , the input voltage difference must be:

vo finite
v  v   0 (1.45)
AOL 

and therefore:
An ideal op-amp has
equal input voltages
v   v (1.46) if it has a finite
output voltage

Thus:

An ideal op-amp has equal input voltages (1.47)

Since the ideal op-amp has equal input voltages (like a short-circuit), but draws
The virtual short-
no input current (like an open-circuit), we say there is a virtual short-circuit circuit defined
across its input terminals. We will use the concept of the virtual short-circuit as
the fundamental basis for the analysis and design of circuits containing ideal
op-amps.
PMcL The Operational Amplifier Index

2015 1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

 1.62
1.16.4 Op-Amp Fabrication and Packaging

There are many designs for the internal circuit of an op-amp, with each design
optimising a particular parameter (or parameters) of interest to the designer.
Such parameters may be the open-loop gain (how much the input voltage
difference is amplified), the bandwidth (the highest frequency it can amplify),
or the bias current (how much DC current it draws from the input terminals).
You will become familiar with these terms later when we look more closely at
real op-amp limitations (as opposed to the ideal op-amp).

There are several device fabrication technologies that are used to construct an
op-amp. For general-purpose op-amps, bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) are
mostly used at the input because they are easy to match and are capable of
carrying large currents. However, some operational amplifiers have a field
effect transistor (FET) input, with the rest of the circuit being made from BJTs.
Complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) transistors are used in
op-amps that find application in the design of analog and mixed-signal very
large scale integrated (VLSI) circuits.

It is important to be able to recognise the standard pin-outs of an op-amp IC.

All ICs conform to a standard pin numbering scheme. There is usually a notch
or mark on one end of the chip. With the notch oriented to the left, pin 1 is the
first pin on the bottom of the package. The pins are then numbered in a
counter-clockwise direction. An example is shown below for the TL071 op-
amp, which is a single op-amp housed in an 8-pin package:
Single op-amp IC
package details

TL071 package details

Figure 1.43

Index The Operational Amplifier PMcL

1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers 2015

 1.63

1.17 Negative Feedback

The concept of negative feedback is fundamental to life. A simple experiment
An everyday
will illustrate this point: close your eyes and then bring your index fingers example of negative
together so that they touch at the tips. You will probably miss. By closing your feedback
eyes you have broken a feedback loop which is vital to most human actions; in
order to perform an operation accurately we must be able to see what we are
doing and thus apply any small corrections as and when necessary. In effect,
we are taking the output (the action) and feeding it back to the input (the
mental ‘instruction’ or intention) in such a way that the output is made equal to
the input. In other words, the action is forced to correspond exactly with the
intention.

Examples of negative feedback can also be found in the field of mechanical

engineering. One of the clearest examples is the governor which is used to
control the speed of rotating machinery. The most historically significant form
of governor was that developed by James Watt in 1788, following the
suggestion of his business partner, Matthew Boulton. The conical pendulum
governor was one of the final series of innovations that Watt made to the steam
engine that ushered in the industrial revolution and became the prime source of
motive power in the 19th century.

The conical pendulum governor is shown in basic form below:

Watt’s conical
pendulum governor

Figure 1.44
PMcL Negative Feedback Index

2015 1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

 1.64
As the speed of the engine, and hence of the governor shaft, increases, the
centrifugal force causes the weights to fly outwards on their linkage. The
linkage is connected via a system of levers to the main steam valve so that, if
the speed increases, the movement of the governor weights throttles back the
main steam supply to the engine. Conversely, a tendency to slow down,
perhaps due to increased load, will allow more steam in to boost the speed back
to normal. The speed will thus settle down to a happy medium and be largely
independent of variations in the load on the engine.

In this example, as in the physiological illustration discussed first, the system is

kept under control by feeding a measure of its output back to the input.
Mechanical control systems such as the governor are often known as servo-
systems (literally, slave systems) and are fundamental to industrial automation.

1.17.1 Negative Feedback in Electronics

The gain of an amplifier, such as an op-amp, will vary from device to device
due to the many manufacturing variations in the transistors and resistors that
comprise it. Such component variations result in considerable uncertainty in
the overall voltage gain. For example, an op-amp datasheet may specify the
typical value for the open-loop gain as 200 000, but some specimens may
achieve a gain as low as 25 000. The open-loop gain also changes with
temperature, power supply voltage, signal frequency and signal amplitude.

Just as the steam engine needs the controlling influence of the governor, so
Negative feedback
is used to precisely most electronic amplifiers require electrical negative feedback if their gain is to
set the gain of an
amplifier be accurately predictable and remain constant with varying environmental
conditions.

Index Negative Feedback PMcL

1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers 2015

 1.65

1.17.2 An Amplifier with Negative Feedback

The figure below shows a block diagram of an amplifier with negative

feedback:

Block diagram of an
amplifier with
negative feedback
amplifier

vi ve vo
AOL

vf =  vo

feedback
network

Figure 1.45

The amplifier has a voltage gain AOL and the feedback network is an attenuator

which feeds a fixed fraction,  , of the output back to the input. The feedback

signal, v f  vo , is subtracted from the input signal (we thus have negative

feedback – if the signal were added, we would have positive feedback).

We can now determine the effective voltage gain, ACL , of the amplifier with
feedback. This is given simply by the ratio of the output voltage to input
voltage:

vo
ACL  (1.48)
vi
The signal at the input to the basic amplifier is:

ve  vi  v f  vi  vo (1.49)

PMcL Negative Feedback Index

2015 1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

 1.66
Also, the signal at the output of the basic amplifier is given by:

vo  AOLve (1.50)

Therefore:

vo  AOL vi  vo  (1.51)

Rearranging:

vo 1  AOL    AOL vi
vo AOL (1.52)

vi 1  AOL 

Hence:
The closed-loop
gain of an amplifier
AOL
with negative
ACL  (1.53)
feedback
1  AOL 

This is the general equation for an amplifier with negative feedback. The basic
gain of the amplifier, AOL , is known as the open-loop gain and the gain with

feedback, ACL , as the closed-loop gain.

Index Negative Feedback PMcL

1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers 2015

 1.67

Engineers design the circuit by starting with a basic amplifier with a very large
open-loop gain (e.g., the open-loop gain of an op-amp is AOL  100,000 ) and

then ensure by design that the feedback network provides an attenuation  so

that:

AOL   1 (1.54)

When this is the case, we can neglect the ‘1’ in the denominator of Eq. (1.53)
so that:
The closed-loop
gain of an amplifier
1
ACL  (1.55)
with negative


feedback, if the
open-loop gain is
very large

This is a very significant equation because we have ‘designed’ an amplifier

with a precisely determined voltage gain. As long as the open-loop gain is
much larger than the closed-loop gain (e.g. a hundred times greater) then the
closed-loop gain is independent of the amplifier characteristics and dependent
only on the feedback network  . The feedback network usually depends upon
just a handful of passive elements, such as resistors and capacitors. These
elements are the most stable components in electronics; their values can be
precisely specified to very high levels of accuracy (better than 0.1% for
resistors, and 1% for capacitors), and their value does not vary greatly with
environmental changes such as temperature and aging. Negative feedback
extends these attributes of accuracy and stability to the gain of the entire
amplifier.

Later, we will also see that negative feedback increases the frequency of
signals that we can apply to the amplifier, reduces nonlinear distortion,
increases input resistance and decreases output resistance. The price for these
benefits is a reduction in the amplifier gain – a trade-off that is well worth
making.

PMcL Negative Feedback Index

2015 1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

 1.68

1.18 The Noninverting Amplifier

We seek a circuit implementation of the amplifier with negative feedback
presented in Figure 1.45. We have already seen that an op-amp amplifies the
difference between its two input voltages. Thus, an op-amp implements the
subtracter and the amplifier in one device:

An op-amp
implements the
subtracter and the amplifier
amplifier in one
device vi vo vi
A OL vo
vf

vf

Figure 1.46

The feedback network can consist of any combination of passive or active

elements. The simplest feedback network provides attenuation, using a
resistive voltage divider:

A simple feedback
network that
provides a fixed
attenuation
vf R2 vo
vf vo
 R1
feedback
network

Figure 1.47

Note that for this circuit the input is on the right and the output is on the left, as
we are providing a feedback path from the output of the op-amp, and back to its
inverting input terminal.

Index The Noninverting Amplifier PMcL

1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers 2015

 1.69

The fixed fraction,  , of the output which is fed back to the input is given by
the voltage divider rule:

vf R1
  (1.56)
vo R1  R2

Thus, a circuit that implements the amplifier with negative feedback is:

The noninverting
amplifier

vi
vo

R2

R1

Figure 1.48

To reiterate, the closed-loop gain of this amplifier is:

vo AOL
 ACL  (1.57)
vi 1  AOL 

and if we have AOL   1, then the closed-loop gain is approximately:

1 R2
ACL  1 (1.58)
 R1

PMcL The Noninverting Amplifier Index

2015 1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

 1.70
EXAMPLE 1.21 A Real Noninverting Amplifier

An op-amp with an open-loop gain of 100 000 is connected in a noninverting

amplifier configuration to give a nominal gain of 10, as shown below:

vi
A OL vo

R2

R1 9 k
1 k
A OL = 100 000

The feedback factor is:

R1 1k 1
  
R1  R2 1k  9k 10

Therefore the closed-loop gain is:

AOL 10 5 10 5
ACL     9.9990  10
1  AOL  1  10 5  10 1 10001

If the op-amp open-loop gain is changed to 200 000 (e.g. a different op-amp is
used) then the closed-loop gain changes to:

AOL 2  10 5 2  10 5
ACL     9.9995  10
1  AOL  1  2  10 5  10 1 20001

Thus, the closed-loop gain changes by only 0.005%, even though the open-loop
gain changed by 100%. This is because AOL   1, and therefore, by

Eq. (1.57), ACL  1   10 . Thus, so long as AOL   1 is satisfied, the closed-

loop amplifier maintains a nominal gain of 10 to a very high accuracy.

Index The Noninverting Amplifier PMcL

1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers 2015

 1.71

1.18.1 The Noninverting Amplifier with an Ideal Op-Amp

Assuming an ideal op-amp with infinite open-loop gain ( AOL   ), then the
overall closed-loop gain of the amplifier is given by Eq. (1.57):

AOL
ACL 
1  AOL 
1

1 AOL  
1

1
1

 (1.59)

Thus, the overall closed-loop gain is:

The gain of an ideal

R
ACL  1  2 (noninverting) (1.60)
noninverting
amplifier
R1

Thus, the approximation for the closed-loop gain that we used for a real op-
amp, ACL  1  , now turns into an exact equation, ACL  1  . Thus, we will
find it expedient to analyse op-amp circuits by assuming that ideal op-amps are
used, with an understanding that the real circuits will differ in performance by
only a tiny amount.

A key point to note in this formula is that the ratio of the resistors determines
the gain. In practice this means that a range of actual R1 and R2 values can be
used, so long as they provide the same ratio.

The amplifier in this configuration provides a gain which is always greater than
or equal to 1. The output is also “in phase” with the input, since the gain is
positive. Hence, this configuration is referred to as a noninverting amplifier.

PMcL The Noninverting Amplifier Index

2015 1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

 1.72
The closed-loop gain of the amplifier can also be derived using circuit analysis
and the concept of the virtual short-circuit. For such a simple circuit, the results
of the analysis can be written directly on the circuit diagram:
Analysis steps for
the ideal
noninverting
amplifier vi R
1 0V v o = (1+ R 2 ) v i
1

4 7
0A
5 R2
2 vi
vi vi
3 R1 vi
R1 R2 R
1
6
R1

Figure 1.49

The analysis steps are:

1. We assume an ideal op-amp, and also assume that since there is a negative
feedback path around the op-amp, then it is producing a finite output
voltage (i.e., the overall amplifier is “working”). Thus, the ideal op-amp
must have a virtual short-circuit (VSC) at its input terminals. We label the
voltage across the input terminals as 0 V.

2. Since there is no difference in the voltages across the VSC, the voltage at
the inverting terminal is v  vi .

3. The current through resistor R1 is given by Ohm’s Law, i1  vi R1 .

4. Due to the infinite input resistance of the ideal op-amp, the current entering
the inverting terminal is 0 A.

Index The Noninverting Amplifier PMcL

1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers 2015

 1.73

5. KCL at the inverting terminal now gives i2  i1  vi R1 .

6. The voltage drop across the resistor R2 is given by Ohm’s Law,

vi
v R2  R2 i2  R2 , with the polarity shown.
R1

7. KVL, from the common, across R1 , across R2 and to the output terminal

v i  R2 
gives vo  vi  R2  1  vi .
R1  R1 

Once again, we see that the overall closed-loop gain is given by 1  R2 R1 .

1.18.2 Input Resistance of the Noninverting Amplifier

The input voltage in a noninverting amplifier is connected directly to the

The input resistance
noninverting terminal of the op-amp, which is effectively an open-circuit as far of the ideal
noninverting
as current is concerned. Thus, the “input resistance” of the circuit is ideally amplifier is infinite
infinite. This is an important property of the noninverting amplifier that is used
in a variety of situations.

1.18.3 Equivalent Circuit of the Noninverting Amplifier

The equivalent circuit of the noninverting amplifier is:

Equivalent circuit of
the ideal
noninverting
amplifier
vi vo

Kv i
R2
K = 1+ R
1

Figure 1.50

In our analysis of op-amp circuits from now on, we will assume ideal op-amps
and make frequent use of the virtual short-circuit concept.

PMcL The Noninverting Amplifier Index

2015 1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

 1.74

EXAMPLE 1.22 Design of a Noninverting Amplifier

It is required to design an amplifier with a gain of 5 V/V that presents an

almost infinite input resistance to any attached voltage source.

In this case, we decide to choose feedback resistors in the kΩ range:

4 k

1 k
vo
vi

Notice that we have decided to draw the inverting terminal of the op-amp at the
top, and the feedback resistors pass over the top of the op-amp. The circuit is
still the same as before. Either representation can be used, and will depend on
such factors as space or clarity in the circuit schematic.

When we attach any type of source to the input of this circuit, no current will
be drawn. For example:

4 k

1 k
50  i=0A v o = 10 V
0V vi = 2 V

vs = 2 V

Source

We have therefore met the design specifications.

Index The Noninverting Amplifier PMcL

1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers 2015

 1.75

EXAMPLE 1.23 The Buffer

An ideal op-amp is connected in a noninverting amplifier configuration as

shown below:

vo
vi

We identify R1   and R2  0 . Thus, the overall closed-loop gain is:

R2 0
ACL  1   1  1
R1 

Thus, the circuit provides a “gain” of 1, and is called a buffer or a follower.

You can also see that a buffer can be created by:

R1
vo
vi

or by:

R2

vo
vi

Both of these circuits will operate as buffers, but the circuit presented first uses
one less component.

PMcL The Noninverting Amplifier Index

2015 1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

 1.76
1.18.4 The Buffer

You may wonder “What is the point of a buffer if it only provides a gain of 1?”
The buffer is used to
“couple” one circuit The answer lies in the other properties of the circuit – its infinite input
to another
resistance and zero output resistance.

EXAMPLE 1.24 Buffering a Source

A certain function generator has an “output resistance” of 50  and so its
output will experience a significant internal Ri voltage drop when the attached
load draws a “large” current, resulting in a drop in the output terminal voltage:

50  i = 20 mA
1V

vs = 5 V vo = 4 V 200 

Function Generator Load

Therefore, we need to “buffer” the function generator with an amplifier which

presents a high input resistance to the source and which also provides a low
output resistance to the load:

Rs Ro
vs vi Ri Avi vo RL

Source Amplifier Load

An ideal buffer amplifier with a gain of 1, when placed in between the function
generator and the load, delivers the full source voltage to the load:

50  i = 25 mA
i=0

vs = 5 V vi = 5 V vo = 5 V 200 

Index The Noninverting Amplifier PMcL

1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers 2015

 1.77

1.19 The Inverting Amplifier

An inverting amplifier is created by swapping the input and common
connections of the noninverting amplifier. The result is:

The inverting
amplifier
R2

R1
vi
vo

Figure 1.51

We will analyse this circuit using the concept of the virtual short-circuit. This
can be done on the circuit schematic:
Analysis steps for
the ideal inverting
amplifier
6
vi
5 R2
vi R1
R1 R2
3
vi 2 4
R1 R1 0V 0A
vi
1 0V
vo = - R2 vi
R1
7

Figure 1.52

PMcL The Inverting Amplifier Index

2015 1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

 1.78

The analysis steps are:

1. We assume an ideal op-amp, and also assume that since there is a negative
feedback path around the op-amp, then it is producing a finite output
voltage (i.e., the overall amplifier is “working”). Thus, the ideal op-amp
must have a virtual short-circuit (VSC) at its input terminals. We label the
voltage across the input terminals as 0 V.

2. Since there is no difference in the voltages across the VSC, the voltage at
the inverting terminal is v  0 .

3. The current through resistor R1 is given by Ohm’s Law, i1  vi R1 .

4. Due to the infinite input resistance of the ideal op-amp, the current entering
the inverting terminal is 0 A.

5. KCL at the inverting terminal now gives i2  i1  vi R1 .

6. The voltage drop across the resistor R2 is given by Ohm’s Law,

vi
v R2  R2 i2  R2 , with the polarity shown.
R1

7. KVL, from the common, across the VSC, across R2 and to the output
vi R
terminal gives vo  0  R2   2 vi .
R1 R1

Thus, the overall closed-loop gain is:

The gain of an ideal

R2
inverting amplifier
ACL   (inverting) (1.61)
R1

The negative sign indicates that there is an inversion of the signal (i.e. a 180
phase change), so that a waveform will appear amplified, but “upside down”.

Index The Inverting Amplifier PMcL

1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers 2015

 1.79
1.19.1 Input Resistance of the Inverting Amplifier

The input resistance of the inverting amplifier (i.e. the resistance “seen” by the
input voltage source), is, by the definition of input resistance:

The input resistance

v
Rin  vi ii  vi i1  i  R1 (1.62)
of the ideal inverting
amplifier is finite
vi R1

Thus, the “input resistance” of the circuit is equal to R1 . This is a disadvantage

compared to the noninverting amplifier, and careful use of the inverting
amplifier is required.

1.19.2 Equivalent Circuit of the Inverting Amplifier

An equivalent circuit of the inverting amplifier is:

Equivalent circuit of
the ideal inverting
amplifier

vi vo

R1 Kv i

R2
K= - R
1

Figure 1.53

One advantage of the inverting amplifier over the noninverting amplifier is that
you can achieve gain magnitudes less than one, i.e. build circuits that can
attenuate, as well as amplify.

The inverting amplifier is also the basis for many other useful circuits that we
will encounter later, such as the summer, integrator and differentiator.

PMcL The Inverting Amplifier Index

2015 1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

 1.80

EXAMPLE 1.25 Design of an Inverting Amplifier

It is required to design an amplifier with a gain of -5 V/V. In this case, we

decide to choose feedback resistors in the kΩ range:

5 k

1 k
vi
vo

Suppose we now attach a source, which has an internal resistance of 1 kΩ, to

this amplifier:

5 k

1 k i = 1 mA 1 k

1V
0V
v o = -5 V
vi = 1 V
vs = 2 V

Source

We see that the 1 kΩ input resistance of the inverting amplifier has caused the
source to deliver current, and therefore there is a significant voltage drop
across its internal resistance. A better design to suit this particular source
would use resistors in the 100’s of kΩ:

500 k

1 k i  20  A 100 k
0V
v o  -9.901 V
vi  1.980 V
20 mV
vs = 2 V

Source

Now there is less than 1% error in the gain that it provides to the source.

Index The Inverting Amplifier PMcL

1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers 2015

 1.81

1.20 Summary
 Current is defined as the rate of flow of charge past a certain cross-
sectional area:

dq
i
dt
 Voltage is defined as the work done per unit charge in moving it from one
point to another in a circuit.

 A circuit element is an idealised mathematical model of a two-terminal

electrical device that is completely characterised by its voltage-current
relationship. Active circuit elements can deliver a non-zero average power
indefinitely, whilst passive circuit elements cannot. A connection of circuit
elements is called a network. If the network contains at least one closed
path, it is also an electrical circuit.

 Independent sources are ideal circuit elements that possess a voltage or

current value that is independent of the behaviour of the circuits to which
they belong. There are two types, voltage and current:

vs ( t ) is ( t )

voltage current
source source

PMcL Summary Index

2015 1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

 1.82

 The resistor is a linear passive circuit element that obeys Ohm’s Law:

v  Ri
A resistance of 0  is known as a short-circuit.

A resistance of   is known as an open-circuit.

The reciprocal of resistance is called the conductance:

1
G
R
 Practical resistors come in a large variety of shapes, materials and
construction which dictate several of their properties, such as accuracy,
stability, pulse handling capability, resistor value, size and cost.

 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) states: “At any node of a circuit, the
currents algebraically sum to zero”:

i
k 1
k 0

 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) states: “Around any loop in a circuit, the
voltages algebraically sum to zero”:

v
k 1
k 0

Index Summary PMcL

1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers 2015

 1.83

 Resistors in series can be combined into one equivalent resistor:

Req  R1  R2    RN

 Resistors in parallel can be combined into one equivalent resistor:

1 1 1 1
  
Req R1 R2 RN

 Independent voltage sources in series can be added. Independent current

sources in parallel can be added.

 Two resistors in series form a voltage divider:

i R1
v1
arbitrary
circuit v R2 v2

R2
v2  v
The voltage divider rule is:
R1  R2

 Two resistors in parallel form a current divider:

i
i1 i2
arbitrary
v
circuit R1 R2

R1
i2  i
The current divider rule is:
R1  R2
PMcL Summary Index

2015 1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

 1.84

 An ideal source, either voltage or current, whose value depends upon some
parameter (usually a voltage or current) in the circuit to which the source
belongs is known as a dependent or controlled source. There are four types:

Kvx rm i x Ki x gm vx

VCVS CCVS CCCS VCCS

 The instantaneous power absorbed by an electrical circuit element is the

product of voltage and current:

p  vi

The power absorbed in a resistor is:

v2
p  Ri  2

R
 A linear amplifier is a device that increases the amplitude of a signal (a
voltage or a current) whilst preserving waveform shape. The most common
is a voltage amplifier:

vi K vo =Kvi
input output

The gain of a voltage amplifier is expressed in either V/V or in dB:

vo vo
K V/V or
K  20 log10 dB
vi vi

Index Summary PMcL

1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers 2015

 1.85

 The operational amplifier (op-amp) is an integrated circuit amplifier

consisting of dozens of transistors. An op-amp amplifies the voltage
difference between its two input terminals, and produces a single-ended
output voltage. It is the “building block” for a vast array of useful
electronic circuits.

noninverting input v
vo output
inverting input v

The op-amp is always operated with a negative feedback network.

The characteristics of the ideal op-amp are:

Parameter Symbol Ideal Value

Open-loop voltage gain AOL ∞ V/V

Input resistance Rin ∞Ω

Output resistance Rout 0Ω

If an ideal op-amp has negative feedback, then a virtual short-circuit

appears across its input terminals. This is the key to analysing and
designing op-amp circuits.

 Negative feedback is a universal concept that arises in fields as diverse as

biology, mechanics and electronics. If a proportion of the output of a device
is fed back to the input and subtracted (so-called negative feedback), then
the device will exhibit certain desirable overall qualities, such as accuracy
and stability. In particular, the gain of an electronic amplifier with an open-
loop gain of AOL and a feedback factor of  will have a closed-loop gain
given by:

AOL
ACL 
1  AOL 

PMcL Summary Index

2015 1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

 1.86

 The noninverting amplifier is one of the most fundamental op-amp

arrangements:

R2

R1
vo
vi

The gain of the noninverting amplifier is:

R2
ACL  1 
R1

An important special case of the noninverting amplifier is the buffer, for

which R1    , R2  0  and therefore ACL  1 .

 The inverting amplifier is one of the most fundamental op-amp

arrangements:

R2

R1
vi
vo

The gain of the inverting amplifier is:

R2
ACL  
R1
1.21 References
Hayt, W. & Kemmerly, J.: Engineering Circuit Analysis, 3rd Ed., McGraw-
Hill, 1984.

Index References PMcL

1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers 2015

 1.87

Exercises
1.
A large number of electrons are moving through a conductor:

electron flow conductor

The number varies with time t seconds.

(a) What is the direction of current?

(b) If the total charge to pass a certain point on the conductor varies according
to the equation:


qt   3 1  e100t  mC

then find the current in amperes as a function of time.

(c) When will the current be 200 mA?

(d) If the conductor has a uniform diameter of 1 mm throughout its length,

find the current density as a function of time (express as A/mm 2 ).

(e) Sketch charge and current as functions of time.

(f) How many electrons are moving through the conductor at time
t = 50 ms?

PMcL Exercises Index

2015 1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

 1.88

2.
The total charge that has entered the upper terminal of the element below is
given by 5 sin 1000t μC .

(a) How much charge enters that terminal between t  0.5 ms and
t  0.5 ms ?

(b) How much charge leaves the lower terminal in the same time interval?

(c) Find i at t  0.2 ms .

3.
For the current waveform shown below:

i( t ) (A)

300

200

100

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
t (s)

-100

-200

-300

-400

determine the total charge transferred between t  0 and t  :

(a) 4 s (b) 7 s

Index Exercises PMcL

1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers 2015

 1.89

4.
The charging current supplied to a 12 V automotive battery enters its positive
terminal. It is given as a function of time by:

0 t0
  t 10000
i  4e A 0  t  15000 s
0 t  15000 s


(a) What is the total charge delivered to the battery in the 15000 s charging
interval?

(b) What is the maximum power absorbed by the battery?

(c) What is the total energy supplied?

(d) What is the average power delivered in the 15000 s interval?

5.
The voltage v has its positive reference at terminal A of a certain circuit
element. The power absorbed by the circuit element is 4t  1 W for t  0 .
2

If v  2t  2 V for t  0 , how much charge enters terminal A between t  0

and t  2 s ?

6.
The resistance of 10 mm2 copper wire is 1.725 Ω/km, and, with a certain type
of insulation, it can safely carry 70 A without overheating. With a one
kilometre length of wire operating at maximum current:

(a) What voltage exists between the ends of the wire?

(b) How much power is dissipated in the conductor?

(c) What is the power dissipation per square mm of surface area?

PMcL Exercises Index

2015 1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

 1.90

7.
For the circuit shown below:

20 V
10  2 A 2 i

60 V 3A v Load

find:

(a) v (b) i (c) the power absorbed by the load.

8.
With reference to the network shown below:

A
8V 6A
5V B 3A vx

ix

find:

(a) i x (b) v x (c) the power absorbed by the battery.

Index Exercises PMcL

1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers 2015

 1.91

9.
Find the power supplied by the 3 V source in the circuit below:

20i 1
5

3V 10 
13 V
6 i1

10.
Find the power absorbed by each element in the circuit below:

-50 V
i

vx = -6 i 0.2vx
10 

PMcL Exercises Index

2015 1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

 1.92

11.
Consider the circuit shown below:

iy
ix
30 mA v30 1 k 10 mA 2ix

(a) Find v30 , i x , and i y .

(b) Change the control on the dependent source from 2i x to 2i y and then find

v30 , i x , and i y .

12.
Consider the circuit shown below:

i
v
v 2 2 2 10 A

(a) Find v , i , and the power delivered by the independent source.

(b) Repeat if the arrow of the dependent source is reversed.

Index Exercises PMcL

1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers 2015

 1.93

13.
Find Req for each of the networks shown below:

(a)

4

10  6 2

20  1
R eq

5
3

(b)

8

2 7
R eq

3

PMcL Exercises Index

2015 1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

 1.94

14.
By combining independent sources and resistances as appropriate, find:

(a) The current i in the circuit below.

30 V
8

10  20 V
2 i

(b) The voltage v in the circuit below.

30 mA v 1 k 10 mA 250 

15.
Use the concepts of current division, voltage division, and resistance
combination to write expressions (by inspection) for v3 and i1 in the circuit
shown below:

R2

i1
is R1 R3 v3

Index Exercises PMcL

1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers 2015

 1.95

16.
Determine the necessary values of v and i in the circuit shown below:

3 v

1 1A
5 4

2

17.
The circuit shown below exhibits several examples of independent current and
voltage sources in series and in parallel.

12 V -3 A

3V

2A -5 V 4A
4V

(a) Find the power supplied by the -5 V source.

(b) To what value should the 4 A source be changed to reduce the power
supplied by the -5 V source to zero?

PMcL Exercises Index

2015 1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

 1.96

18.
For the ideal op-amp circuit below:

i 2 10 k

i 1 1 k
vi v1 io
vo
1V iL
1 k

Determine the values of:

(a) v1 , i1 , i 2 , v o , i L and io (b) the voltage gain vo vi

(c) the current gain i L ii (d) the power gain PL Pi

19.
Given the ideal op-amp circuit below:
R2

R1
vi
vo
R3

(a) Find the voltage gain vo vi .

(b) Find the resistance “seen” by the voltage source v i .

(c) How do the results of (a) and (b) differ from the case when R3    ?
Why?

Index Exercises PMcL

1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers 2015

 1.97

20.
Consider the ideal op-amp circuit below:
R1

R1
vi R2

R2 100 

Choose values for resistors R1 and R2 such that the 100  resistor absorbs
10 mW when vi  4 V .

21.
Consider the ideal op-amp circuit below:
R

vo
ii

(a) Find the ratio vo ii .

(b) Find the resistance “seen” by the current source ii .

PMcL Exercises Index

2015 1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

 1.98

22.
Consider the ideal op-amp circuit below:
R1 R3

R2
i3

vo
ii

(a) Find the ratio vo ii .

(b) Find the resistance “seen” by the current source ii .

(c) Find the current gain i3 ii .

23.
Given the ideal op-amp circuit below:

vo
ii Ri i2
R2

R1

(a) Find the ratio vo ii .

(b) Find the resistance “seen” by the current source ii .

(c) Find the current gain i2 ii .

Index Exercises PMcL

1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers 2015

 2.1

2 Nodal and Mesh Analysis

Contents

Introduction ..................................................................................................... 2.2

2.1 Nodal Analysis .......................................................................................... 2.3
2.1.1 Circuits with Resistors and Independent Current Sources Only .. 2.6
2.1.2 Nodal Analysis Using Branch Element Stamps ........................... 2.9
2.1.3 Circuits with Voltage Sources .................................................... 2.12
2.1.4 Circuits with Dependent Sources ............................................... 2.14
2.1.5 Summary of Nodal Analysis ....................................................... 2.17
2.2 Mesh Analysis ......................................................................................... 2.20
2.2.1 Planar Circuits ............................................................................ 2.20
2.2.2 Paths, Loops and Meshes ............................................................ 2.21
2.2.3 Mesh Current .............................................................................. 2.22
2.2.4 Mesh Analysis Methodology ...................................................... 2.23
2.2.5 Circuits with Resistors and Independent Voltage Sources Only 2.24
2.2.6 Circuits with Current Sources ..................................................... 2.26
2.2.7 Circuits with Dependent Sources ............................................... 2.28
2.2.8 Summary of Mesh Analysis ....................................................... 2.30
2.3 Summary.................................................................................................. 2.31
2.4 References ............................................................................................... 2.31
Exercises ........................................................................................................ 2.32
Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824-1887) .......................................................... 2.35

PMcL Contents Index

2015 2 - Nodal and Mesh Analysis

 2.2

Introduction
After becoming familiar with Ohm’s Law and Kirchhoff’s Laws and their
application in the analysis of simple series and parallel resistive circuits, we
must begin to analyse more complicated and practical circuits.

Physical systems that we want to analyse and design include electronic control
circuits, communication systems, energy converters such as motors and
generators, power distribution systems, mobile devices and embedded systems.
We will also be confronted with allied problems involving heat flow, fluid
flow, and the behaviour of various mechanical systems.

To cope with large and complex circuits, we need powerful and general
methods of circuit analysis. Nodal analysis is a method which can be applied to
any circuit, and mesh analysis is a method that can be applied to any planar
circuit (i.e. to circuits that are able to be laid out on a 2D surface without
crossing elements). Both of these methods are widely used in hand design and
computer simulation. A third technique, known as loop analysis, generalises
mesh analysis and can be applied to any circuit – it is effectively the “dual” of
nodal analysis.

We will find that the judicious selection of an analysis technique can lead to a
drastic reduction in the number of equations to solve, and we should therefore
try to develop an ability to select the most convenient analysis method for a
particular circuit.

Index Introduction PMcL

2 - Nodal and Mesh Analysis 2015

 2.3

2.1 Nodal Analysis

In general terms, nodal analysis for a circuit with N nodes proceeds as follows:

1. Select one node as the reference node, or common (all nodal voltages
are defined with respect to this node in a positive sense).
The general
principle of nodal
2. Assign a voltage to each of the remaining N  1 nodes. analysis

3. Write KCL at each node, in terms of the nodal voltages.

4. Solve the resulting set of simultaneous equations.

As will be seen, the method outlined above becomes a little complicated if the
circuit contains voltage sources and / or controlled sources, but the principle
remains the same.

EXAMPLE 2.1 Nodal Analysis with Independent Sources

We apply nodal analysis to the following 3-node circuit:

5

3A 2 1 -2 A

Following the steps above, we assign a reference node and then assign nodal
voltages:

v1 5 v2

3A 2 1 -2 A

PMcL Nodal Analysis Index

2015 2 - Nodal and Mesh Analysis

 2.4
We chose the bottom node as the reference node, but either of the other two
nodes could have been selected. A little simplification in the resultant
equations is obtained if the node to which the greatest number of branches is
connected is identified as the reference node.

In many practical circuits the reference node is one end of a power supply
which is generally connected to a metallic case or chassis in which the circuit
resides; the chassis is often connected through a good conductor to the Earth.
Thus, the metallic case may be called “ground”, or “earth”, and this node
becomes the most convenient reference node.

The distinction
To avoid confusion, the reference node will be called the “common” unless it
between “common” has been specifically connected to the Earth (such as the outside conductor on a
and “earth”
digital storage oscilloscope, function generator, etc).

Note that the voltage across any branch in a circuit may be expressed in terms
of nodal voltages. For example, in our circuit the voltage across the 5 
resistor is v1  v2  with the positive polarity reference on the left:

v1 5 v2

(v1 - v2)

We must now apply KCL to nodes 1 and 2. We do this be equating the total
current leaving a node to zero. Thus:

v1 v1  v 2
 3 0
2 5
v 2  v1 v1
   2  0
5 1

Simplifying, the equations can be written:

0.7v1  0.2v2  3
 0.2v1  1.2v2  2

Index Nodal Analysis PMcL

2 - Nodal and Mesh Analysis 2015

 2.5

Rewriting in matrix notation, we have:

 0.7  0.2  v1  3

 0.2 1.2  v   2
  2   

These equations may be solved by a simple process of elimination of variables,

or by Cramer’s rule and determinants. Using the latter method we have:

3  0.2
2 1.2 3.6  0.4 4
v1     5V
0.7  0.2 0.84  0.04 0.8
 0.2 1.2
0.7 3
 0.2 2 1.4  0.6 2
v2     2.5 V
0.8 0.8 0.8

Everything is now known about the circuit – any voltage, current or power in
the circuit may be found in one step. For example, the voltage at node 1 with
respect to node 2 is v1  v2   2.5 V , and the current directed downward
through the 2  resistor is v1 2  2.5 A .

PMcL Nodal Analysis Index

2015 2 - Nodal and Mesh Analysis

 2.6

2.1.1 Circuits with Resistors and Independent Current Sources Only

A further example will reveal some interesting mathematical features of nodal

analysis, at least for the case of circuits containing only resistors and
independent current sources. We will find it is much easier to consider
conductance, G, rather than resistance, R, in the formulation of the equations.

EXAMPLE 2.2 Nodal Analysis with Independent Sources Only

A circuit is shown below with a convenient reference node and nodal voltages
specified.

1/4 

-3 A

v1 1/3  v2 1/2  v3

-8 A 1 1/5  25 A

We sum the currents leaving node 1:

3v1  v2   4v1  v3    8   3  0
7v1  3v2  4v3  11

At node 2:

3v2  v1   1v2  2v2  v3   3  0

 3v1  6v2  2v3  3

At node 3:

4v3  v1   2v3  v2   5v3  25  0

 4v1  2v2  11v3  25

Index Nodal Analysis PMcL

2 - Nodal and Mesh Analysis 2015

 2.7
Rewriting in matrix notation, we have:

 7  3  4  v1   11
  3 6  2  v    3 
  2   
 4  2 11  v3   25 

For circuits that contain only resistors and independent current sources, we
define the conductance matrix of the circuit as:

 7  3  4
G    3 6  2
 4  2 11 

It should be noted that the nine elements of the matrix are the ordered array of The conductance
matrix defined
the coefficients of the KCL equations, each of which is a conductance value.
Thr first row is composed of the coefficients of the Kirchhoff current law
equation at the first node, the coefficients being given in the order of v1 , v 2
and v3 . The second row applies to the second node, and so on.

The major diagonal (upper left to lower right) has elements that are positive.
The conductance matrix is symmetrical about the major diagonal, and all
elements not on this diagonal are negative. This is a general consequence of the
systematic way in which we ordered the equations, and in circuits consisting of
only resistors and independent current sources it provides a check against
errors committed in writing the circuit equations.

We also define the voltage and current source vectors as:

 v1   11
v  v 2  i   3 
v3   25 

PMcL Nodal Analysis Index

2015 2 - Nodal and Mesh Analysis

 2.8

Our KCL equations can therefore be written succinctly in matrix notation as:
Nodal analysis
expressed in matrix Gv  i
notation
The solution of the matrix equation is just:

v  G 1i

Computer programs that do nodal analysis use sophisticated numerical

methods to efficiently invert the G matrix and solve for v . When solving the
equations by hand we resort to matrix reduction techniques, or use Cramer’s
rule (up to 3 x 3). Thus:

 11  3  4
3 6 2
25  2 11
v1 
7 3 4
3 6 2
 4  2 11

To reduce work, we expand the numerator and denominator determinants by

minors along their first columns to get:

6 2 3 4 3 4
 11 3  25
 2 11  2 11 6 2
v1 
6 2 3 4 3 4
7   3   4
 2 11  2 11 6 2
 1162   3 41  2530   682  123  750
 
762  3 41  430  434  123  120
191
 1 V
191

Similarly:

7  11  4 7  3  11
3 3 2 3 6 3
 4 25 11  4  2 25
v2  2 V v3  3 V
191 191

Index Nodal Analysis PMcL

2 - Nodal and Mesh Analysis 2015

 2.9
2.1.2 Nodal Analysis Using Branch Element Stamps

The previous example shows that nodal analysis leads to the equation Gv  i .
We will now develop a method whereby the equation Gv  i can be built up
on an element-by-element basis by inspection of each branch in the circuit.

Consider a resistive element connected between nodes i and j:

vi G vj vi G vj

(vi - vj ) (vj - vi )

(a) (b)

Figure 2.1

Suppose that we are writing the ith KCL equation because we are considering
the current leaving node i (see Figure 2.1a). The term that we would write in
this equation to take into account the branch connecting nodes i and j is:

  Gvi  v j     0 (2.1)

This term appears in the ith row when writing out the matrix equation.

If we are dealing with the jth KCL equation because we are considering the
current leaving node j (see Figure 2.1b) then the term that we would write in
this equation to take into account the branch connecting nodes j and i is:

  Gv j  vi     0 (2.2)

This term appears in the jth row when writing out the matrix equation.

PMcL Nodal Analysis Index

2015 2 - Nodal and Mesh Analysis

 2.10

Thus, the branch between nodes i and j contributes the following element
stamp to the conductance matrix, G :

i j
The element stamp
for a conductance i  G  G (2.3)

j  G G 

If node i or node j is the reference node, then the corresponding row and
column are eliminated from the element stamp shown above.

For any circuit containing only resistors and independent current sources, the
conductance matrix can now be built up by inspection. The result will be a G
matrix where each diagonal element g ii is the sum of conductances connected

to node i, and each off-diagonal element g ij is the total conductance between

nodes i and j but with a negative sign.

Now consider a current source connected between nodes i and j:

I
vi vj

Figure 2.2

In writing out the ith KCL equation we would introduce the term:

 I    0 (2.4)

In writing out the jth KCL equation we would introduce the term:

 I    0 (2.5)

Index Nodal Analysis PMcL

2 - Nodal and Mesh Analysis 2015

 2.11

Thus, a current source contributes to the right-hand side (rhs) of the matrix
equation the terms:

i I  The element stamp

 
j I 
(2.6) for an independent
current source

Thus, the i vector can also be built up by inspection – each row is the addition
of all current sources entering a particular node. This makes sense since
Gv  i is the mathematical expression for KCL in the form of “current leaving
a node = current entering a node”.

EXAMPLE 2.3 Nodal Analysis Using the “Formal” Approach

We will analyse the previous circuit but use the “formal” approach to nodal
analysis.

1/4 

-3 A

v1 1/3  v2 1/2  v3

-8 A 1 1/5  25 A

By inspection of each branch, we build the matrix equation:

1 2 3

1 3 
4 3  4   v1   8   3

2 3 1 3  2  2  v 2      3 

3
 4 2 5  4  2 v3   25 

This is the same equation as derived previously.

PMcL Nodal Analysis Index

2015 2 - Nodal and Mesh Analysis

 2.12
2.1.3 Circuits with Voltage Sources

Voltage sources present a problem in undertaking nodal analysis, since by

definition the voltage across a voltage source is independent of the current
through it. Thus, when we consider a branch with a voltage source when
writing a nodal equation, there is no way by which we can express the current
through the branch as a function of the nodal voltages across the branch.

There are two ways around this problem. The more difficult is to assign an
unknown current to each branch with a voltage source, proceed to apply KCL
at each node, and then apply KVL across each branch with a voltage source.
The result is a set of equations with an increased number of unknown variables.

The easier method is to introduce the concept of a supernode. A supernode

The concept of a
supernode encapsulates the voltage source, and we apply KCL to both end nodes at the
same time. The result is that the number of nodes at which we must apply KCL
is reduced by the number of voltage sources in the circuit.

EXAMPLE 2.4 Nodal Analysis with Voltage Sources

Consider the circuit shown below, which is the same as the previous circuit
except the 1 2  resistor between nodes 2 and 3 has been replaced by a 22 V
voltage source:

1/4 

-3 A
supernode

22 V
v1 1/3  v2 v3

-8 A 1 1/5  25 A

Index Nodal Analysis PMcL

2 - Nodal and Mesh Analysis 2015

 2.13

KCL at node 1 remains unchanged:

3v1  v2   4v1  v3    8   3  0
7v1  3v2  4v3  11

We find six branches connected to the supernode around the 22 V source

(suggested by a broken line in the figure). Beginning with the 1 3  resistor
branch and working clockwise, we sum the six currents leaving this supernode:

3v2  v1    3  4v3  v1    25  5v3  1v2  0

 7v1  4v2  9v3  28

We need one additional equation since we have three unknowns, and this is
provided by KVL between nodes 2 and 3 inside the supernode:

v3  v2  22

Rewriting these last three equations in matrix form, we have:

 7  3  4  v1   11
 7 4 9  v 2    28 

 0  1 1  v3   22 

The solution turns out to be v1  4.5 V , v2  15.5 V and v3  6.5 V .

Note the lack of symmetry about the major diagonal in the G matrix as well as
the fact that not all of the off-diagonal elements are negative. This is the result
The presence of a
of the presence of the voltage source. Note also that it does not make sense to dependent source
destroys the
call the G matrix the conductance matrix, for the bottom row comes from the symmetry in the G
matrix
equation  v2  v3  22 , and this equation does not depend on any
conductances in any way.

A supernode can contain any number of independent or dependent voltage

sources. In general, the analysis procedure is the same as the example above –
one KCL equation is written for currents leaving the supernode, and then a
KVL equation is written for each voltage source inside the supernode.

PMcL Nodal Analysis Index

2015 2 - Nodal and Mesh Analysis

 2.14
2.1.4 Circuits with Dependent Sources

Dependent current sources are fairly easy to include into nodal analysis – we
just need to express the dependent current in terms of nodal voltages.

Dependent voltages sources are dealt with using the concept of the supernode.
Of the two types of dependent voltage source, the current controlled voltage
source (CCVS) requires the most effort to incorporate into nodal analysis. We
will analyse this case before summarizing the method of nodal analysis for any
resistive circuit.

EXAMPLE 2.5 Nodal Analysis with Dependent Voltage Sources

Consider the circuit shown below, which is the same as the previous circuit
except now the 22 V voltage source has been replaced by a current controlled
voltage source:

1/4 

-3 A ix

supernode

ix / 8
v1 1/3  v2 v3

-8 A 1 1/5  25 A

KCL at node 1 remains unchanged:

3v1  v2   4v1  v3    8   3  0
7v1  3v2  4v3  11

Index Nodal Analysis PMcL

2 - Nodal and Mesh Analysis 2015

 2.15

KCL at the supernode, formed by considering nodes 2 and 3 together, remains

unchanged:

3v2  v1    3  4v3  v1    25  5v3  1v2  0

 7v1  4v2  9v3  28

Finally, we turn our attention to the dependent source. We rewrite the

dependent current in terms of nodal voltages:

i x  4v1  v3 

and then we write KVL for the dependent source as:

i x 4v1  v3 
v3  v 2  
8 8
v1  2v 2  3v3  0

In matrix form we now have:

 7  3  4  v1   11
 7 4 9  v 2    28 

 1 2  3 v3   0 

The nodal voltages turn out to be v1  1.431 V , v2  3.373 V and

v3  2.726 V .

In the previous example, the source dependency ( i x ) was easily expressed

using Ohm’s Law across the 1 4  resistor. In other cases, the dependency
may need to be found using KCL.

PMcL Nodal Analysis Index

2015 2 - Nodal and Mesh Analysis

 2.16

EXAMPLE 2.6 Nodal Analysis with a Dependent Voltage Source

Consider the circuit shown below:

2ix
supernode

v1 1 v2 ix

1/2  1/3  18 A

KCL at the supernode, formed by considering nodes 1 and 2 together, gives:

2v1  1v1  v2   1v2  v1   3v2  18  0

2v1  3v2  18

Note how the 1  resistor contributes nothing to the KCL equation. Next, we
turn our attention to the dependent source inside the supernode. We rewrite the
dependent current in terms of nodal voltages using KCL at node 2:

v 2  v1
 3v 2  i x  0
1
i x  v1  4v 2

and then we write KVL for the dependent source as:

v2  v1  2i x  2v1  4v2 
3v1  9v2  0

In matrix form we now have:

2 3   v1  18
 3  9  v    0 
  2   

The nodal voltages turn out to be v1  6 V , v2  2 V .

Index Nodal Analysis PMcL

2 - Nodal and Mesh Analysis 2015

 2.17
2.1.5 Summary of Nodal Analysis

We perform nodal analysis for any resistive circuit with N nodes by the The general
procedure to follow
following method: when undertaking
nodal analysis
1. Make a neat, simple, circuit diagram. Indicate all element and source
values. Each source should have its reference symbol.

2. Select one node as the reference node, or common. Then write the node
voltages v1 , v 2 , …, v N 1 at their respective nodes, remembering that
each node voltage is understood to be measured with respect to the
chosen reference.

3. If the circuit contains dependent sources, express those sources in terms

of the variables v1 , v 2 , …, v N 1 , if they are not already in that form.

4. If the circuit contains voltage sources, temporarily modify the given

circuit by replacing each voltage source by a short-circuit to form
supernodes, thus reducing the number of nodes by one for each voltage
source that is present. The assigned nodal voltages should not be
changed. Relate each supernode’s source voltage to the nodal voltages.

5. Apply KCL at each of the nodes or supernodes. If the circuit has only
resistors and independent current sources, then the equations may be
built using the “element stamp” approach.

6. Solve the resulting set of simultaneous equations.

PMcL Nodal Analysis Index

2015 2 - Nodal and Mesh Analysis

 2.18

EXAMPLE 2.7 Nodal Analysis with all Four Types of Sources

Consider the circuit shown below, which contains all four types of sources and
has five nodes.

v2

vx 1
1/2 
6A
3V
v4
v1 v3
2vx
1
1/2  4vy
vy

We select the bottom node as the reference and assign v1 to v4 in a clockwise

direction starting from the left node.

We next relate the controlled sources to the nodal voltages:

2vx  2v2  v1 
4v y  4v1

We form supernodes around the two voltage sources, and write relations for
them in terms of the nodal voltages:

v4  v1  3
v3  4v y  4v1

Thanks to the supernodes, we see that we only need to write KCL equations at
node 2 and the supernode containing both nodes 1 and 4. At node 2:

2v2  v1   6  1v2  v3   0
 2v1  3v2  v3  6

Index Nodal Analysis PMcL

2 - Nodal and Mesh Analysis 2015

 2.19

while at the supernode:

2v1  v 2   6  2v 2  v1   2v 4  1v1  0

 
2v x
v1  2v 4  6

Thus, we obtain four equations in the four node voltages:

1 0 01  v1   3 
4
 0 1 0 v 2   0 

 2 3  1 0 v3   6 
    
1 0 0 2  v 4    6 

The solution is:

v1  4 V
v 2  14 3 V
v3  16 V
v 4  1 V

The technique of nodal analysis described here is completely general and can
always be applied to any electrical circuit.

PMcL Nodal Analysis Index

2015 2 - Nodal and Mesh Analysis

 2.20

2.2 Mesh Analysis

Before we embark on mesh analysis, we need to define the concept of: a planar
circuit, a path through a circuit, a loop and a mesh. We can then outline the
analysis strategy using these terms.

2.2.1 Planar Circuits

A planar circuit is one where it is possible to draw the circuit on a plane

Planar circuits
defined surface in such a way that no branch passes over or under any other branch.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 2.3

In the figure above, circuit (a) is planar, circuit (b) is nonplanar and circuit (c)
is planar, but drawn so that it appears nonplanar.

Index Mesh Analysis PMcL

2 - Nodal and Mesh Analysis 2015

 2.21

2.2.2 Paths, Loops and Meshes

A path is made through a circuit when we start on one node and traverse
elements and nodes without encountering any nodes previously visited. A loop
is any closed path – i.e. the last node visited is the same as the starting node. A
mesh is a loop which does not contain any other loops within it. A mesh is a
property of a planar circuit and is not defined for a nonplanar circuit.
Examples of loops
and meshes

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

Figure 2.4

In the figure above, the set of branches in (a) identified by the heavy lines is
neither a path nor a loop. In (b) the set of branches is not a path since it can be
traversed only by passing through the central node twice. In (c) the closed path
is a loop but not a mesh. In (d) the closed path is also a loop but not a mesh. In
(e) and (f) each of the closed paths is both a loop and a mesh. This circuit
contains four meshes.

PMcL Mesh Analysis Index

2015 2 - Nodal and Mesh Analysis

 2.22
2.2.3 Mesh Current

We define a mesh current1 as a “mathematical” (or imaginary) current in which

charge flows only around the perimeter of a mesh. A mesh current is indicated
by a curved arrow that almost closes on itself and is drawn inside the
appropriate mesh.
Mesh currents
defined

i1 i2

Figure 2.5

Although the direction of mesh currents is arbitrary, we draw the mesh currents
in a clockwise direction so that a symmetry in the equations results when
performing mesh analysis. One of the great advantages of mesh currents is that
KCL is automatically satisfied, and no branch can appear in more than two
meshes.

We no longer have a current or current arrow shown on each branch in the

Branch currents can
be expressed in circuit. The current through any branch may be determined by superimposing
terms of mesh
currents each mesh current that exists in it. For example, the branch current heading
down in the middle resistor in the circuit above is given by i1  i2  .

1
It was the famous Scottish mathematical physicist James Clark Maxwell who invented the
concept of a mesh current, and the associated methodology of formulating the “mesh
equations”. The analysis of planar circuits using mesh currents was thus reduced to solving a
set of linear equations, in the same manner as nodal analysis.

Index Mesh Analysis PMcL

2 - Nodal and Mesh Analysis 2015

 2.23

2.2.4 Mesh Analysis Methodology

In general terms, mesh analysis for a planar circuit with M meshes proceeds as
follows:

1. Assign a clockwise mesh current in each of the M meshes. The general

principle of mesh
analysis
2. Write KVL around each mesh, in terms of the mesh currents.

3. Solve the resulting set of simultaneous equations.

As will be seen, the method outlined above becomes a little complicated if the
circuit contains current sources and / or controlled sources, but the principle
remains the same.

EXAMPLE 2.8 Mesh Analysis with Independent Sources

A two-mesh circuit is shown below.

6 4

42 V i1 3 i2 10 V

We apply KVL to each mesh. For the left-hand mesh:

42  6i1  3i1  i2   0
9i1  3i2  42

For the right-hand mesh:

 3i2  i1   4i2  10  0
 3i1  7i2  10

The solution is obtained by solving simultaneously: i1  6 A and i2  4 A .

PMcL Mesh Analysis Index

2015 2 - Nodal and Mesh Analysis

 2.24
2.2.5 Circuits with Resistors and Independent Voltage Sources Only

When the circuit contains only resistors and voltages sources, the KVL
equations have a certain symmetrical form and we can define a resistance
matrix with the circuit. We will find again that the matrix equation can be
formulated by inspection of the circuit.

EXAMPLE 2.9 Mesh Analysis with Independent Sources Only

Consider the five-node, three-mesh circuit shown below.

1
i2 2

i1 3
7V
6V
i3 1
2

The three required mesh currents are assigned as indicated, and we

methodically apply KVL about each mesh:

7  1i1  i2   6  2i1  i3   0
 1i2  i1   2i2  3i2  i3   0
 2i3  i1   6  3i3  i2   1i3  0

Simplifying and writing as a matrix equation:

 3  1  2  i1  1
  1 6  3 i   0
  2   
 2  3 6  i3  6

Index Mesh Analysis PMcL

2 - Nodal and Mesh Analysis 2015

 2.25

For circuits that contain only resistors and independent voltage sources, we
The resistance
define the resistance matrix of the circuit as: matrix defined

 3  1  2
R    1 6  3
 2  3 6 

Once again we note the symmetry about the major diagonal. This occurs only
for circuits with resistors and independent voltage sources when we order the
equations correctly (rows correspond to meshes).

We also define the current and voltage source vectors as:

 i1  1
i  i2  v  0
i3  6

Our KVL equations can therefore be written succinctly in matrix notation as:
Mesh analysis
Ri  v expressed in matrix
notation
Applying Cramer’s rule to the formulation for i1 gives:

1 1  2
0 6 3
6 3 6 27  0  90 117
i1     3A
3 1  2 81  12  30 39
1 6  3
2 3 6

The other mesh currents are: i2  2 A and i3  3 A .

PMcL Mesh Analysis Index

2015 2 - Nodal and Mesh Analysis

 2.26

2.2.6 Circuits with Current Sources

When a mesh has a current source in it, we must modify the procedure for
forming the circuit equations. There are two possible methods. In the first
method, we can relate the source current to the assigned mesh currents, assign
an arbitrary voltage across it (thereby increasing the number of variables by
one) and write KVL equations using this voltage. Alternately, a better method
is to take a lead from nodal analysis and formulate the dual of a supernode - a
supermesh.

The concept of a To create a supermesh, we open-circuit or remove current sources, thereby

supermesh
reducing the total number of meshes. We apply KVL only to those meshes in
the modified circuit.

EXAMPLE 2.10 Mesh Analysis with Current Sources

Consider the circuit shown below in which a 7 A independent current source is

in the common boundary of two meshes.

1
i2 2

i1 3
7V
7A
i3 1
2

For the independent current source, we relate the source current to the mesh
currents:

i1  i3  7

Index Mesh Analysis PMcL

2 - Nodal and Mesh Analysis 2015

 2.27

We then mentally open-circuit the current source, and form a supermesh whose
interior is that of meshes 1 and 3:

i2 2
1

i1 3
7V

i3 1

supermesh 2

Applying KVL about the supermesh:

7  1i1  i2   3i3  i2   1i3  0

Around mesh 2 we have:

 1i2  i1   2i2  3i2  i3   0

Rewriting these last three equations in matrix form, we have:

1 0  1  i1  7
 1  4 4  i   7
  2   
 1 6  3 i3  0

Notice that we have lost all symmetry in the matrix equation Ri  v , and we
can no longer call R the resistance matrix. Applying Cramer’s rule for i1 :

7 0 1
7 4 4
0 6 3  84  42  126
i1    9A
1 0 1  12  2  14
1 4 4
1 6  3

The other mesh currents are: i2  2.5 A and i3  2 A .

PMcL Mesh Analysis Index

2015 2 - Nodal and Mesh Analysis

 2.28
2.2.7 Circuits with Dependent Sources

Dependent voltage sources are fairly easy to include into mesh analysis – we
just need to express the dependent voltage in terms of mesh currents.

Dependent current sources are dealt with using the concept of the supermesh.
Of the two types of dependent current source, the voltage controlled current
source (VCCS) requires the most effort to incorporate into mesh analysis. We
will analyse this case before summarizing the method of mesh analysis for any
resistive circuit.

EXAMPLE 2.11 Mesh Analysis with Dependent Current Sources

In the circuit shown below we have both a dependent and an independent

current source:

1
i2 2

i1 3
15 A
vx
1
v
9 x 1
i3
2

For the independent current source, we relate the source current to the mesh
currents:

i1  15

Turning our attention to the dependent source, we describe the dependency in

terms of the mesh currents:

v x 3i3  i2 
i3  i1  
9 9
 3i1  i2  2i3  0

Index Mesh Analysis PMcL

2 - Nodal and Mesh Analysis 2015

 2.29

Since the current sources appear in meshes 1 and 3, when they are open-
circuited, only mesh 2 remains. Around mesh 2 we have:

 1i2  i1   2i2  3i2  i3   0

In matrix form we now have:

 1 0 0   i1  15
 3 1 2  i    0 
  2   
  1 6  3 i3   0 

The mesh currents turn out to be i1  15 A , i2  11 A and i3  17 A . We note

that we wasted a little time in assigning a mesh current i1 to the left mesh – we
should simply have indicated a mesh current and labelled it 15 A.

PMcL Mesh Analysis Index

2015 2 - Nodal and Mesh Analysis

 2.30

2.2.8 Summary of Mesh Analysis

The general We perform mesh analysis for any resistive circuit with M meshes by the
procedure to follow
when undertaking following method:
mesh analysis
1. Make certain that the circuit is a planar circuit. If it is nonplanar, then
mesh analysis is not applicable.

2. Make a neat, simple, circuit diagram. Indicate all element and source
values. Each source should have its reference symbol.

3. Assuming that the circuit has M meshes, assign a clockwise mesh

current in each mesh, i1 , i 2 , …, i M .

4. If the circuit contains dependent sources, express those sources in terms

of the variables i1 , i 2 , …, i M , if they are not already in that form.

5. If the circuit contains current sources, temporarily modify the given

circuit by replacing each current source by an open-circuit to form
supermeshes, thus reducing the number of meshes by one for each
current source that is present. The assigned mesh currents should not be
changed. Relate each source current to the mesh currents.

6. Apply KVL around each of the meshes or supermeshes. If the circuit

has only resistors and independent voltage sources, then the equations
may be formed by inspection.

7. Solve the resulting set of simultaneous equations.

Index Mesh Analysis PMcL

2 - Nodal and Mesh Analysis 2015

 2.31

2.3 Summary
 Nodal analysis can be applied to any circuit. Apart from relating source
voltages to nodal voltages, the equations of nodal analysis are formed from
application of Kirchhoff’s Current Law.

 In nodal analysis, a supernode is formed by short-circuiting a voltage

source and treating the two ends as a single node.

 Mesh analysis can only be applied to planar circuits. Apart from relating
source currents to mesh currents, the equations of mesh analysis are formed
from application of Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law.

 In mesh analysis, a supermesh is formed by open-circuiting a current

source and treating the perimeter of the original two meshes as a single
mesh.

2.4 References
Hayt, W. & Kemmerly, J.: Engineering Circuit Analysis, 3rd Ed., McGraw-
Hill, 1984.

PMcL Summary Index

2015 2 - Nodal and Mesh Analysis

 2.32

Exercises
1.
(a) Find the value of the determinant:

2 1 0  3
1 1 0 1

4 0 3 2
3 0 0 1

(b) Use Cramer’s rule to find v1 , v 2 and v3 if:

2v1  35  v 2  3v3  0
 2v3  3v 2  4v1  56
v 2  3v1  28  v3  0

2.
Use nodal techniques to determine i k in the circuit shown below:

20 

3ik

4A 10  5 -3 A

ik

Index Exercises PMcL

2 - Nodal and Mesh Analysis 2015

 2.33

3.
Set up nodal equations for the circuit shown below and then find the power
furnished by the 5 V source.

1/2 

5V
1/4
vx

5A 1/3 1
4vx

4.
Write mesh equations and then determine i x in each of the circuits shown
below:

60 V
10  ix

10 V 4 2A 5

(a)

4V
10 

8ix
6V 4
2
ix
(b)

PMcL Exercises Index

2015 2 - Nodal and Mesh Analysis

 2.34

5.
Assign mesh currents in the circuit below, write a set of mesh equations, and
determine i.

2 k 2 k

1 k 5V
i
vx
10 V vx 1 k

6.
With reference to the circuit shown below, use mesh equations to find i A and
the power supplied by the dependent source.

2iA

100 

iA
14 V 200 
300 

100  2V

Index Exercises PMcL

2 - Nodal and Mesh Analysis 2015

 2.35

Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824-1887)

Kirchhoff was born in Russia, and showed an early interest in mathematics. He
studied at the University of Königsberg, and in 1845, while still a student, he
pronounced Kirchhoff’s Laws, which allow the calculation of current and
voltage for any circuit. They are the Laws electrical engineers apply on a
routine basis – they even apply to non-linear circuits such as those containing
semiconductors, or distributed parameter circuits such as microwave striplines.

He graduated from university in 1847 and received a scholarship to study in

Paris, but the revolutions of 1848 intervened. Instead, he moved to Berlin
where he met and formed a close friendship with Robert Bunsen, the inorganic
chemist and physicist who popularized use of the “Bunsen burner”.

In 1857 Kirchhoff extended the work done by the German physicist Georg
Simon Ohm, by describing charge flow in three dimensions. He also analysed
circuits using topology. In further studies, he offered a general theory of how
electricity is conducted. He based his calculations on experimental results
which determine a constant for the speed of the propagation of electric charge.
Kirchhoff noted that this constant is approximately the speed of light – but the
greater implications of this fact escaped him. It remained for James Clerk
Maxwell to propose that light belongs to the electromagnetic spectrum.

Kirchhoff’s most significant work, from 1859 to 1862, involved his close
collaboration with Bunsen. Bunsen was in his laboratory, analysing various
salts that impart specific colours to a flame when burned. Bunsen was using
coloured glasses to view the flame. When Kirchhoff visited the laboratory, he
suggested that a better analysis might be achieved by passing the light from the
flame through a prism. The value of spectroscopy became immediately clear.
Each element and compound showed a spectrum as unique as any fingerprint,
which could be viewed, measured, recorded and compared.

Spectral analysis, Kirchhoff and Bunsen wrote not long afterward, promises
“the chemical exploration of a domain which up till now has been completely
closed.” They not only analysed the known elements, they discovered new

PMcL Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824-1887) Index

2015 2 - Nodal and Mesh Analysis

 2.36
ones. Analyzing salts from evaporated mineral water, Kirchhoff and Bunsen
detected a blue spectral line – it belonged to an element they christened
caesium (from the Latin caesius, sky blue). Studying lepidolite (a lithium-
based mica) in 1861, Bunsen found an alkali metal he called rubidium (from
the Latin rubidius, deepest red). Both of these elements are used today in
atomic clocks. Using spectroscopy, ten more new elements were discovered
before the end of the century, and the field had expanded enormously –
between 1900 and 1912 a “handbook” of spectroscopy was published by
Kayser in six volumes comprising five thousand pages!

“[Kirchhoff is] a Kirchhoff’s work on spectrum analysis led on to a study of the composition of
perfect example of
the true German light from the Sun. He was the first to explain the dark lines (Fraunhofer lines)
investigator. To
search after truth in in the Sun's spectrum as caused by absorption of particular wavelengths as the
its purest shape and
to give utterance
light passes through a gas. Kirchhoff wrote “It is plausible that spectroscopy is
with almost an also applicable to the solar atmosphere and the brighter fixed stars.” We can
abstract self-
forgetfulness, was now analyse the collective light of a hundred billion stars in a remote galaxy
the religion and
purpose of his life.” billions of light-years away – we can tell its composition, its age, and even how
– Robert von
Helmholtz, 1890. fast the galaxy is receding from us – simply by looking at its spectrum!

As a consequence of his work with Fraunhofer’s lines, Kirchhoff developed a

general theory of emission and radiation in terms of thermodynamics. It stated
that a substance’s capacity to emit light is equivalent to its ability to absorb it at
the same temperature. One of the problems that this new theory created was the
“blackbody” problem, which was to plague physics for forty years. This
fundamental quandary arose because heating a black body – such as a metal
bar – causes it to give off heat and light. The spectral radiation, which depends
only on the temperature and not on the material, could not be predicted by
classical physics. In 1900 Max Planck solved the problem by discovering
quanta, which had enormous implications for twentieth-century science.

In 1875 he was appointed to the chair of mathematical physics at Berlin and he

ceased his experimental work. An accident-related disability meant he had to
spend much of his life on crutches or in a wheelchair. He remained at the
University of Berlin until he retired in 1886, shortly before his death in 1887.

Index Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824-1887) PMcL

2 - Nodal and Mesh Analysis 2015

 3.1

3 Circuit Analysis Techniques

Contents

Introduction ..................................................................................................... 3.2

3.1 Linearity..................................................................................................... 3.3
3.2 Superposition ............................................................................................. 3.4
3.2.1 Superposition Theorem ................................................................. 3.6
3.3 Source Transformations ........................................................................... 3.10
3.3.1 Practical Voltage Sources ........................................................... 3.10
3.3.2 Practical Current Sources ........................................................... 3.12
3.3.3 Practical Source Equivalence ..................................................... 3.14
3.3.4 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem .......................................... 3.16
3.4 Thévenin’s and Norton’s Theorem .......................................................... 3.20
3.4.1 Summary of Finding Thévenin Equivalent Circuits ................... 3.28
3.5 Summary.................................................................................................. 3.32
3.6 References ............................................................................................... 3.32
Exercises ........................................................................................................ 3.33

PMcL Contents Index

2015 3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques

 3.2

Introduction
Many of the circuits that we analyse and design are linear circuits. Linear
circuits possess the property that “outputs are proportional to inputs”, and that
“a sum of inputs leads to a sum of corresponding outputs”. This is the principle
of superposition and is a very important consequence of linearity. As will be
seen later, this principle will enable us to analyse circuits with multiple sources
in an easy way.

Nonlinear circuits can be analysed and designed with graphical methods or

numerical methods (with a computer) – the mathematics that describe them can
only be performed by hand in the simplest of cases. Examples of nonlinear
circuits are those that contain diodes, transistors, and ferromagnetic material.

In reality all circuits are nonlinear, since there must be physical limits to the
linear operation of devices, e.g. voltages will eventually break down across
insulation, resistors will burn because they can’t dissipate heat to their
surroundings, etc. Therefore, when we draw, analyse and design a linear
circuit, we keep in mind that it is a model of the real physical circuit, and it is
only valid under a defined range of operating conditions.

In modelling real physical circuit elements, we need to consider practical

sources as opposed to ideal sources. A practical source gives a more realistic
representation of a physical device. We will study methods whereby practical
current and voltage sources may be interchanged without affecting the
remainder of the circuit. Such sources will be called equivalent sources.

Finally, through the use of Thévenin’s theorem and Norton’s theorem, we will
see that we can replace a large portion of a complex circuit (often a
complicated and uninteresting part) with a very simple equivalent circuit, thus
enabling analysis and focus on one particular element of the circuit.

Index Introduction PMcL

3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques 2015

 3.3

3.1 Linearity
A linear circuit is one that contains linear elements, independent sources, and A linear circuit
defined
linear dependent sources.

A linear element is one that possesses a linear relationship between a cause and
A linear element
an effect. For example, when a voltage is impressed across a resistor, a current defined
results, and the amount of current (the effect) is proportional to the voltage (the
cause). This is expressed by Ohm’s Law, v  Ri . Notice that a linear element
means simply that if the cause is increased by some multiplicative constant K,
then the effect is also increased by the same constant K.

If a linear element’s relationship is graphed as “cause” vs. “effect”, the result is

a straight line through the origin. For example, the resistor relationship is:

A linear relationship
is defined by a
straight line through
v the origin

R
1

Figure 3.1

A linear dependent source is one whose output voltage or current is

A linear dependent
proportional only to the first power of some current or voltage variable in the source defined
circuit (or a sum of such quantities). For example, a dependent voltage source
given by vs  0.6i1  14v2 is linear, but v s  0.6i12 and vs  0.6i1v2 are not.

From the definition of a linear circuit, it is possible to show that “the response
Output is
is proportional to the source”, or that multiplication of all independent sources proportional to input
by a constant K increases all the current and voltage responses by the same for a linear circuit
factor K (including the dependent source outputs).

PMcL Linearity Index

2015 3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques

 3.4

3.2 Superposition
The linearity property of a circuit leads directly to the principle of
superposition. To develop the idea, consider the following example:

EXAMPLE 3.1 Superposition

We have a 3-node circuit:

v1 5 v2

ia 2 1 ib

There are two independent current sources which force the currents i a and ib
into the circuit. Sources are often called forcing functions for this reason, and
the voltages they produce at each node in this circuit may be termed response
functions, or simply responses.

The two nodal equations for this circuit are:

0.7v1  0.2v 2  ia
 0.2v1  1.2v 2  ib

Now we perform experiment x. We change the two current sources to iax and

ibx ; the two unknown node voltages will now be different, and we let them be

v1x and v 2 x . Thus:

0.7v1x  0.2v2 x  iax

 0.2v1x  1.2v2 x  ibx

Index Superposition PMcL

3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques 2015

 3.5

If we now perform experiment y by changing the current sources again, we get:

0.7v1 y  0.2v2 y  iay

 0.2v1 y  1.2v2 y  iby

We now add or superpose the two results of the experiments:

0.7v1x  v1 y   0.2v2 x  v2 y   iax  iay 

 0.2v1x  v1 y   1.2v2 x  v2 y   ibx  iby 

Compare this with the original set of equations:

0.7v1  0.2v 2  ia
 0.2v1  1.2v 2  ib

We can draw an interesting conclusion. If we let iax  iay  ia , ibx  iby  ib ,

then the desired responses are given by v1  v1x  v1 y and v2  v2 x  v2 y . That

is, we may perform experiment x and note the responses, perform experiment y
and note the responses, and finally add the corresponding responses. These are
the responses of the original circuit to independent sources which are the sums
of the independent sources used in experiments x and y.

This is the fundamental concept involved in the superposition principle. It is Superposition allows
evident that we may break an independent source into as many pieces as we us to treat inputs
separately, then
wish, so long as the algebraic sum of the pieces is equal to the original source. combine individual
responses to obtain
the total response
In practical applications of the superposition principle, we usually set each
independent source to zero, so that we can analyse the circuit one source at a
time.

PMcL Superposition Index

2015 3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques

 3.6

3.2.1 Superposition Theorem

We can now state the superposition theorem as it is mostly applied to circuits:

The superposition
theorem In any linear network containing several sources, we can
calculate any response by adding algebraically all the
(3.1)
individual responses caused by each independent source
acting alone, with all other independent sources set to zero.

When we set the value of an independent voltage source to zero, we create a

short-circuit by definition. When we set the value of an independent current
source to zero, we create an open-circuit by definition.

Setting a voltage
source to zero
creates a short-
circuit. Setting a
current source to
zero creates an 0V S.C. 0A O.C.
open-circuit.

Figure 3.2

Note that dependent sources cannot be arbitrarily set to zero, and are generally
active when considering every individual independent source.

The theorem as stated above can be made much stronger – a group of

independent sources may be made active and inactive collectively. For
example, sometimes it is handy to consider all voltage sources together, so that
mesh analysis can be applied easily, and then all current sources together so
that nodal analysis may be applied easily.

There is also no reason that an independent source must assume only its given
value or zero – it is only necessary that the sum of the several values be equal
to the original value. However, an inactive source almost always leads to the
simplest circuit.

Index Superposition PMcL

3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques 2015

 3.7
EXAMPLE 3.2 Superposition with Independent Sources

We use superposition in the following circuit to write an expression for the

unknown branch current i x .

6
ix

vs = 3 V 9 is = 2 A

We first set the current source equal to zero (an open-circuit) and obtain the
portion of i x due to the voltage source as 0.2 A. Then if we let the voltage
source be zero (a short-circuit) and apply the current divider rule, the
remaining portion of i x is seen to be 0.8 A.

We may write the answer in detail as:

3 6
ix  ix  ix   2  0.2  0.8  1 A
is  0 vs  0
69 69

PMcL Superposition Index

2015 3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques

 3.8

EXAMPLE 3.3 Superposition with Dependent Sources

The circuit below contains a dependent source.

2 ix 1

10 V v 3A 2ix

We seek i x , and we first open-circuit the 3 A source. The single mesh equation
is:

10  2i x  1i x  2i x  0

so that:

i x  2

Next, we short-circuit the 10 V source and write the single node equation:

v  v   2i x
 3  0
2 1

and relate the dependent-source-controlling quantity to v  :

v  2i x

We find:

i x  0.6

and thus:

i x  i x  i x  2  0.6  1.4 A

It usually turns out that little, if any, time is saved in analysing a circuit
containing dependent sources by use of the superposition principle, because
there are at least two sources in operation: one independent source and all the
dependent sources.

Index Superposition PMcL

3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques 2015

 3.9
We must be aware of the limitations of superposition. It is applicable only to Superposition is
often misapplied to
linear responses, and thus the most common nonlinear response – power – is power in a circuit
element
not subject to superposition.

EXAMPLE 3.4 Superposition Cannot be Applied to Power

The circuit below contains two 1 V batteries in series.

1

1V 1V

If we apply superposition, then each voltage source alone delivers 1 A and

furnishes 1 W. We might then mistakenly calculate the total power delivered to
the resistor as 2 W. This is incorrect.

Each source provides 1 A, making the total current in the resistor 2 A. The
power delivered to the resistor is therefore 4 W.

PMcL Superposition Index

2015 3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques

 3.10

3.3 Source Transformations

3.3.1 Practical Voltage Sources
The ideal voltage source is defined as a device whose terminal voltage is
independent of the current through it. Graphically, it’s characteristic is:

An ideal voltage
source, and its
terminal
characteristic
i v

vs
vs v

ideal source terminal characteristic

i

Figure 3.3

The ideal voltage source can provide any amount of current, and an unlimited
amount of power. No such device exists practically. All practical voltage
sources suffer from a voltage drop when they deliver current – the larger the
current, the larger the voltage drop. Such behaviour can be modelled by the
inclusion of a resistor in series with an ideal voltage source:
A practical voltage
source, and its
terminal
characteristic R sv i
v

vs
vs v
R sv vs
1 R sv
practical source terminal characteristic
i

Figure 3.4

Index Source Transformations PMcL

3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques 2015

 3.11
The terminal characteristic of the practical voltage source is given by KVL:
The terminal
v  vs  Rsvi (3.2)
characteristic of a
practical voltage
source…

The resistance Rsv is known as the internal resistance or output resistance.

This resistor (in most cases) is not a real physical resistor that is connected in …shows the effect
of the internal
series with a voltage source – it merely serves to account for a terminal voltage resistance
which decreases as the load current increases.

The applicability of this model to a practical source depends on the device and
the operating conditions. For example, a DC power supply such as found in a
laboratory will maintain a linear relationship in its terminal characteristic over
a larger range of currents than a chemical battery.

When we attach a load to a practical voltage source:

A load attached to a
practical voltage
R sv source will always
iL exhibit less voltage
and current than the
ideal case

vs vL RL

Figure 3.5

we get a load voltage which is always less than the open-circuit voltage, and
given by the voltage divider rule:

RL
vL  vs  vs (3.3)
Rsv  RL
The load current will also be less than we expect from an ideal source:

vs v
iL   s (3.4)
Rsv  RL RL
PMcL Source Transformations Index

2015 3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques

 3.12
3.3.2 Practical Current Sources
The ideal current source is defined as a device whose current is independent of
the voltage across it. Graphically, it’s characteristic is:
An ideal current
source, and its
terminal
characteristic v
i

v is
is
i

ideal source terminal characteristic

Figure 3.6

The ideal current source can support any terminal voltage regardless of the load
resistance to which it is connected, and an unlimited amount of power. An
ideal current source is nonexistent in the real world. For example, transistor
circuits and op-amp circuits can deliver a constant current to a wide range of
load resistances, but the load resistance can always be made sufficiently large
so that the current through it becomes very small. Such behaviour can be
modelled by the inclusion of a resistor in parallel with an ideal current source:
A practical current
source, and its
terminal
characteristic i v

R si i s
is R si v
R si
1
is
practical source terminal characteristic
i

Figure 3.7

Index Source Transformations PMcL

3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques 2015

 3.13
The terminal characteristic of the practical current source is given by KCL:

The terminal
v characteristic of a
i  is  practical current
Rsi (3.5) source

or v  Rsiis  Rsii
When we attach a load to a practical current source:
A load attached to a
practical current
source will always
iL exhibit less voltage
and current than the
ideal case

is R si v L RL

Figure 3.8

we get a load current which is always less than the short-circuit current, and
given by the current divider rule:

Rsi
iL  is  is (3.6)
Rsi  RL
The load voltage will also be less than we expect from an ideal source:

Rsi RLis
vL   RLis (3.7)
Rsi  RL

PMcL Source Transformations Index

2015 3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques

 3.14

3.3.3 Practical Source Equivalence

We define two sources as being equivalent if each produces identical current

and identical voltage for any load which is placed across it terminals. With
reference to the practical voltage and current source terminal characteristics:

v v

vs R si i s
R sv vs R si
1 R sv 1
is
practical voltage source
i practical current source
i

Figure 3.9

we can easily establish the conditions for equivalence. We must have:

If practical sources

Rsv  Rsi  Rs
are equivalent then
they have the same (3.8)
internal resistance

so that the slopes of the two terminal characteristics are equal. We now let Rs
represent the internal resistance of either practical source. To achieve the same
voltage and current axes intercepts, we must have, respectively:

vs
vs  Rsiis and  is (3.9)
Rsv

But since Rsv  Rsi  Rs , these two relations turn into just one requirement:
The relationship
between a practical
voltage source and
a practical current
vs  Rsis (3.10)
source

Index Source Transformations PMcL

3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques 2015

 3.15

We can now transform between practical voltage and current sources:

The equivalence of
practical sources
Rs i i

vs v is Rs v
= Rs is v
= s
Rs
practical voltage source practical current source

Figure 3.10

EXAMPLE 3.5 Equivalent Practical Sources

Consider the practical current source shown below:

3A 2

Since its internal resistance is 2  , the internal resistance of the equivalent

practical voltage source is also 2  . The voltage of the ideal voltage source
contained within the practical voltage source is vs  Rs is  2  3  6 V . The
equivalent practical voltage source is shown below:

2

6V

PMcL Source Transformations Index

2015 3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques

 3.16
3.3.4 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

Consider a practical DC voltage source:

Rs
IL

Vs VL RL

Figure 3.11

The power delivered to the load RL is:

RLVs2
PL  R I  2

Rs  RL 2
L L (3.11)

Assume that VS and RS are known and fixed, and that RL is allowed to vary.

A graph of the load power PL versus load resistance RL is shown below:

A graph of the
power delivered to a
load versus the load PL
resistance shows
clearly that a peak
occurs at a certain
resistance PLmax

R L max RL

Figure 3.12

Index Source Transformations PMcL

3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques 2015

 3.17

To find the value of RL that absorbs maximum power from the practical
source, we differentiate with respect to RL (using the quotient rule):

PL Rs  RL  Vs2  Vs2 RL 2Rs  RL 

2

Rs  RL 4
(3.12)
RL
and equate the derivative to zero to obtain the relative maximum:

Rs  RL 2  2RL Rs  RL   0 (3.13)

or:
The load resistance
RL  Rs (3.14)
which maximizes
power delivered
from a practical
source
Since the values RL  0 and RL   both give a minimum ( PL  0 ), then this
value is the absolute maximum (and not just a relative maximum).

Since we have already proved the equivalence between practical voltage and
current sources, we have proved the following maximum power transfer
theorem:
The maximum
An independent voltage source in series with a resistance Rs , power transfer
theorem…
or an independent current source in parallel with a resistance Rs ,
(3.15)
delivers a maximum power to that load resistance R L when
R L  Rs .

We can only apply the maximum power transfer theorem when we have
control over the load resistance, i.e. if we know the source resistance, then we …only applies to a
choice of load
can choose RL  Rs to maximize power transfer. On the other hand, if we are resistor

given a load resistance and we are free to design or choose a source resistance,
we do not choose Rs  RL to maximize power transfer – by examining

Eq. (3.11), we see that for a voltage source we should choose Rs  0 (and for a

current source we should choose Rs   ).

PMcL Source Transformations Index

2015 3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques

 3.18

If we choose RL  Rs to obtain maximum power transfer to a load, then by

Eq. (3.11) that maximum power is:

The maximum
power delivered Vs2 Vs2
from a practical PL max   (3.16)
source 4 RL 4 Rs

There is a distinct difference between drawing maximum power from a source

and delivering maximum power to a load. If the load is sized such that
RL  Rs , it will receive maximum power from that source. However,
considering just the practical source itself, we draw maximum possible power
from the ideal voltage source by drawing the maximum possible current –
which is achieved by shorting the source’s terminals. However, in this extreme
case, we deliver zero power to the “load” (a 0 Ω resistor).

Power matching is used in three situations:

 where the signal levels are very small, so any power lost gives a worse
signal to noise ratio. e.g. in antenna to receiver connections in television,
radio and radar.

 high frequency electronics

 where the signal levels are very large, where the maximum efficiency is
desirable on economic grounds. e.g. a broadcast antenna, audio amplifier.

Index Source Transformations PMcL

3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques 2015

 3.19

EXAMPLE 3.6 Power Transfer

Consider the circuit shown below:

2 IL

18 V VL RL

We want to determine the values of the load resistor that draw half the
maximum power deliverable by the practical source. The maximum power
deliverable by the source is:

Vs2 18 2
PL max    40.5 W
4 Rs 4  2

Half the maximum power deliverable is therefore 20.25 W. The power

dissipated by the load resistor is:

2
 Vs 
PL  R I  RL 
2

 Rs  R L
L L


Substituting values gives:

2
 18  324 RL
20.25  RL   
 2  RL  2  RL 2
2  RL 2  16 RL
RL2  12 RL  4  0

Solving this quadratic gives:

12  12 2  4  4
RL 
2
 6  32
 11.66 or 0.3431 

PMcL Source Transformations Index

2015 3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques

 3.20

3.4 Thévenin’s and Norton’s Theorem

Thévenin’s and Norton’s theorems greatly simplify the analysis of many linear
circuits. Léon Thévenin was a French engineer working in telegraphy who first
published a statement of the theorem in 1883. Edward Norton was a scientist
with the Bell Telephone Laboratories who mentioned his theorem in a
technical memorandum in 1926, but never published it.

Thévenin’s theorem tells us that it is possible to replace a large portion of a

linear circuit (often a complicated and / or uninteresting portion) by an
equivalent circuit containing only an independent voltage source in series with
a resistor:
Thévenin’s theorem
allows us to replace
part of a circuit with
a practical voltage R Th
source
large rest rest
portion
of of
of vTh
linear circuit circuit
circuit

Thévenin equivalent circuit

Figure 3.13

Norton’s theorem is the dual of Thévenin’s theorem, and uses a current source:
Norton’s theorem
allows us to replace
part of a circuit with
a practical current
source large rest rest
portion
of iN RN of
of
linear circuit circuit
circuit

Norton equivalent circuit

Figure 3.14

Index Thévenin’s and Norton’s Theorem PMcL

3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques 2015

 3.21
We can state Thévenin’s theorem formally as:
Thévenin’s theorem
Given any linear circuit, rearrange it in the form of two circuits
A and B that are connected together at two terminals.
If either circuit contains a dependent source, its control variable
must be in the same circuit.
Define a voltage v oc as the open-circuit voltage which would
(3.17)
appear across the terminals of A if B were disconnected so that
no current is drawn from A. Then all the currents and voltages in
B will remain unchanged if A has all its independent sources set
to zero and an independent voltage source v oc is connected in
series with the inactive A network.

The inactive circuit A will always reduce to a single resistor, which we call the
Thévenin resistance, RTh . Also, since v oc appears as an independent voltage

source in the Thévenin equivalent circuit, it is also denoted as vTh .

We can state Norton’s theorem formally as:

Norton’s theorem
Given any linear circuit, rearrange it in the form of two circuits
A and B that are connected together at two terminals.
If either circuit contains a dependent source, its control variable
must be in the same circuit.
Define a current i sc as the short-circuit current which would
(3.18)
appear across the terminals of A if B were short-circuited so that
no voltage is provided by A. Then all the voltages and currents in
B will remain unchanged if A has all its independent sources set
to zero and an independent current source i sc is connected in
parallel with the inactive A network.

The inactive circuit A will always reduce to a single resistor, which we call the
Norton resistance, R N . Also, since i sc appears as an independent current

source in the Norton equivalent circuit, it is also denoted as i N .

PMcL Thévenin’s and Norton’s Theorem Index

2015 3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques

 3.22
The Thévenin or Norton equivalent circuit allows us to draw a new simpler
circuit and make rapid calculations of the voltage, current, and power. It also
allows us to easily choose a “load” resistance for maximum power transfer.

EXAMPLE 3.7 Thévenin and Norton Equivalent Circuits

Consider the circuit shown below:

3 7

12 V 6 RL

Circuit A Circuit B

The broken lines separate the original circuit into circuits A and B. We shall
assume that our main interest is in circuit B, which consists only of a “load”
resistor R L . To form the Thévenin equivalent circuit, we disconnect circuit B

and use voltage division to determine that voc  8 V . When we set all
independent sources in circuit A to zero, we replace the 12 V source with a
short-circuit. “Looking back” into the inactive A circuit, we “see” a 7 
resistor connected in series with the parallel combination of 6  and 3  .
Thus, the inactive A circuit can be represented by a 9  resistor. If we now
replace circuit A by its Thévenin equivalent circuit, we have:

9

8V RL

Thévenin equivalent of Circuit B

Circuit A

Index Thévenin’s and Norton’s Theorem PMcL

3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques 2015

 3.23

Note that the Thévenin equivalent circuit we have obtained for circuit A is
completely independent of circuit B – an equivalent for A may be obtained no
matter what arrangement of elements is connected to the A circuit, even if
circuit B is nonlinear!

From the viewpoint of the load resistor R L , the Thévenin equivalent circuit is
identical to the original; from our viewpoint, the circuit is much simpler and we
can now easily compute various quantities. For example, the power delivered
to the load is:

2
 8 
PL    RL
 9  RL 

Furthermore, we can now easily see that the maximum voltage which can be
obtained across R L is 8 V when RL   . A quick transformation of the
Thévenin equivalent circuit to a practical current source (the Norton
equivalent) indicates that the maximum current which may be delivered to the
load is 8 9 A for RL  0 . The maximum power transfer theorem shows that a
maximum power is delivered to R L when RL  9  . None of these facts is
readily apparent from the original circuit.

PMcL Thévenin’s and Norton’s Theorem Index

2015 3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques

 3.24

To form the Norton equivalent circuit, we short-circuit the B circuit and use the
current divider rule to discover:

 
6  12  72 72 8
i sc     A
67 6  7  39  42 81 9
3 
 67 

When we set all independent sources in circuit A to zero, we get the same
results as for the Thévenin circuit, and so RN  9  . The Norton equivalent
circuit is therefore:

8/9 A 9 RL

Norton equivalent of Circuit B

Circuit A

It should be apparent from the previous example that we can easily find the
Norton equivalent circuit from the Thévenin equivalent circuit, and vice versa,
by a simple source transformation. Using our previous results, we must have:
The Thévenin and
Norton equivalent
resistances are the RTh  RN (3.19)
same

Because of this result, we usually just refer to the resistor in either equivalent
circuit as the Thévenin resistance, RTh .

We also have:
The relationship
between the
Thévenin and voc  RThisc (3.20)
Norton equivalent
circuits

Index Thévenin’s and Norton’s Theorem PMcL

3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques 2015

 3.25

EXAMPLE 3.8 Thévenin and Norton Equivalent Circuits

Consider the circuit shown below:

2 3

4V 2A 1

Circuit A Circuit B

The Thévenin and Norton equivalent circuits are desired from the perspective
of the 1  resistor. We determine RTh for the inactive network, and then find

either v oc or i sc . Making the independent sources inactive, we have:

2 3

We thus have RTh  5  . The open-circuit voltage can be determined using

superposition. With only the 4 V source operating , the open-circuit voltage is
4 V. When only the 2 A source is on, the open-circuit voltage is also 4 V. Thus,
with both sources operating, we have voc  8 V . This determines the Thévenin
equivalent, and from it the Norton equivalent, shown below:

5

8V 1 1.6 A 5 1

PMcL Thévenin’s and Norton’s Theorem Index

2015 3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques

 3.26
We will often find it convenient to determine either the Thévenin or Norton
equivalent by finding both the open-circuit voltage and the short-circuit
current, and then determining the Thévenin resistance by:
The Thévenin
equivalent
resistance can be voc
obtained from the RTh  (3.21)
open-circuit voltage
and short-circuit
isc
current
This is especially true for circuits that contain dependent sources.

EXAMPLE 3.9 Thévenin Equivalent with Mixed Sources

Consider the circuit shown below:

2 3

vx vx
4V 4

To find v oc we note that v x  voc , and that the dependent source current must
pass through the 2  resistor since there is an open circuit to the right. KCL at
the top of the dependent source gives:

voc  4 voc
 0
2 4
voc  8 V

Upon short-circuiting the output terminals, it is apparent that v x  0 and the

dependent current source is zero. Hence isc  4 2  3  0.8 A . Thus

RTh  voc isc  8 0.8  10  and the Thévenin equivalent is:

10 

8V

Index Thévenin’s and Norton’s Theorem PMcL

3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques 2015

 3.27
If a circuit contains only dependent sources and no independent sources, then
If a circuit does not
the circuit qualifies as the inactive A circuit and voc  0 and isc  0 . We seek contain independent
sources, then one
the value of RTh represented by the circuit, but in this case RTh  voc isc is must be applied to
obtain the Thévenin
undefined, and we must use a different approach. We apply either an equivalent
resistance
independent voltage source or an independent current source externally to the
A circuit and “measure” the resultant current or voltage.

EXAMPLE 3.10 Thévenin Equivalent with Dependent Source Only

Consider the circuit shown below:

3 i

1.5i 2

If we apply a 1 A source externally, and “measure” the resultant voltage, then

RTh  v 1 :

3 i

1.5i 2 v 1A

We see that i  1 A and KCL gives:

v  1.5 1 v
 1  0
3 2

so that v  0.6 V and RTh  0.6  . The Thévenin equivalent is:

0.6

PMcL Thévenin’s and Norton’s Theorem Index

2015 3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques

 3.28
3.4.1 Summary of Finding Thévenin Equivalent Circuits

We have seen three approaches to finding the Thévenin equivalent circuit. The
first example contained only independent sources and resistors, and we could
use several different methods on it. One involved finding v oc for the active

circuit, and then RTh for the inactive circuit. We could also have found i sc and

RTh , or v oc and i sc . In the second example, both independent and dependent

sources were present, and the method we used required us to find v oc and i sc .

The last example did not contain any independent sources, and we found RTh

by applying a 1 A source and finding RTh  v 1 . We could also have applied a

1 V source and determined RTh  1 i .

These important techniques and the types of circuits to which they may be
applied most readily are indicated in the table below:
Suitable
methods to Circuit contains
obtain the
Thévenin
equivalent
circuit

Methods

RTh and v oc or i sc  – –

v oc and i sc Possible  –

i  1 A or v  1 V – – 
Table 3.1 – Suitable methods to obtain the Thévenin equivalent circuit

Index Thévenin’s and Norton’s Theorem PMcL

3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques 2015

 3.29

All possible methods do not appear in the table. Another method has a certain
A method to obtain
appeal because it can be used for any of the three types of circuit tabulated. the Thévenin
equivalent circuit
Simply label the terminals of the A circuit as v, define the current leaving the that works for all
positive polarity as i, then analyse the A circuit to obtain an equation in the circuits
form v  voc  RTh i .

EXAMPLE 3.11 Thévenin Equivalent Using a Linear Equation

Consider the circuit shown below:

2 v1 3 i

4V 2A v

KCL at the middle node gives:

v1  4
2i  0
2
v1  8  2i

KVL at the output gives:

v  v1  3i
 8  5i
 voc  RTh i

from which voc  8 V and RTh  5  , as before:

5 i

8V v

PMcL Thévenin’s and Norton’s Theorem Index

2015 3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques

 3.30

EXAMPLE 3.12 Thévenin Equivalent Using a Linear Equation

Consider the circuit shown below:

2 v1 3 i

v v
4V 4

KCL at the middle node gives:

v1  4 v
 i  0
2 4
v
v1  4   2i
2

KVL at the output gives:

v  v1  3i
v
 4  5i
2
 8  10i
 voc  RTh i

from which voc  8 V and RTh  10  , as before:

10 

8V

Index Thévenin’s and Norton’s Theorem PMcL

3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques 2015

 3.31

EXAMPLE 3.13 Thévenin Equivalent Using a Linear Equation

Consider the circuit shown below:

3 i

1.5i 2 v

KCL at the top right node gives:

v  1.5i v
 i  0
3 2
5v  3i  0
v  0  0.6i
 voc  RTh i

from which voc  0 V and RTh  0.6  , as before:

0.6

This procedure is universally applicable, but one of the other methods is

usually easier and quicker to perform.

PMcL Thévenin’s and Norton’s Theorem Index

2015 3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques

 3.32

3.5 Summary
 A linear circuit is one that contains linear elements, independent sources,
and linear dependent sources. For a linear circuit, it is possible to show that
“the response is proportional to the source”.

 The superposition theorem states that, in evaluating the “response” in a

linear circuit due to several sources, we are free to treat each independent
source separately, collectively, or in any number of parts, and then
superpose the response caused by each part.

 A practical voltage source consists of an ideal voltage source v s in series

with a resistance Rsv . A practical current source consists of an ideal current

source i s in parallel with a resistance Rsi . The practical sources can be

made equivalent by setting Rsv  Rsi  Rs and vs  Rsis .

 The maximum power transfer theorem states that if we know the source
resistance Rs of a practical source, then to maximize power transfer to a

load R L , we set RL  Rs .

 Thévenin’s theorem tells us that it is possible to replace a large portion of a

linear circuit by an equivalent circuit containing only an independent
voltage source in series with a resistor.

 Norton’s theorem tells us that it is possible to replace a large portion of a

linear circuit by an equivalent circuit containing only an independent
current source in parallel with a resistor.

 There are several methods that can be applied to determine a Thévenin or

Norton equivalent circuit. Some methods are only applicable to certain
circuits, and the most convenient analysis method should be chosen.

3.6 References
Hayt, W. & Kemmerly, J.: Engineering Circuit Analysis, 3rd Ed., McGraw-
Hill, 1984.

Index Summary PMcL

3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques 2015

 3.33

Exercises
1.
Find the power dissipated in the 20  resistor of the circuit shown below by
each of the following methods:

(a) nodal equations

(b) mesh equations

(c) source transformations to eliminate all current sources, then a method of

your choice

(d) source transformations to eliminate all voltage sources, followed by any

method you wish.

1 20 

27 V 4 5 6A

2.
The circuit shown below contains a dependent source. Use superposition to
find I .

-4 V
3

1
Vx 2
5Vx
2A
I

PMcL Exercises Index

2015 3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques

 3.34

3.
Consider the linear circuit shown below.

vx

Linear
i s1 Circuit i s2

(a) The circuit contains only resistors. If is1  8 A and is 2  12 A , v x is found

to be 80 V. However, if is1  8 A and is 2  4 A , then vx  0 V . Find v x

when is1  is 2  20 A .

(b) The circuit now contains a source such that vx  40 V when

is1  is 2  0 A . All data in part (a) are still correct. Find v x when

is1  is 2  20 A .

4.
Consider the circuit shown below:

1 6

a
18 A 2 12  18 V
b

(a) Find the Norton equivalent of the circuit.

(b) If a variable resistor R were placed between terminals a and b, what value
would result in maximum power being drawn from the terminals?

(c) Find the maximum power that could be drawn from terminals a and b.
Index Exercises PMcL

3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques 2015

 3.35

5.
Find the maximum power that can be delivered to a variable R in the circuit
below:

1 2
20 V
R

3 4

6.
In the circuit below, what value of resistance should be connected between
terminals a-b to draw maximum power?

vx 1

2
a
3 4 9 sin(120 t ) V
5vx b

PMcL Exercises Index

2015 3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques

 3.36

7.
Consider the circuit below:

rm iA

iA R2

R1 IS R3

(a) Determine an expression for the current i A .

(b) If rm  R2 , what is the current i A ?

(c) What would happen if you tried to build such a circuit with rm  R2 ?

Index Exercises PMcL

3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques 2015

 4.1

4 Linear Op-Amp Applications

Contents

Introduction ..................................................................................................... 4.2

4.1 Summing Amplifier ................................................................................... 4.3
4.2 Difference Amplifier ................................................................................. 4.6
4.3 Inverting Integrator .................................................................................... 4.9
4.4 Differentiator ........................................................................................... 4.11
4.5 Negative Impedance Converter ............................................................... 4.12
4.6 Voltage-to-Current Converter.................................................................. 4.14
4.7 Noninverting Integrator ........................................................................... 4.16
4.8 Summary.................................................................................................. 4.18
4.9 References ............................................................................................... 4.21
Exercises ........................................................................................................ 4.22

PMcL Contents Index

2015 4 - Linear Op-Amp Applications

 4.2

Introduction
One of the reasons for the popularity of the op-amp is its versatility. As we
shall see shortly, you can do almost anything with op-amps! More importantly,
the IC op-amp has characteristics that closely approach the assumed ideal. This
implies that it is quite easy to design circuits using the IC op-amp. It also
means that a real op-amp circuit will work in a manner that is very close to the
predicted theoretical performance.

Op-amp circuits which exhibit a linear characteristic (i.e. the response is

proportional to the source) are known as linear op-amp circuits. They are
chiefly, but not necessarily, composed of linear circuit elements, such as
resistors and capacitors, Many important op-amp circuits can be created with
linear circuit elements. For example, the weighted summer is able to output a
voltage which is a weighted sum of the input signals. The difference amplifier
is able to subtract two signals. Integrators, of both the inverting and
noninverting variety, are used in many control and signal processing
applications.

Also, by exploiting the active nature of op-amp circuits, we can develop

circuits which have no passive equivalent, such as the negative impedance
converter, and the voltage-to-current converter.

Index Introduction PMcL

4 - Linear Op-Amp Applications 2015

 4.3

4.1 Summing Amplifier

Consider the circuit shown below:
An inverting
summing amplifier

Rn
vn

R2 Rf
v2
R1
v1
vo

Figure 4.1 – An Inverting Summing Amplifier

The basic configuration is that of an inverting amplifier. We have a resistance

R f in the negative feedback path, but there are a number of input signals,

v1 , v 2 , …, v n each applied to a corresponding resistor R1 , R2 , …, Rn which

are connected to the inverting terminal of the op-amp. Just like in the inverting
amplifier configuration, the op-amp and the negative feedback will maintain a
virtual short-circuit across the op-amp input terminals, and therefore maintain
the inverting terminal at 0 V. Ohm’s Law then tells us that the currents
i1 , i 2 , …, i n are given by:

v1 v2 vn
i1  ,
i2  , …,
in  (4.1)
R1 R2 Rn

PMcL Summing Amplifier Index

2015 4 - Linear Op-Amp Applications

 4.4

All these currents sum together at the inverting terminal, also known as the
summing junction, to produce the current i:

i  i1  i2    in (4.2)

Remembering that the ideal op-amp input terminals are open-circuits,

application of KCL at the inverting terminal shows that this current is forced
through R f . The output voltage v o may now be determined by an application

of Ohm’s Law and KVL:

vo  0  R f i   R f i (4.3)

Thus:

 Rf Rf Rf 

vo   v1  v2    vn  (4.4)
 R1 R2 Rn 

The output voltage is a weighted sum of the input signals v1 , v 2 , …, v n . This

circuit is therefore called a weighted summer. Note that each summing
coefficient may be independently adjusted by varying the corresponding “feed-
in” resistor ( R1 to Rn ). This nice property is a consequence of the “virtual
common” that exists at the inverting op-amp terminal.

Index Summing Amplifier PMcL

4 - Linear Op-Amp Applications 2015

 4.5

EXAMPLE 4.1 Summing Amplifier

We want to design a weighted summer such that vo  2v1  v2  4v3 .

We can firstly form the sum vo1  2v1  v2  by using the circuit:

20 k 20 k
v2
10 k
v1
vo 1

Then we can form vo  vo1  4v3  using:

2.5k 10 k
v3
10 k
vo 1
vo

Finally, we can put the two circuits together, in a cascade, to create:

20 k 20 k
v2 2.5k 10 k
v3
10 k
v1 10 k
vo

PMcL Summing Amplifier Index

2015 4 - Linear Op-Amp Applications

 4.6

4.2 Difference Amplifier

A simple difference amplifier can be constructed with four resistors and an
op-amp, as shown below:
The difference
amplifier

R2

R1
v i1
R3
v i2
vo
R4

Figure 4.2 – A Difference Amplifier

There are a number of ways to find the output voltage, but the easiest uses the
principle of superposition (since the circuit is linear). To apply superposition
we first reduce vi 2 to zero – that is, connect the terminal to which vi 2 is applied
to the common – and then find the corresponding output voltage, which will be
due entirely to vi1 . We denote this output v o1 , as shown in (a) below:

Analyzing a
difference amplifier
using superposition R2 R2

R1 R1
v i1
vo1 vo2
R3
v i2

R3 R4 R4

(a) (b)

Figure 4.3 – Analyzing a Difference Amplifier

Index Difference Amplifier PMcL

4 - Linear Op-Amp Applications 2015

 4.7
We recognize the (a) circuit as that of an inverting amplifier. The existence of
R3 and R4 does not affect the gain expression, since there is no current in
either of them. Thus:

R2
vo1   vi1 (4.5)
R1

Next, we reduce vi1 to zero and evaluate the corresponding output voltage vo 2 .
The circuit will now take the form shown in Figure 4.3(b), which we recognize
as the noninverting configuration with an additional voltage divider, made up
of R3 and R4 , connected across the input vi 2 . The output voltage vo 2 is
therefore given by:

 R  R4
vo 2  1  2  vi 2 (4.6)
 R1  3R  R4

The superposition principle tells us that the output voltage v o is equal to the

sum of v o1 and vo 2 . Thus we have:

R2 1  R2 R1
vo   vi1  vi 2 (4.7)
R1 1  R3 R4

To act as a difference amplifier, the output must produce a signal which is

proportional to vi 2  vi1 . That is, the coefficients of vi1 and vi 2 in Eq. (4.7)
must be equal in magnitude but opposite in sign. This requirement leads to the
condition:

R2 1  R2 R1
 (4.8)
R1 1  R3 R4

PMcL Difference Amplifier Index

2015 4 - Linear Op-Amp Applications

 4.8

Simplifying we get:

R2 R4
 (4.9)
R1 R3

Substituting in Eq. (4.7) results in the output voltage:

The output of a
R2
vi 2  vi1 
difference amplifier
vo  (4.1)
R1
Thus, if we choose R4 R3  R2 R1 then we have produced a difference

amplifier with a gain of R2 R1 .

EXAMPLE 4.2 Difference Amplifier

A difference amplifier with an input resistance of 20 k and a gain of 10 is

shown below:

100 k

10 k

vi 10 k v o =10 v i

100 k

Note that “input resistance” is defined as the resistance “seen” between the two
input terminals. Thanks to the virtual short-circuit at the op-amp input
terminals, KVL around the input resistors gives Rin  20 k .

Index Difference Amplifier PMcL

4 - Linear Op-Amp Applications 2015

 4.9

4.3 Inverting Integrator

An inverting integrator, also known as the Miller integrator after its inventor, is
shown below:
The inverting
integrator

R
vi
vo

Figure 4.4 – The Miller Integrator

We use the virtual short-circuit concept to analyse the circuit (it is essentially
the same analysis as for the inverting amplifier). KCL at the inverting terminal,
which is held at 0 V by the op-amp and negative feedback, gives:

vi dv
 C o (4.10)
R dt
and therefore:

vo t    vi t dt  vo 0
1 t
RC  0
(4.2)

Thus, vo t  is the time integral of vi t  , and vo 0 is the initial condition of

this integration process. The product RC has units of time and is called the
integration time constant. This integrator circuit is inverting because of the
minus sign in front of the integral.

PMcL Inverting Integrator Index

2015 4 - Linear Op-Amp Applications

 4.10
Unfortunately, for DC input voltages, the op-amp circuit is operating as an
open-loop, which is easily seen when we recall that capacitors behave as open
circuits with DC. Thus, the above analysis does not apply, since there is no
virtual short circuit. With an ideal op-amp and a DC input voltage, there is no
current and v i appears at the inverting terminal – the resulting output of the
ideal op-amp will be infinite. In practice the output of a real op-amp will
saturate close to one of the supply rail voltages (depending on the sign of the
DC input voltage).

A practical circuit that alleviates this problem is shown below:

Rf

R
vi
vo

Figure 4.5 – A Practical Approximation to the Miller Integrator

This circuit provides a feedback path for DC voltages (i.e. the op-amp circuit is
operating in a closed-loop) and prevents the output from saturating. To keep
the DC offset at the output of the integrator low, we should select a small R f .

Unfortunately, however, the lower the value of R f , the less ideal the integrator

becomes. Thus selecting a value for R f is a trade-off between DC

performance and integrator performance.

Index Inverting Integrator PMcL

4 - Linear Op-Amp Applications 2015

 4.11

4.4 Differentiator
An ideal differentiator is shown below:

The differentiator

C
vi
vo

Figure 4.6 – The Differentiator

We use the virtual short circuit concept again to analyze the circuit. KCL at the
inverting terminal, which is held at 0 V by the op-amp and negative feedback,
gives:

dvi v
C  o (4.11)
dt R
and therefore:

vo t    RC
dvi
(4.12)
dt

Thus, vo t  is the time derivative of vi t  .

The very nature of a differentiator circuit causes it to be a “noise magnifier”.

This is due to spikes introduced at the output every time there is a sharp change
in the input. For this reason they are rarely used in practice.

PMcL Differentiator Index

2015 4 - Linear Op-Amp Applications

 4.12

4.5 Negative Impedance Converter

A negative impedance1 converter (NIC) is shown below:
The negative
impedance
converter
vi
R1 R2
vi
R1 R1
vi vo

ii R
vi
vi R2 1
R1 R
R in

Figure 4.7 – The Negative Impedance Converter

To investigate the operation of this circuit, we will evaluate the input resistance
Rin of the circuit. To find Rin we apply an input voltage v i and evaluate the
input current ii . Then, by definition, Rin  vi ii .

Owing to the virtual short circuit between the op-amp input terminals, the
voltage at the inverting terminal will be equal to v i . The current through R1
will therefore be vi R1 . Since the input resistance of the ideal op-amp is

1
Impedance generalises the concept of resistance – as will be seen later with the introduction
of sinusoidal steady-state analysis, phasors, and reactance.

Index Negative Impedance Converter PMcL

4 - Linear Op-Amp Applications 2015

 4.13

infinite, the current through R2 will also be vi R1 . Thus, the voltage at the op-
amp output will be:

vi  R2 
vo  vi  R2  1  vi
R1 
(4.13)
R1 

which we recognise as the output of a normal noninverting amplifier. We now

apply Ohm’s Law to R and obtain the current through it as:

v1  R2 R1   v R 1
v 2 (4.14)
R R1 R

Since there is no current into the positive input terminal of the op-amp, KCL
gives:

v R2
ii   (4.15)
R R1

Thus:

R1
Rin   R (4.16)
R2

That is, the input resistance is negative with a magnitude equal to R, the
resistance in the positive-feedback path, multiplied by the ratio R1 R2 . We
now see why the circuit is called a negative impedance converter (NIC), where
R may in general be replaced by an arbitrary circuit element, such as a
capacitor or inductor.

PMcL Negative Impedance Converter Index

2015 4 - Linear Op-Amp Applications

 4.14

4.6 Voltage-to-Current Converter

To investigate the NIC further, consider the case R1  R2  r , where r is an
arbitrary value. It follows that Rin   R . Let the input be fed with a voltage
source V s having a source resistance equal to R, as shown below:

A voltage-to-current
converter, invented
by Prof. Bradford
Howland, MIT, NIC r
around 1962

source R R
IL
VL
Vs
RL load

Figure 4.8 – Application of the Negative Impedance Converter

Utilizing the information gained previously, we can replace the NIC by a

resistance equal to  R :

IL
Vs
RL -R

Figure 4.9
Index Voltage-to-Current Converter PMcL

4 - Linear Op-Amp Applications 2015

 4.15
The figure below illustrates the conversion of the voltage source to its Norton
equivalent:

IL
Vs
R RL -R
R

Figure 4.10

Finally, the two parallel resistances R and  R are combined to produce an

infinite resistance, resulting in the equivalent circuit:

Vs
IL =
R
Vs
RL
R

Figure 4.11

We see that the load current is given by:

Vs
IL  (4.17)
R
independent of the value of R L !. This is an interesting result; it tells us that the
circuit of Figure 4.8 acts as a voltage-to-current converter, providing a current
I L that is directly proportional to V s and is independent of the value of the
load resistance. That is, the output terminal acts as a current-source output,
with the impedance looking back into the output terminal equal to infinity.
Note that this infinite resistance is obtained via the cancellation of the positive
source resistance R with the negative input resistance  R .
PMcL Voltage-to-Current Converter Index

2015 4 - Linear Op-Amp Applications

 4.16

4.7 Noninverting Integrator

A specific application of the voltage-to-current converter, where a capacitor C
is used as a load, is illustrated below:
A noninverting
integrator, invented
by Gordon Deboo in
1966 whilst working r
at the NASA Ames
Research Centre

r
vo

R R
vi
vi
i=
R vL
C

Figure 4.12

From the previous analysis of the voltage-to-current converter we conclude that

capacitor C will be supplied by a current i  vi R . From the branch
relationship for a capacitor we conclude:

dvL vi
C  (4.18)
dt R
and thus:

vL t   vi t dt  vL 0
1 t
RC  0
(4.19)

Thus, v L t  is the time integral of vi t  .

Index Noninverting Integrator PMcL

4 - Linear Op-Amp Applications 2015

 4.17
This circuit has some interesting properties. The integral relationship does not
have an associated negative sign, as is the case with the Miller integrator.
Noninverting, or positive, integrators are required in many applications.
Another useful property is the fact that one terminal of the capacitor is
connected to common. This would simplify the initial charging of the capacitor
to v L 0 , as may be necessary to set an initial condition.

The output of the circuit cannot be taken at the terminal labelled v L since the
connection of a load there will change the preceding analysis. Fortunately, a
voltage source output is available that is proportional to v L – at the output of
the op-amp where you can easily verify that vo  2v L . Thus the output of the
circuit is:

vo t   vi t dt  vo 0
2 t
RC  0
(4.20)

PMcL Noninverting Integrator Index

2015 4 - Linear Op-Amp Applications

 4.18

4.8 Summary
 The op-amp is a versatile electronic building block. Real op-amps perform
close to the ideal, making circuit design and verification relatively easy.

 The inverting summing amplifier:

Rn
vn

R2 Rf
v2
R1
v1
vo

has an output equal to:

R R R 
vo   f v1  f v2    f vn 
 R1 R2 Rn 
 The difference amplifier:

R2

R1
v i1
R1
v i2
vo
R2

has an output equal to:

vo 
R2
vi 2  vi1 
R1
Index Summary PMcL

4 - Linear Op-Amp Applications 2015

 4.19

 The inverting integrator:

R
vi
vo

is a poor implementation of an integrator since the op-amp is operating in

an “open-loop” for DC input voltages, causing the output to saturate. A
practical approximation that alleviates this problem is:

Rf

R
vi
vo

 The differentiator:

C
vi
vo

has an output equal to:

vo t    RC
dvi
dt
It is rarely used in practice, because it tends to act as a “noise magnifier”.
PMcL Summary Index

2015 4 - Linear Op-Amp Applications

 4.20

 A negative impedance converter (NIC):

R2

R1

R
vi

R in

has an input resistance given by:

R1
Rin   R
R2

 The Howland voltage-to-current converter:

R R

IL
VL
Vs
RL

creates a voltage-controlled current source where:

Vs
IL 
R
Index Summary PMcL

4 - Linear Op-Amp Applications 2015

 4.21

 The Deboo noninverting integrator:

r
vo

R R
vi

has an output:

vo t   vi t dt  vo 0
2 t
RC  0

It is a very practical and useful integrator circuit.

4.9 References
Deboo, Gordon: “A Novel Integrator”, NASA-TM-X-57906, NASA Ames
Research Center, 1966.

Sedra, A. and Smith, K.: Microelectronic Circuits, Saunders College

Publishing, New York, 1991.

Sheingold, D.: “Impedance & Admittance Transformations”, The Lightning

Empiricist, vol. 12, no. 1, Philbrick Researches, Inc., Boston, 1964.

PMcL References Index

2015 4 - Linear Op-Amp Applications

 4.22

Exercises
1.
Design an op-amp circuit with a 10 kΩ input resistance which converts a
symmetrical square wave at 1 kHz having 2 V peak-to-peak amplitude and zero
average value into a triangle wave of 2 V peak-to-peak amplitude.

2.
Design a two op-amp circuit with inputs v1 and v 2 and input resistances of
100 kΩ whose output is vo  v1  10v2 .

3.
Determine the output voltage of the following circuit:

60 k

30 k
v3
20 k vo
v2
20 k 20 k
v1

4.
Design a negative impedance converter having an input resistance of -1 kΩ.
This circuit is connected to the output terminal of a source whose open-circuit
voltage is 1 mV and whose output resistance is 900 Ω. What voltage is then
measured at the output of the source?

Index Exercises PMcL

4 - Linear Op-Amp Applications 2015

 4.23

5.
Express io as a function of v i for the circuit below:

R1

R1

vi
R1 R1
R

io

RL

PMcL Exercises Index

2015 4 - Linear Op-Amp Applications

 5.1

5 Reactive Components

Contents

Introduction ..................................................................................................... 5.2

5.1 The Capacitor ............................................................................................ 5.3
5.1.1 Capacitor v-i Relationships ........................................................... 5.5
5.1.2 Energy Stored in a Capacitor ........................................................ 5.7
5.1.3 Summary of Important Capacitor Characteristics ...................... 5.10
5.2 The Inductor ............................................................................................ 5.11
5.2.1 Inductor v-i Relationships ........................................................... 5.14
5.2.2 Energy Stored in an Inductor ...................................................... 5.19
5.2.3 Summary of Important Inductor Characteristics ........................ 5.22
5.3 Practical Capacitors and Inductors .......................................................... 5.23
5.3.1 Capacitors ................................................................................... 5.23
5.3.2 Electrolytic Capacitors................................................................ 5.24
5.3.3 Inductors ..................................................................................... 5.25
5.4 Series and Parallel Connections of Inductors and Capacitors ................. 5.27
5.4.1 Inductors ..................................................................................... 5.27
5.4.2 Capacitors ................................................................................... 5.30
5.5 Circuit Analysis with Inductors and Capacitors ...................................... 5.32
5.5.1 DC Circuits ................................................................................. 5.32
5.5.2 Nodal and Mesh Analysis ........................................................... 5.34
5.6 Duality ..................................................................................................... 5.36
5.7 Summary.................................................................................................. 5.40
5.8 References ............................................................................................... 5.41
Exercises ........................................................................................................ 5.42

PMcL Contents Index

2015 5 - Reactive Components

 5.2

Introduction
The capacitor is a circuit element whose voltage-current relationship involves
the rate of change of voltage. Physically, a capacitor consists of two conducting
surfaces on which a charge may be stored, separated by a thin insulating layer
which has a very large resistance. Energy is stored in the electric field that
exists between the capacitor’s two conducting surfaces. In addition, the
insulating layer may be made of a high permittivity material (such as ceramic)
which will dramatically increase the capacitance (compared to air).

The inductor is a circuit element whose voltage-current relationship involves

the rate of change of current. Physically, an inductor may be constructed by
winding a length of wire into a coil. Energy is stored in the magnetic field that
exists around the wire in the coil, and the geometry of a coil increases this field
compared to a straight wire. In addition, the centre of the coil may be made of a
ferromagnetic material (such as iron) which will dramatically increase the
inductance (compared to air).

Both the capacitor and the inductor are capable of storing and delivering finite
amounts of energy, but they cannot deliver non-zero average power over an
infinite time interval. They are therefore passive circuit elements, like the
resistor.

The capacitor and inductor are linear circuit elements. Therefore all the circuit
methods previously studied, such as nodal analysis, superposition, Thévenin’s
theorem, etc., can be applied to circuits containing capacitors and inductors.

Lastly, in dealing with the capacitor and inductor in a circuit, we will note that
the equations describing their behaviour bear a similar resemblance – they are
the duals of each other. It will be shown that the concept of duality is a
recurring theme in circuit analysis, and can be readily applied to many simple
circuits, saving both time and effort.

Index Introduction PMcL

5 - Reactive Components 2015

 5.3

5.1 The Capacitor

The simplest capacitor is formed by two conductive plates separated by a
dielectric layer:
A parallel plate
capacitor

A
q
d
conductor

v insulator


Figure 5.1

One of the plates carries a positive charge, q, whilst the other carries an equal
but opposite charge, -q. Therefore, the capacitor stores charge. There is a
potential difference, v, between the plates. Ideally, the amount of charge q
deposited on the plates is proportional to the voltage v impressed across them.
We define a constant1 called the capacitance, C, of the structure by the linear
relationship:

The definition of
q  Cv (5.1) capacitance

The unit of capacitance is the farad, with symbol F.

There is an electric field between the capacitor plates which is established by

the charges present on the plates. Energy is stored in the capacitor by virtue of
this electric field.

1
The constant only models the behaviour of the structure under certain operating conditions.
The capacitance of a structure in the real world will vary with temperature, voltage, pressure,
frequency, chemical aging, etc,

PMcL The Capacitor Index

2015 5 - Reactive Components

 5.4

The ideal capacitance relationship is a straight line through the origin:

The capacitor is a
linear circuit element

C
1

Figure 5.2

Even though capacitance is defined as C  q v , it should be noted that C is a

purely geometric property, and depends only on the conductor arrangements
and the materials used in the construction. For example, it can be shown for a
thin parallel plate capacitor that the capacitance is approximately:

The capacitance of A
a parallel plate
capacitor
C (5.2)
d
where A is the area of either of the two parallel plates, and d is the distance
between them. The permittivity,  , is a constant of the insulating material
between the plates. The permittivity is usually expressed in terms of relative
permittivity,  r :

Relative permittivity
defined
   r 0 (5.3)

where  0  8.854 pFm-1 is the permittivity of free space (and, for all practical
purposes, air).

Index The Capacitor PMcL

5 - Reactive Components 2015

 5.5

5.1.1 Capacitor v-i Relationships

We now seek a v-i relationship for the capacitor. From the definition of current:

dq
i (5.4)
dt
we substitute q  Cv and obtain:

The capacitor’s v-i

dv
iC (5.5) branch derivative
relationship
dt
The circuit symbol for the capacitor is based on the construction of the physical
device, and is shown below together with the passive sign convention for the
voltage and current:

The circuit symbol

for the capacitor

v C

Figure 5.3

The capacitor voltage may be expressed in terms of the current by integrating

Eq. (5.5):

The capacitor’s v-i

vt    id  vt0 

1 t branch integral
(5.6) relationship
C t0

PMcL The Capacitor Index

2015 5 - Reactive Components

 5.6

EXAMPLE 5.1 Capacitor Voltage and Current Waveforms

The voltage waveform across a 3 F capacitor is shown below:

v(t) (V)
1

-1 0 1 2 3 t (s)

Since the voltage is zero and constant for t  1 , the current is zero in this
interval. The voltage then begins to increase at the linear rate dv dt  1 Vs -1 ,

and thus a constant current of i  C dv dt  3 A is produced. During the

following 2 second interval, the voltage is constant and the current is therefore
zero. The final decrease of the voltage causes a negative 3 A and no response
thereafter. The current waveform is sketched below:

i (t) (A)
3

-1 0 1 2 3 t (s)

-3

Index The Capacitor PMcL

5 - Reactive Components 2015

 5.7

5.1.2 Energy Stored in a Capacitor

The power delivered to a capacitor is:

dv
p  vi  Cv (5.7)
dt
and the energy stored in its electric field is therefore:

wC t    pdt  wC t0 
t

t0

dt  wC t0 
t dv
 C v
t0 dt
v t 
 C vdv  wC t0 
v  t0 

1
2
 
 C v 2 t   v 2 t0   wC t0 
(5.8)

If the capacitor voltage is zero at t 0 , then the electric field, and hence the

stored capacitor energy, wC t 0  , is also zero at that instant. We then have:

The stored energy in

wC t   Cv 2 t 
1 a capacitor
(5.9)
2
We can see that the energy stored in a capacitor depends only on the
capacitance and the voltage. Therefore, a finite amount of energy can be stored
in a capacitor even if the current through the capacitor is zero.

Whenever the voltage is not zero, and regardless of its polarity, energy is
stored in the capacitor. It follows, therefore, that power must be delivered to
the capacitor for a part of the time and recovered from the capacitor later.

PMcL The Capacitor Index

2015 5 - Reactive Components

 5.8

EXAMPLE 5.2 Energy Stored in a Capacitor

A sinusoidal voltage source is connected in parallel with an 80 k resistor and

a 2 μF capacitor, as shown below:

vs 80 k 2 F

The 80 k resistor in the circuit represents the dielectric losses present in a

typical 2 μF capacitor. Let v s  325 sin100t  V , which corresponds to a
typical low voltage 230 V RMS household supply.

The current through the resistor is:

 4.063 sin 100t  mA

v
iR
R

and the current through the capacitor is:

 2  10 6 325 sin 100t   204.2 cos100t  mA

dv d
iC  C
dt dt

The power delivered to the capacitor is:

p C  viC  325 sin100t   0.2042 cos100t   33.18 sin200t  W

A graph of the power delivered to the capacitor versus time is shown below:

pC (W)
33.18

-10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 t (ms)

-33.18

Index The Capacitor PMcL

5 - Reactive Components 2015

 5.9
The instantaneous power delivered to the capacitor is sinusoidal, and varies at
twice the frequency of the voltage source. Negative power delivered to the
capacitor means that power is sourced from the capacitor. Note that the
average power dissipated in the capacitor is zero.

The energy stored in the capacitor is:

Cv   2  10 6 325 sin 100t   105.6 sin 2 100t  mJ

1 2 1
wC 
2

2 2

A graph of the stored energy versus time is shown below:

wC (mJ)
105.6

-10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 t (ms)

The energy stored is sinusoidal and varies at twice the frequency of the voltage
source, but it also has a finite average component of 52.81 mJ.

We see that the energy increases from zero at t  0 to a maximum of 105.6 mJ

at t  5 ms and then decreases to zero in another 5 ms. During this 10 ms
interval, the energy dissipated in the resistor as heat is:

1.320 sin 2 100t dt   0.66021  cos200t dt  6.602 mJ

0.01 0.01 0.01
wR   p R dt  
0 0 0

Thus, an energy equal to 6.25% of the maximum stored energy is lost as heat in
the process of storing and removing the energy in the physical capacitor. Later
we will formalise this concept by defining a quality factor Q that is
proportional to the ratio of the maximum energy stored to the energy lost per
period.

PMcL The Capacitor Index

2015 5 - Reactive Components

 5.10

5.1.3 Summary of Important Capacitor Characteristics

Several important characteristics of the ideal capacitor are summarised below.

1. If a constant voltage is held across a capacitor, then dv dt  0 and

The capacitor is an
open-circuit to DC subsequently no current enters (or leaves) it. A capacitor is thus an
open-circuit to DC. This fact is represented by the capacitor symbol.

2. A capacitor voltage cannot change instantaneously, for this implies

A capacitor voltage
cannot change dv dt   , and the capacitor would require infinite current. Thus,
instantaneously
capacitor voltage is smooth and continuous. This fact will be used
frequently when undertaking transient analysis of circuits.

v(t)
V

0 t0 t1 t

v(t)
V

0 t0 t1 t2 t3 t

Figure 5.4
3. For an ideal capacitor, current can change instantaneously.

v
5

0 1 2 3 4 t (ms)
dv
i = C dt
20

0 1 2 3 4 t (ms)

Figure 5.5
4. An ideal capacitor never dissipates energy, but stores it and releases it
using its electric field.

Index The Capacitor PMcL

5 - Reactive Components 2015

 5.11

5.2 The Inductor

On 21 April 1820, the Danish scientist Ørsted noticed a compass needle
deflected from magnetic north when an electric current from a battery was
switched on and off, confirming a direct relationship between electricity and An electric current
magnetism. Three months later he began more intensive investigations and produces a
magnetic field
soon thereafter published his findings, showing that an electric current
produces a circular magnetic field.

An inductor is a two-terminal device, usually constructed as a coil of wire, that

is designed to store energy in a magnetic field. The coil effectively increases
the magnetic field by the number of “turns” of wire, and as we shall see, also
increases the number of “circuits” which “link” the magnetic field.

An ideal inductor produces a magnetic field which is wholly confined within it.
The closest approximation to an ideal inductor that we can physically produce
is a toroid, which has an almost uniform magnetic field confined within it:

A toroidal inductor

i
core
magnetic
field
B

winding

Figure 5.6

PMcL The Inductor Index

2015 5 - Reactive Components

 5.12

To explain magnetism, 19th century scientists invoked an analogy with fluids

and postulated the existence of a magnetic fluid, known as magnetic “flux”,  ,
which streamed throughout space and manifested itself as magnetism.
Magnetic flux
defined Magnetic flux always streams out of north poles and into south poles, and
forms a closed loop. We still use this concept of flux today, as the theory has
been spectacularly successful.

If a tube of magnetic flux (which is a closed loop) streams through a closed

loop of wire (a circuit), then it is said to “link” with the circuit. The amount of
“flux linkage”,  , is given by:

Magnetic flux
linkage defined   N (5.10)

where N is the number of loops of wire, or turns, in the circuit, and  is the
average amount of magnetic flux streaming through each loop.

Magnetic flux
linkage shown
graphically

N turns

1 2 3 ... N

 = 1+ 2 + 3+ ...+ N = N av

Figure 5.7

An ideal inductor is a structure where the flux linkage (with itself) is directly
proportional to the current through it. We define a constant, called the self
inductance, L, of the structure by the linear relationship:

  Li
The definition of
inductance (5.11)

The unit of inductance is the henry, with symbol H.

Index The Inductor PMcL

5 - Reactive Components 2015

 5.13
The ideal inductance relationship is a straight line through the origin:

The inductor is a
linear circuit element

L
1

Figure 5.8

Even though inductance is defined as L   i , it should be noted that L is a

purely geometric property, and depends only on the conductor arrangements
and the materials used in the construction.

For example, it can be shown for a closely wound toroid that the inductance is
approximately:

A The inductance of a
LN 2
(5.12) toroidal inductor
l
where A is the cross-sectional area of the toroid material, and l is the mean path
length around the toroid. The permeability,  , is a constant of the material
used in making the toroid. The permeability is usually expressed in terms of
relative permeability,  r :

   r 0 (5.13)
Relative
permeability defined

where  0  400 nHm-1 is the permeability of free space (and, for all practical
purposes, air).

PMcL The Inductor Index

2015 5 - Reactive Components

 5.14
5.2.1 Inductor v-i Relationships

We now seek a v-i relationship for the inductor. In 1840, the great British
experimentalist Michael Faraday2 discovered that a changing magnetic field
could induce a voltage in a neighbouring circuit, or indeed the circuit that was
producing the magnetic field. Faraday’s Law states that the induced voltage is
equal to the rate-of-change of magnetic flux linkage:

Faraday’s Law d
v (5.14)
dt
The minus sign comes from the fact that the polarity of the induced voltage is
such as to oppose the change in flux. For an inductor, we can figure out that the
polarity of the induced voltage must be positive at the terminal where the
current enters the inductor. If we know this, then we can mark the polarity on a
circuit diagram and deal with the magnitude of the induced voltage by
dropping the minus sign (the determination of the voltage polarity is called
Lenz’s Law).

If we allow the polarity to be set by Lenz’s Law, and substitute   Li into the
previous equation, then we get:

The inductor’s v-i

di
branch derivative
relationship vL (5.15)
dt

2
The American inventor Joseph Henry discovered this phenomenon independently, but
Faraday was the first to publish.

Index The Inductor PMcL

5 - Reactive Components 2015

 5.15

The circuit symbol for the inductor is based on the construction of the physical
device, and is shown below together with the passive sign convention for the
voltage and current:

The circuit symbol

for the inductor

v L

Figure 5.9

The inductor current may be expressed in terms of the voltage by integrating

Eq. (5.15):

The inductor’s v-i

it    vd  it0 
1 t branch integral
(5.16)
relationship
L t0

PMcL The Inductor Index

2015 5 - Reactive Components

 5.16

EXAMPLE 5.3 Inductor Current and Voltage Waveforms

The variation of current through a 25 mH inductor as a function of time is

shown below:

i(t) (mA)
20

10

-1 0 1 2 3 4 5
t (ms)

-10

Since the current is constant for t  0 , the voltage is zero in this interval. The
current then begins to increase at the linear rate di dt  10 As-1 , and thus a
constant voltage of v  L di dt  250 mV is produced. During the following

2 millisecond interval, the current decreases at the linear rate di dt  15 As-1 ,

and so the voltage is v  L di dt  375 mV . The final increase of the current

causes a positive 125 mV and no response thereafter. The voltage waveform is
sketched below:

v(t) (mV)
400

200

t (ms)
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5

-200

-400

Index The Inductor PMcL

5 - Reactive Components 2015

 5.17

EXAMPLE 5.4 Inductor Current, Voltage and Power Waveforms

Consider the simple circuit below:

i v 2H

Let the current it  which is produced by the source be described by the
function of time shown below:

i(t) (A)
1

0 1 2
t (s)

Since v  L di dt  2 di dt then the voltage across the inductor is as shown

below:

v(t) (V)
2

t (s)
0 1 2

-1

-2

PMcL The Inductor Index

2015 5 - Reactive Components

 5.18

We know that a resistor always absorbs power and the energy absorbed is
dissipated as heat – but how about an inductor? For the inductor in this
example, the instantaneous power pt   vt it  absorbed by the inductor is
given by the graph below:

p(t) (W)
2

0 1 2
t (s)

-1

-2

We see that the power absorbed by the inductor is zero for    t  0 and
2  t   . For 0  t  1 , since pt  is a positive quantity, the inductor is
absorbing power (which is produced by the source). However, for 1  t  2 ,
since pt  is a negative quantity, the inductor is actually supplying power (to
the source).

To get the energy absorbed by the inductor, we simply integrate the power
absorbed over time. For this example, the energy absorbed increases from 0 to
1
2
12  1 J as time goes from t  0 to t  1 s . However, from t  1 to t  2 s ,

the inductor supplies energy such that at time t  2 s and thereafter, the net
energy absorbed by the inductor is zero. Since all of the energy absorbed by the
inductor is not dissipated but is eventually returned, we say that the inductor
stores energy. The energy is stored in the magnetic field that surrounds the
inductor.

Index The Inductor PMcL

5 - Reactive Components 2015

 5.19

5.2.2 Energy Stored in an Inductor

The power delivered to an inductor is:

di
p  vi  L i (5.17)
dt
and the energy stored in its magnetic field is therefore:

wL t    pdt  wL t0 
t

t0

dt  wL t0 
t di
 L i
t0 dt
i t 
 L idi  wL t0 
i  t0 


1 2
2
 
L i t   i 2 t0   wL t0 
(5.18)

If the inductor current is zero at t 0 , then the magnetic field, and hence the

stored inductor energy, wL t 0  , is also zero at that instant. We then have:

wL t   Li t 
1 2 The stored energy in
(5.19) an inductor
2
We can see that the energy stored in an inductor depends only on the
inductance and the current. Therefore, a finite amount of energy can be stored
in an inductor even if the voltage across the inductor is zero.

Whenever the current is not zero, and regardless of its direction, energy is
stored in the inductor. It follows, therefore, that power must be delivered to the
inductor for a part of the time and recovered from the inductor later.

PMcL The Inductor Index

2015 5 - Reactive Components

 5.20

EXAMPLE 5.5 Energy Stored in an Inductor

A sinusoidal current source is connected in series with a 100 m resistor and a

3 mH inductor, as shown below:

100 m
vR

is 3 mH vL

The 100 m resistor in the circuit represents the resistance of the wire which
must be associated with the physical coil. Let i s  12 sin100t  A .

The voltage across the resistor is:

v R  Ri  1.2 sin100t  V

and the voltage across the inductor is:

 3  10 3 12 sin 100t   11.31cos100t  V

di d
vL L
dt dt

The power delivered to the inductor is:

p L  vL i  11.31cos100t  12 sin100t   67.86 sin200t  W

A graph of the power delivered to the inductor versus time is shown below:

pL (W)
67.86

-10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 t (ms)

-67.86

Index The Inductor PMcL

5 - Reactive Components 2015

 5.21
The instantaneous power delivered to the inductor is sinusoidal, and varies at
twice the frequency of the current source. Negative power delivered to the
inductor means that power is sourced from the inductor. Note that the average
power dissipated in the inductor is zero.

The energy stored in the inductor is:

Li   3  10 3 12 sin 100t   216 sin 2 100t  mJ

1 2 1
wL 
2

2 2

A graph of the stored energy versus time is shown below:

wL (mJ)
216

-10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 t (ms)

The energy stored is sinusoidal and varies at twice the frequency of the current
source, but it also has a finite average component of 108 mJ.

We see that the energy increases from zero at t  0 to a maximum of 216 mJ at

t  5 ms and then decreases to zero in another 5 ms. During this 10 ms interval,
the energy dissipated in the resistor as heat is:

14.4 sin 2 100t dt   7.21  cos200t dt  72 mJ

0.01 0.01 0.01
wR   p R dt  
0 0 0

Thus, an energy equal to 33.33% of the maximum stored energy is lost as heat
in the process of storing and removing the energy in the physical inductor.

PMcL The Inductor Index

2015 5 - Reactive Components

 5.22

5.2.3 Summary of Important Inductor Characteristics

Several important characteristics of the ideal inductor are summarised below.

1. If a constant current is passed through an inductor, then di dt  0 and

The inductor is a
short-circuit to DC subsequently no voltage appears across it. An inductor is thus a short-
circuit to DC.

2. An inductor current cannot change instantaneously, for this implies

An inductor current
cannot change di dt   , and the inductor would require infinite voltage. Thus,
instantaneously
inductor current is smooth and continuous. This fact will be used
frequently when undertaking transient analysis of circuits.

i (t)
I

0 t0 t1 t

i (t)
I

0 t0 t1 t2 t3 t

Figure 5.10
3. For an ideal inductor, voltage can change instantaneously.

i
5

0 1 2 3 4 t (ms)
di
v= L dt
20

0 1 2 3 4 t (ms)

Figure 5.11
4. An ideal inductor never dissipates energy, but stores it and releases it
using its magnetic field.

Index The Inductor PMcL

5 - Reactive Components 2015

 5.23

5.3 Practical Capacitors and Inductors

Practical capacitors and inductors are manufactured for different values,
voltage and current ratings, accuracy, volumetric efficiency, temperature
Practical
stability, etc. As such, their construction will play a role in their electrical components have
non-ideal and
behaviour. To represent these physical components in a circuit we need to parasitic effects
model their non-ideal and parasitic effects.

5.3.1 Capacitors

There are many different types of capacitor construction. Some are shown
below, labelled by the type of dielectric:

Some types of
capacitors

polystyrene polypropylene polycarbonate

PTFE (Teflon) polyester paper

ceramic tantalum electrolytic aluminium electrolytic

Figure 5.12 – Some types of capacitors

PMcL Practical Capacitors and Inductors Index

2015 5 - Reactive Components

 5.24

A reasonably accurate circuit model of a real capacitor is shown below:

Model of a real
capacitor
Rp

C
Rs Ls

Figure 5.13

In the model, the series resistance Rs takes into account the finite resistance of

the plates used to make the capacitor. The series inductance Ls is used to
model the fact that a current is required to charge and discharge the plates, and
this current must have a magnetic field. Finally, no practical material is a
perfect insulator, and the resistance R p represents conduction through the

dielectric.

We call Rs , Ls and R p parasitic elements. Capacitors are designed to

minimize the effects of the parasitic elements consistent with other

Parasitic elements
defined requirements such as physical size and voltage rating. However, parasitics are
always present, and when designing circuits care must be taken to select
components for which the parasitic effects do not compromise the proper
operation of the circuit.

5.3.2 Electrolytic Capacitors

One side (the anode) of an electrolytic capacitor is formed from a foil of

Electrolytic
capacitors have a aluminium which is anodised to produce an oxide layer which is the dielectric.
large capacitance The oxide-coated foil is immersed in an electrolytic solution which forms the
per unit volume, but
are polarised cathode. A large capacitance per unit volume is achieved. However, exposure
to a reverse voltage for a long time leads to rapid heating of the capacitor and
to breakdown. Thus, electrolytic capacitors are polarised and it must be
ensured that the correct voltage polarity is applied to avoid failure.

Index Practical Capacitors and Inductors PMcL

5 - Reactive Components 2015

 5.25
5.3.3 Inductors

There are many different types of inductor construction. Some are shown
below, labelled by the type of core:

Some types of
inductors

ferrite core laminated steel core air core

Figure 5.14 – Some types of inductors

The construction of the core of the inductor is especially important in

determining its properties. Laminated steel cores are common for low
frequencies, and ferrites (non-conducting oxides of iron) are used for high
The core of an
frequencies. Since the core is subjected to a changing magnetic field, the inductor is generally
a magnetic material
induced voltages in the core create what are known as eddy currents. Steel which exhibits
laminations and ferrites reduce the energy losses caused by these eddy currents. energy losses
There are also energy loss mechanisms associated with reversing the “magnetic
domains” in a core, and so the losses due to the magnetic characteristic and the
induced eddy currents are combined into a term called the core loss.

Air-cored inductors are linear and do not exhibit core losses (since there is no Air-cored inductors
conductive core). They can be made by winding a coil on a non-magnetic do not exhibit core
losses
former, such as plastic, or may be self-supporting if made large enough. Air-
cored inductors have lower inductance than ferromagnetic-core inductors, but
are often used at high frequencies because they are free of core losses.

PMcL Practical Capacitors and Inductors Index

2015 5 - Reactive Components

 5.26

A reasonably accurate circuit model of a real inductor is shown below:

Model of a real
inductor

Rp

Rs L

Cp

Figure 5.15

The series resistance Rs takes into account the finite resistance of the wire

used to create the coil. The parallel capacitance C p is associated with the

electric field in the insulation surrounding the wire, and is called interwinding
capacitance. The parallel resistance R p represents the core losses.

The following inductor model, showing just the predominant non-ideal effect
of finite winding resistance, is often used at low frequencies:

Low frequency
model of a real
inductor showing the Rs L
winding resistance

Figure 5.16

Index Practical Capacitors and Inductors PMcL

5 - Reactive Components 2015

 5.27

5.4 Series and Parallel Connections of Inductors and

Capacitors
Resistors connected in series and parallel can be combined into an equivalent
resistor. Inductors and capacitors can be combined in the same manner.

5.4.1 Inductors

A series connection of inductors is shown below:

v1 L1
v
v2 L2

Figure 5.17

We find from KVL that:

v  v1  v2
di di
 L1  L2
dt dt
 L1  L2 
di
dt
di
L
dt (5.20)

where:

Combining inductors
L  L1  L2 (series) (5.21) in series

PMcL Series and Parallel Connections of Inductors and Capacitors Index

2015 5 - Reactive Components

 5.28

We depict this below:

L1 L2 L = L 1+L 2

Figure 5.18

For the case of two inductors in parallel, as shown below:

i
i1 i2

v L1 L2

Figure 5.19

we have, by KCL:

i  i1  i2
1 t
  1
vdt  i2 t0 
t

L1 t0 
 vdt  i t
1 0 
L2 t0

1 1 t
     vdt  i1 t0   i2 t0 
 L1 L2  t0
  vdt  i t0 
1 t
L t0 (5.22)

Index Series and Parallel Connections of Inductors and Capacitors PMcL

5 - Reactive Components 2015

 5.29

where:

1 1 1
  (parallel) (5.23)
Combining inductors
in parallel
L L1 L2

and:

it0   i1 t0   i2 t0  (5.24)

We depict this below:

L1
i1(t0) 1 1 1
L L = L 1+ L 2
L2
i (t0) = i1(t0) + i2(t0)
i2(t0)

Figure 5.20

PMcL Series and Parallel Connections of Inductors and Capacitors Index

2015 5 - Reactive Components

 5.30
5.4.2 Capacitors

Consider two capacitors in parallel as shown below:

i
i1 i2

v C1 C2

Figure 5.21

By KCL, we have:

i  i1  i2
dv dv
 C1  C2
dt dt
 C1  C2 
dv
dt
dv
C
dt (5.25)

so that we obtain:

Combining
capacitors in parallel C  C1  C2 (parallel) (5.26)

Index Series and Parallel Connections of Inductors and Capacitors PMcL

5 - Reactive Components 2015

 5.31

We depict this below:

C1
C = C1 + C2

C2

Figure 5.22

For capacitors in series, analogously to inductors in parallel, we get the result:

1 1 1
 
Combining
(5.27) capacitors in series
C C1 C2 (series)

which is shown below:

1=1 + 1
C1 C2 C C C1 C2

v1(t0) v2(t0) v (t0) = v1(t0) + v2(t0)

Figure 5.23

In summary, inductors in series and parallel are treated like resistors, whereas
capacitors in series and parallel are treated like conductances.

PMcL Series and Parallel Connections of Inductors and Capacitors Index

2015 5 - Reactive Components

 5.32

5.5 Circuit Analysis with Inductors and Capacitors

For the ideal inductor and ideal capacitor, all of the relationships between
Linear circuit voltage and current are linear relationships (apart from the integral
analysis techniques
can be applied to relationships that have an initial condition term). Consequently, circuit analysis
circuits with
techniques which rely on the linearity property (such as nodal analysis, mesh
inductors and
capacitors analysis, superposition, Thévenin’s theorem and Norton’s theorem) can be
applied to circuits containing inductors and capacitors.

5.5.1 DC Circuits

An ideal inductor behaves as a short-circuit to DC, and the capacitor behaves

A DC circuit is
treated as a purely as an open-circuit to DC. We can use these facts to determine voltages and
resistive circuit in
the “steady-state” currents in DC circuits that contain both inductors and capacitors. Other
sources, such as sinusoidal sources, will be treated later.

EXAMPLE 5.6 DC Analysis of a Circuit with Storage Elements

Determine the current i in the circuit below:

2F

1 4H

3F
6A 1F 2 4
3
i

The circuit has one independent current source whose value is constant. For a
resistive circuit we would naturally anticipate that all voltages and currents are
constant. However, this is not a resistive circuit. Yet, our intuition suggests that
the constant-valued current source produces constant-valued responses. This
fact will be confirmed more rigorously later. In the meantime, we shall use the
result that a circuit containing only constant-valued sources is a DC circuit.

Index Circuit Analysis with Inductors and Capacitors PMcL

5 - Reactive Components 2015

 5.33

Since for DC all inductors behave like short-circuits and all capacitors behave
like open-circuits, we can replace the original circuit with an equivalent
resistive circuit:

1

6A 2 4
3
i

By current division we find that:

i
4
6  4 A
42

PMcL Circuit Analysis with Inductors and Capacitors Index

2015 5 - Reactive Components

 5.34

5.5.2 Nodal and Mesh Analysis

Just as we analysed resistive circuits with the use of node and mesh equations,
Nodal and mesh we can write a set of equations for circuits that contain inductors and capacitors
analysis can be
applied to circuits in addition to resistors and sources. The procedure is similar to that described
with inductors and
capacitors for the resistive case – the difference being that for inductors and capacitors the
appropriate relationship between voltage and current is used in place of Ohm’s
Law.

EXAMPLE 5.7 Mesh Analysis of a Circuit with Storage Elements

Consider the circuit shown below:

6F
5

i4 4H i3

1F 3H

1A i1 2 i2 3V

By mesh analysis, for mesh i1 :

i1  1

For mesh i 2 :

2i2  i1   3 i2  i3   3
d
dt

Index Circuit Analysis with Inductors and Capacitors PMcL

5 - Reactive Components 2015

 5.35

For mesh i3 :

d
i3  i2   4 d i3  i4   1  i3 dt  0
t
3
dt dt 6

For mesh i 4 :

1 t
  
i4  i1 dt  5i4  4 d i4  i3   0
1 dt

The equation obtained for mesh i 2 is called a differential equation since it

contains variables and their derivatives. The equations obtained for meshes i3

and i 4 are called integrodifferential equations since they contain integrals as

well as derivatives.

Writing the equations for a circuit, as in the preceding example, is not difficult.
Finding the solution of equations like these, however, is another matter – it is
no simple task. Thus, with the exception of some very simple circuits, we shall
have to resort to additional concepts and techniques to be introduced later.

PMcL Circuit Analysis with Inductors and Capacitors Index

2015 5 - Reactive Components

 5.36

5.6 Duality
Duality is a concept which arises frequently in circuit analysis. To illustrate,
consider the two circuits shown below:

Dual circuits

R v
v1
vs i v2 is G C
i1 i2

Circuit A Circuit B

Figure 5.24

Using mesh analysis for circuit A and nodal analysis for circuit B, we get the
following results:

Circuit A Circuit B

vs  v1  v2 is  i1  i2

di dv
v s  Ri  L is  Gv  C
dt dt

In other words, both circuits are described by the same equations:

xs  x1  x2
dy (5.28)
xs  a1 y  a2
dt
except that a variable that is a current in one circuit is a voltage in the other and
vice versa. For these two circuits this result is not a coincidence, but rather is
due to a concept known as duality, which has its roots in the subject of graph
theory.

Index Duality PMcL

5 - Reactive Components 2015

 5.37
In actuality, circuits A and B are dual circuits since the following roles are
interchanged:

vi Dual circuit

RG
relationships

LC
series  parallel (5.29)

The usefulness of duality lies in the fact that once a circuit is analysed, its dual
is in essence analysed also. Note that if circuit B is the dual of circuit A, then
taking the dual of circuit B in essence results in circuit A. Not every circuit,
however, has a dual. With the aid of graph theory it can be shown that a circuit
has a dual if and only if it is a planar network.

The technique for obtaining the dual of a planar network is:

The technique for
obtaining the dual of
1. Inside of each mesh, and in the infinite region surrounding the a planar circuit

circuit, place a node.

2. Suppose two of these nodes, say nodes a and b, are in adjacent

meshes. Then there is at least one element in the boundary common
to these two meshes. Place the dual of each common element
between nodes a and b.

When using this procedure to obtain the dual circuit, in order to get the mesh
equations of the original circuit to correspond to the node equations of the dual
circuit, place clockwise mesh currents i1 , i2 , ..., in in the finite regions. The

corresponding nodes in the dual are labelled with the voltages v1 , v 2 , ..., vn
respectively. The reference node of the dual circuit corresponds to the infinite
region of the original circuit.

PMcL Duality Index

2015 5 - Reactive Components

 5.38

EXAMPLE 5.8 Analysis of a Dual Circuit

For the circuit given in the previous example (shown in blue), the dual is
obtained as (shown in red):

6F
5
v4 v3

4F 4H 3F
5S 6H
1H 3H

1F
1A 2 3V

v1 2 S v2
1V 3A

The dual circuit is redrawn for simplicity:

4F

1H 3F
v1 2S v2
v4 v3

5S 1V 3A 6H

Index Duality PMcL

5 - Reactive Components 2015

 5.39

By nodal analysis, at node v1 :

v1  1

At node v 2 :

2v2  v1   3 v2  v3   3
d
dt

At node v3 :

d
v3  v2   4 d v3  v4   1  v3 dt  0
t
3
dt dt 6

At node v 4 :

1 t
 v4  v1 dt  5v4  4 v4  v3   0
d
1  dt

Note that these are the duals of the mesh equations that we obtained earlier for
the original circuit.

PMcL Duality Index

2015 5 - Reactive Components

 5.40

5.7 Summary
 The v-i relationship for a capacitor is:

dv
iC
dt

 A capacitor behaves as an open-circuit to direct current.

 The voltage across a capacitor cannot change instantaneously.

 The energy stored in a capacitor is:

1
wC  Cv 2
2

 The v-i relationship for an inductor is:

di
vL
dt

 An inductor behaves as a short-circuit to direct current.

 The current through an inductor cannot change instantaneously.

 The energy stored in an inductor is:

1 2
wL  Li
2

 Inductors in series and parallel are combined in the same way as are
resistances. Capacitors in series and parallel are combined in the same way
as are conductances.

 Writing node and mesh equations for circuits containing inductors and
capacitors is done in the same manner as for resistive circuits. Obtaining
solutions of equations in this form will be avoided, except for simple
circuits.

 A planar circuit and its dual are in essence described by the same equations.

Index Summary PMcL

5 - Reactive Components 2015

 5.41

5.8 References
Bobrow, L.: Elementary Linear Circuit Analysis, Holt-Saunders, 1981.

Hayt, W. & Kemmerly, J.: Engineering Circuit Analysis, 3rd Ed., McGraw-
Hill, 1984.

PMcL References Index

2015 5 - Reactive Components

 5.42

Exercises
1.
There is a current i  5 sin 10t A through an inductance L  2 H . What is the
first instant of time after t  0 when the power entering the inductor is exactly:

(a) 100 W

(b) -100 W

2.
The energy stored in a certain 10 mH inductor is zero at t  1 ms and increases
linearly by 20 mJ each second thereafter. Find the inductor current and voltage
for t  1 ms if neither is ever negative.

3.
A 25 μF capacitor having no voltage across it at t  0 is subjected to the single
pulse of current shown below.

i(t) (mA)
20

10

0 10 20 30
t (ms)

Determine the voltage across, the power entering, and the energy stored in C at
t :

(a) 17 ms

(b) 40 ms

Index Exercises PMcL

5 - Reactive Components 2015

 5.43

4.
Find C eq for the lattice network shown below if terminals a and b are:

(a) open-circuited as shown

(b) short-circuited

1 nF
a

3 nF

Ceq
4 nF
b
2 nF

5.
The series combination of a 4 μF and a 3 μF capacitor is in series with the
parallel combination of a 2 μF , a 1 μF and a C μF capacitor.

(a) What is the maximum possible value for the equivalent capacitance of
the five capacitors?

(b) Repeat for the minimum value.

(c) Find C if Ceq  1.5 μF .

PMcL Exercises Index

2015 5 - Reactive Components

 5.44

6.
At t  0 , i  5 A in the circuit shown below:

8 sin 10 t A 1H 3H v

(a) Find vt  for all t.

(b) Find i t  for t  0 .

7.
(a) Write the single nodal equation for the circuit (a) below:

(b) Write the single mesh equation for the circuit (b) below:

is

vC (0) 40 mH
5 k
i L (0)
200  F
vC (0) 200  F vs

5 k
40 mH

i L (0)

(a) (b)

Index Exercises PMcL

5 - Reactive Components 2015

 5.45

8.
Using a reference node at the bottom of the circuit, assign node-to-reference
voltages in the circuit below and write nodal equations. Let iL 0  0.5 A and

vC 0  12 V .

3v1

v2
0.1 H
iL 50 

-100 t
0.8e A
v1 20  200 F vC

PMcL Exercises Index

2015 5 - Reactive Components

 6.1

6 Diodes and Basic Diode Circuits

Contents

Introduction ..................................................................................................... 6.2

6.1 The Silicon Junction Diode ....................................................................... 6.3
6.1.1 The Forward-Bias Region............................................................. 6.4
6.1.2 The Reverse-Bias Region ............................................................. 6.6
6.1.3 The Breakdown Region ................................................................ 6.6
6.1.4 Diode Symbol ............................................................................... 6.7
6.2 Breakdown Diodes .................................................................................... 6.7
6.2.1 Zener Breakdown.......................................................................... 6.7
6.2.2 Avalanche Breakdown .................................................................. 6.7
6.3 Other Types of Diode ................................................................................ 6.8
6.3.1 The Photodiode ............................................................................. 6.8
6.3.2 The Light Emitting Diode (LED) ................................................. 6.8
6.3.3 The Schottky Diode ...................................................................... 6.9
6.3.4 The Varactor Diode ...................................................................... 6.9
6.4 Analysis Techniques ................................................................................ 6.10
6.4.1 Graphical Analysis...................................................................... 6.10
6.4.2 Numerical Analysis .................................................................... 6.12
6.5 Diode Models .......................................................................................... 6.14
6.5.1 The Ideal Diode Model ............................................................... 6.15
6.5.2 The Constant Voltage Drop Model............................................. 6.17
6.5.3 The Piece-Wise Linear Model .................................................... 6.19
6.5.4 The Small Signal Model ............................................................. 6.21
6.6 Basic Diode Circuits ................................................................................ 6.25
6.6.1 Half-Wave Rectifier.................................................................... 6.25
6.6.2 Full-Wave Rectifier .................................................................... 6.27
6.6.3 Limiter Circuits ........................................................................... 6.28
6.7 Summary.................................................................................................. 6.30
6.8 References ............................................................................................... 6.32

PMcL Contents Index

2015 6 - Diodes and Basic Diode Circuits

 6.2

Introduction
Nonlinear circuits play a major role in modern electronics. Examples include
signal generators, communication transmitters and receivers, DC power
supplies, and digital circuits.

To begin a study of nonlinear circuits, we need to examine the most

fundamental two-terminal nonlinear device: the diode. The semiconductor
junction diode, or p-n junction diode, also forms the basis for other
semiconductor devices, such as the transistor.

The terminal characteristics of the diode will be presented, rather than the
underlying solid-state physics, so that we can focus on providing techniques for
the analysis of diode circuits. There are three types of diode circuit analysis
technique – graphical, numerical and use of a linear model. Graphical analysis
of diode circuits is done using graphs of the diode’s terminal characteristic and
the connected circuit. Numerical analysis can be performed with the nonlinear
equations of the diode with a technique known as iteration. Lastly, diodes can
be replaced with linear circuit models (of varying complexity), under assumed
diode operating conditions, so that we revert to linear circuit analysis. Each
analysis technique has its advantages and disadvantages, so it is important to
choose the most appropriate technique for a given circuit.

Basic applications of the diode will be introduced, with circuits such as the
rectifier, and the limiter. Lastly, with the use of so-called breakdown diodes,
we can design circuits that act as voltage regulators – i.e. circuits that provide a
steady output voltage when subjected to a wide range of input voltages and
output load currents.

Index Introduction PMcL

6 - Diodes and Basic Diode Circuits 2015

 6.3

6.1 The Silicon Junction Diode

A typical silicon p-n junction diode has the following i-v characteristic:

i
(mA)
10

8 forward
bias
6
reverse 4
bias
2
-VZK
-150 v
-0.2 0.2 0.4 0.6
(V)
IS = 1 nA (reverse saturation current)
breakdown
(large change in current,
small change in voltage)

Figure 6.1

The diode is clearly a nonlinear element – its characteristic is not a straight line
through the origin! The i-v characteristic can be divided up into three distinct
regions:

1. The forward-bias region, determined by v  0

2. The reverse-bias region, determined by v  0

3. The breakdown region, determined by v  VZK

PMcL The Silicon Junction Diode Index

2015 6 - Diodes and Basic Diode Circuits

 6.4

6.1.1 The Forward-Bias Region

The forward-bias region of operation is entered when the terminal voltage v is

positive. In the forward region the i-v relationship is closely approximated by
the Shockley equation, which can be derived from semiconductor physics:

The Shockley
equation 
i  I S ev nVT  1  (6.1)

When forward There is not much increase in current until the “internal barrier voltage” is
biased, the diode
conducts overcome (approximately 0.6 V in silicon). Then large conduction results.

Saturation current The current I S is called the saturation current and is a constant for a given
defined
diode at a given temperature.

Emission coefficient
The constant n is called the emission coefficient, and has a value between 1 and
defined 2, depending on the material and the physical structure of the diode.

The voltage VT is a constant called the thermal voltage, given by:

kT
VT 
Thermal voltage
defined (6.2)
q
where:

k  Boltzmann's constant (6.3)

 1.3811023 JK-1
(6.4)
T  temperature in degrees Kelvin

q  magnitude of electron charge (6.5)

 1.602 1019 C
The thermal voltage is approximately equal to 26 mV at 300 K (a temperature
that is close to “room temperature” which is commonly used in device
simulation software).

Index The Silicon Junction Diode PMcL

6 - Diodes and Basic Diode Circuits 2015

 6.5

For appreciable current in the forward direction ( i  I S ), the Shockley

equation can be approximated by:

i  I S ev nVT (6.6)

This equation is usually “good enough” for rough hand calculations when we
know that the current is appreciable.

From the characteristic we note that the current is negligibly small for v smaller
than about 0.5 V (for silicon). This value is usually referred to as the cut-in
voltage. This apparent threshold in the characteristic is simply a consequence
of the exponential relationship.

Another consequence of the exponential relationship is the rapid increase of

current for small changes in voltage. Thus for a “fully conducting” diode the
voltage drop lies in a narrow range, approximately 0.6 to 0.8 V for silicon. We
will see later that this gives rise to a simple model for the diode where it is
assumed that a conducting diode has approximately a 0.7 V drop across it
(again, for silicon).

The Shockley equation can be rearranged to give the voltage in terms of the
current:

 i 
v  nVT ln   1 (6.7)
 IS 
This logarithmic form is used in the numerical analysis of diode circuits.

PMcL The Silicon Junction Diode Index

2015 6 - Diodes and Basic Diode Circuits

 6.6

6.1.2 The Reverse-Bias Region

When reverse The reverse-bias region of operation is entered when the diode voltage v is
biased, the diode
does not conduct made negative. The Shockley equation predicts that if v is negative and a few
times large than VT in magnitude, the exponential term becomes negligibly
small compared to unity and the diode current becomes:

i  I S (6.8)

That is, the current in the reverse direction is constant and equal to I S . This is
the reason behind the term saturation current. However, real diodes exhibit
reverse currents that, although quite small, are much larger than I S .

6.1.3 The Breakdown Region

The breakdown region is entered when the magnitude of the reverse voltage
Breakdown occurs exceeds a threshold value specific to the particular diode and called the
eventually for a
large enough
breakdown voltage. This is the voltage at the “knee” of the i-v curve and is
reverse bias denoted by VZK , where the subscript Z stands for Zener (to be explained
shortly) and K denotes knee.

Breakdown is not a destructive process unless the device cannot dissipate the
heat produced in the breakdown process. Breakdown is actually exploited in
certain types of diodes (e.g. the Zener diode) because of the near vertical
characteristic in this region.

Index The Silicon Junction Diode PMcL

6 - Diodes and Basic Diode Circuits 2015

 6.7

6.1.4 Diode Symbol

The circuit symbol for the diode is shown below, with the direction of current
and polarity of voltage that corresponds to the characteristic:

anode

cathode

Figure 6.2

6.2 Breakdown Diodes

Some diodes are designed to operate in the breakdown region. It is usually a
Some diodes are
sharper transition than the forward bias characteristic, and the breakdown designed to operate
voltage is higher than the forward conduction voltage. There are two main in the breakdown
region
types of breakdown.

6.2.1 Zener Breakdown

The electric field in the depletion layer of a p-n junction becomes so large
that it rips covalent bonds apart, generating holes and electrons. The electrons
Zener breakdown is
will be accelerated into the n-type material and the holes into the p-type caused by a large
material. This constitutes a reverse current. Once the breakdown starts, large internal electric field
numbers of carriers can be produced with negligible increase in the junction
voltage.

6.2.2 Avalanche Breakdown

If the minority carriers are swept across the depletion region of a p-n junction
Avalanche
too fast, they can break the covalent bonds of atoms that they hit. New breakdown is
caused by electrons
electron-hole pairs are generated, which may acquire sufficient energy to with a large kinetic
energy
repeat the process. An avalanche starts.

PMcL Breakdown Diodes Index

2015 6 - Diodes and Basic Diode Circuits

 6.8

6.3 Other Types of Diode

The silicon junction diode is not the only type of diode. A variety of diode
constructions exist, with many of them essential to the modern world, such as
the LED.

6.3.1 The Photodiode

In a photodiode, the p-n junction is very close to the surface of the crystal. The
A photodiode is
controlled by light Ohmic contact with the surface material is so thin, it is transparent to light.
Incident light (photons) can generate electron-hole pairs in the depletion layer
(a process called photoionisation).

6.3.2 The Light Emitting Diode (LED)

When a light-emitting diode is forward biased, electrons are able to recombine

An LED emits with holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of light (photons).
photons when
forward biased The color of the light corresponds to the energy of the photons emitted, which
is determined by the “energy gap” of the semiconductor. LEDs present many
advantages over incandescent and compact fluorescent light sources including
lower energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved robustness, smaller size,
faster switching, and greater durability and reliability. At the moment LEDs
powerful enough for room lighting are relatively expensive and require more
precise current and heat management than compact fluorescent lamp sources of
comparable output.

LEDs are used in diverse applications. The compact size of LEDs has allowed
new text and video displays and sensors to be developed, while their high
switching rates are useful in advanced communications technology. Infrared
LEDs are also used in the remote control units of many commercial products
including televisions, DVD players, and other domestic appliances.

Index Other Types of Diode PMcL

6 - Diodes and Basic Diode Circuits 2015

 6.9

6.3.3 The Schottky Diode

A Schottky diode is the result of a metal-semiconductor junction. The Schottky A Schottky diode is
a metal-
diode is a much faster device than the general purpose silicon diode. There are semiconductor
junction
three main reasons for this: 1) the junction used is a metal-semiconductor
junction, which has less capacitance than a p-n junction, 2) often the
semiconductor used is gallium arsenide (GaAs) because electron mobility is
much higher, and 3) the device size is made extremely small. The result is a
device that finds applications in high speed switching.

6.3.4 The Varactor Diode

This device is also known as a variable capacitance diode. It has a relatively

large capacitance, brought about by a large junction area and narrow depletion
region. The applied reverse voltage changes the length of the depletion region,
which changes the capacitance. Thus, the device can be used in applications
that rely on a voltage controlled capacitance. Applications include electronic
tuning circuits used in communication circuits, and electronic filters.

PMcL Other Types of Diode Index

2015 6 - Diodes and Basic Diode Circuits

 6.10

6.4 Analysis Techniques

Since the diode’s characteristic is nonlinear, we can’t apply linear circuit
analysis techniques to circuits containing diodes. We therefore have to resort to
other analysis methods: graphical, numerical and linear modelling.

6.4.1 Graphical Analysis

Circuits with a single nonlinear element can always be modelled using the
Thévenin equivalent of the linear part:

R Th

iD iD
linear
vD VTh vD
circuit

Thévenin equivalent circuit

Figure 6.3

KVL around the loop gives:

vD  VTh  RThiD (6.9)

which, when rearranged to make i D the subject, gives:

iD  
1
vD  VTh  (6.10)
RTh

When graphed, we call it the load line. It was derived from KVL, and so it is
The “load line” is
derived using linear always valid. The load line gives a relationship between i D and v D that is
circuit theory
determined purely by the external circuit. The diode’s characteristic gives a
relationship between i D and v D that is determined purely by the geometry and
physics of the diode.

Index Analysis Techniques PMcL

6 - Diodes and Basic Diode Circuits 2015

 6.11
Since both the load line and the characteristic are to be satisfied, the only place The “load line” and
this is possible is the point at which they meet. This point is called the device characteristic
intersect at the Q
quiescent point, or Q point for short: point

Figure 6.4 – Graphical Analysis Using a Load Line

If the Thévenin voltage changes to VTh , then the operating point moves to Q
(the DC load line is shifted to the right).

The two end points of the load line are easily determined to enable quick
graphing. The two axis intercepts are:

VTh
vD  0, iD  (6.11)
RTh

and:

vD  VTh , iD  0 (6.12)

Alternatively, we can graph the load line using one known point and the fact
1
that the slope is equal to  .
RTh

PMcL Analysis Techniques Index

2015 6 - Diodes and Basic Diode Circuits

 6.12
6.4.2 Numerical Analysis

Since, in the preceding analysis, we have two equations (the load line and the
diode characteristic) and two unknowns, it is tempting to try and solve them
simultaneously. If we substitute the voltage from the Shockley equation:

i 
vD  nVT ln  D  1 (6.13)
 IS 
into the load line equation:

iD  
1
vD  VTh  (6.14)
RTh

we get:

1   iD  
iD    nVT ln   1  VTh 
  (6.15)
RTh   IS  
This equation is a transcendental equation, and its solution cannot be
expressed in term of elementary functions (try it!). With a sufficiently
advanced calculator (or mathematical software), we can use a special function
called the Lambert W function to solve it, but for engineering purposes, there
are usually simpler methods of solution.

We can solve transcendental equations graphically (as shown in the preceding

section) but we can also solve them numerically using a technique known as
iteration – which is suitable for computer simulations.

Index Analysis Techniques PMcL

6 - Diodes and Basic Diode Circuits 2015

 6.13

We begin with an initial “guess” for the diode current, labelled i D , 0 , and then

compute:

1  i  
i D ,1    nVT ln  D ,0  1  VTh 
  I  
RTh   S  
1  i   (6.16)
iD,2    nVT ln  D ,1  1  VTh 
 I  
RTh   S  
i D ,3  

and so on until we get “convergence”, i.e. iD,k 1  iD,k . Convergence is not

always guaranteed, and depends on the initial “guess”. Computer simulation

software uses several clever methods to aid in numerical convergence.

EXAMPLE 6.1 Numerical Analysis of a Circuit with a Real Diode

The following circuit contains a diode, with n  1 and I S  2.030 fA . We wish

to find the diode’s operating point, or Q point. Assume that VT  26 mV .

1 k

iD
5V vD

Starting with iD,0  1 mA we have:

1   0.001  
i D ,1    0.026 ln 
3  15
 1  5   4.3 mA
10   2.03  10  
1   0.0043  
iD,2    0.026 ln 
3  15
 1  5   4.262 mA
10   2.03  10  

Since the second value is very close to the value obtained after the first
iteration, no further iterations are necessary, and the solution is iD  4.262 mA
and v D  0.7379 V .

PMcL Analysis Techniques Index

2015 6 - Diodes and Basic Diode Circuits

 6.14

6.5 Diode Models

Why we model the

The curve describing the diode’s terminal characteristics is non-linear. How
diode can we use this curve to do circuit analysis? We only know how to analyze
linear circuits. There is therefore a need for a linear circuit model of the
diode.

When we model something, we transform it into something else – usually

something simpler – which is more amenable to analysis and design using
The concept of
modelling mathematical equations. Modelling mostly involves assumptions and
simplifications, and the only requirement of a model is for it to “work”
reasonably well. By “work” we mean that it agrees with experimental results
to some degree of accuracy.

Models are sometimes only valid under certain operating conditions, as we

shall see when modelling the diode.

Index Diode Models PMcL

6 - Diodes and Basic Diode Circuits 2015

 6.15

6.5.1 The Ideal Diode Model

As a first approximation, we can model the diode as an ideal switch:

The diode as an
ideal (controlled)
i switch
(mA)

"ideal" diode diode on

v
diode off (V)

Figure 6.5 – The Ideal Diode Model

The characteristic in this case is approximated by two straight lines – the

vertical representing the “on” state of the diode, and the horizontal
representing the “off” state. To determine which of these states the diode is
in, we have to determine the conditions imposed upon the diode by an
external circuit. This model of the diode is used sometimes where a quick
“feel” for a diode circuit is needed. The above model can be represented
symbolically as:
The ideal diode
model
ideal

Figure 6.6

PMcL Diode Models Index

2015 6 - Diodes and Basic Diode Circuits

 6.16
EXAMPLE 6.2 Analysis Using the Ideal Diode

(i) Find the current, I, in the circuit shown below, using the ideal diode
model.

(ii) If the battery is reversed, what does the current become?

R
10 k I
E 10 V ideal

(i) Firstly, we must determine whether the diode is forward biased or reverse
biased. In this circuit, the positive side of the battery is connected (via the
resistor) to the anode. Therefore, the anode is positive with respect to the
cathode, and the diode is forward biased. In order to use the ideal diode
model, the diode is simply replaced by the ideal diode model (forward
bias model), and the simplified circuit is analysed accordingly.

The equivalent circuit is shown below, where the diode has now been
replaced by a short circuit.

R
10 k
E 10
E I I= = = 1 mA
10 V R 10 k

Ohm’s Law may be used to determine the current, I, as shown:

(ii) If the battery is reversed, the diode becomes reverse biased. In this case,
the diode is replaced by the ideal diode model for reverse bias. Since the
reverse biased ideal diode model is simply an open circuit, there is no
current, i.e. I  0 .

Index Diode Models PMcL

6 - Diodes and Basic Diode Circuits 2015

 6.17

6.5.2 The Constant Voltage Drop Model

A better model is to approximate the forward bias region with a vertical line
that passes through some voltage called e fd :
A model that takes
into account the
forward voltage drop
i
(mA)

v
efd (V)

Figure 6.7 – The Constant Voltage Drop Diode Model

This “constant voltage drop” model is better than the ideal model because it
more closely approximates the characteristic in the forward bias region. The
“voltage drop” is a model for the barrier voltage in the p-n junction. The The constant
voltage drop diode
model of the diode in this case is: model

ideal e fd

Figure 6.8

This model is the one of the simplest and most widely used. It is based on the
observation that a forward-conducting diode has a voltage drop that varies in
a relatively narrow range, say 0.6 V to 0.8 V. The model assumes this voltage
to be constant, say, 0.7 V. The constant voltage drop model is the one most
frequently employed in the initial phases of analysis and design.

PMcL Diode Models Index

2015 6 - Diodes and Basic Diode Circuits

 6.18
EXAMPLE 6.3 Analysis Using the Constant Voltage Drop Model

(i) Find the current, I, in the circuit shown below, using the constant voltage
drop model of the diode (assume e fd  0.7 V ).

(ii) If the battery is reversed, what does the current become?

R
10 k I
E 10 V

(i) Analysis proceeds in exactly the same manner as the previous example,
except that the constant voltage drop diode model is used instead. The
diode is again forward biased, and so the equivalent circuit is shown
below, along with the calculation for I.

R
10 k I
ideal E - e fd 10 - 0.7
E I= = = 0.93 mA
10 V R 10k
e fd

(ii) If the battery is reversed, the diode becomes reverse biased,

resulting in no current, i.e. I  0 .

Index Diode Models PMcL

6 - Diodes and Basic Diode Circuits 2015

 6.19

6.5.3 The Piece-Wise Linear Model

An even better approximation to the diode characteristic is called a “piece-
wise” linear model. It is made up of pieces, where each piece is a straight
line:
A model that
approximates the
i characteristic by
using straight lines
(mA)

1
slope =
rfd
reverse bias
model is valid

v
1 efd (V)
slope =
rrd forward bias
model is valid

Figure 6.9 – The Piece-Wise Linear Diode Model

For each section, we use a different diode model (one for the forward bias
region and one for the reverse bias region):

The piece-wise
linear diode model
ideal e fd rfd r rd

reverse bias model

forward bias model

Figure 6.10

Typical values for the resistances are rfd  5  and rrd  109  .

Notice how we have done away with the ideal diode part of the model for
when the diode is reverse biased. This is because there is a separate
equivalent circuit for the forward bias and reverse bias regions, so an ideal
diode is not necessary (we apply one equivalent circuit or the other).

PMcL Diode Models Index

2015 6 - Diodes and Basic Diode Circuits

 6.20
EXAMPLE 6.4 Analysis Using the Piece-Wise Linear Model

(i) Find the current, I, in the circuit shown below, using the piece-wise linear
model of the diode (assume e fd  0.7 V , rfd  5  and rrd  10 9  ).

(ii) If the battery is reversed, what does the current become?

R
10 k I
E 10 V

(iii) Analysis proceeds in exactly the same manner as the previous example,
except that the piece-wise linear diode model is used instead. The diode
is again forward biased, and so the equivalent circuit is shown below,
along with the calculation for I.

10 k
ideal

10 - 0.7
E 10 V e fd I= E - e fd = = 0.9295 mA
I R+ rfd 10k + 5

rfd

(iv) If the battery is reversed, the diode becomes reverse biased, and the
diode is replaced by the piece-wise linear model for the reverse
region, which is just the resistance rrd . Since rrd  10 9  , the
reverse current is:

E 10
I  9  10 nA
R  rrd 10  10 4

which is negligible, i.e. I  0 .

Index Diode Models PMcL

6 - Diodes and Basic Diode Circuits 2015

 6.21

6.5.4 The Small Signal Model

Suppose we know the diode DC voltage and current exactly. We may want to
examine the behaviour of a circuit when we apply a signal (a small AC
voltage) to it. In this case we are interested in small excursions of the voltage
and current about the “DC operating point” of the diode. The best model in
this instance is the following (the forward bias region is used as an example,
but the method applies anywhere):
A model that
approximates the
characteristic by a
i tangent at a DC
operating point
(mA)

tangent
DC
operating
point 1
slope =
IDQ rd

v
VDQ (V)

Figure 6.11 – Diode Model as the Tangent to a DC Operating Point

We approximate the curved characteristic by the tangent that passes through

the operating point. It is only valid for small variations in voltage or current. A first look at the
small signal
This is called the small signal approximation. A straight line is a good approximation
approximation to a curve if we don’t venture too far.

PMcL Diode Models Index

2015 6 - Diodes and Basic Diode Circuits

 6.22

Thus, for a small change v D in the diode voltage, we get a small change in
the diode current i D , which can be approximated by the change in current
we would get by following the tangent:

diD
iD  vD (6.17)
dvD

From the Shockley equation in the forward-biased region, we have:

diD I
 S ev nVT (6.18)
dvD nVT

We define the dynamic resistance of the diode as:

Dynamic resistance
dvD nVT
rd   (6.19)
diD iD  I DQ
I DQ

Therefore, using Eq. (6.17) and Eq. (6.19), a small AC signal v d superimposed

upon the DC operating point will result in a small AC current i d given by:

1
id  vd (6.20)
rd

Thus, for small AC signals, the diode can be modelled as a resistance, rd .

Index Diode Models PMcL

6 - Diodes and Basic Diode Circuits 2015

 6.23

Now consider the case where the Thévenin equivalent circuit contains both a
DC source and a small signal AC source:

R Th

VDC iD
vD
vAC

Thévenin equivalent circuit

Figure 6.12

In this case we analyse two separate circuits. The first circuit contains the DC
source which is used to establish the DC operating point. The diode in this
circuit has the standard i-v characteristic and the DC operating point can be
obtained using graphical methods (load line) or numerical methods (iteration).

The second circuit contains the small AC source and uses the dynamic
resistance model of the diode. The small AC currents and voltages in this
circuit can be superimposed upon the diode’s DC current and voltage obtained
from the first circuit. Thus we analyse:

R Th R Th

IDQ id
VDC VDQ + vAC rd vd

Figure 6.13

PMcL Diode Models Index

2015 6 - Diodes and Basic Diode Circuits

 6.24

The analysis can also be illustrated graphically:

Development of the
diode small signal
model
iD
diode
DC load characteristic
line
id
Q
IDQ t

vD
VDQ
vd

Figure 6.14

The figure above illustrates the two separate analysis steps. First, the DC
operating point, or Q point for short, is found using graphical or numerical
techniques. Then the application of an AC voltage on top of the original DC
voltage results in a change in current given by the projection of the applied
voltage onto the diode i-v characteristic. If the AC voltage is a “small signal”,
then the diode characteristic can be replaced by a straight line. In this context, a
“small signal” is defined as one for which the tangent to the curve is a good
approximation to the curve, resulting in a linear relationship between the
voltage and current.

Index Diode Models PMcL

6 - Diodes and Basic Diode Circuits 2015

 6.25

6.6 Basic Diode Circuits

There are many diode circuits that are used in a wide variety of applications.
The most important are summarised below.

6.6.1 Half-Wave Rectifier

A rectifier is a circuit that converts a bipolar (AC) signal into a unidirectional

one. The figure below shows a diode rectifier fed by a sine-wave voltage
source v i .
The half-wave
rectifier

vi RL vo

Figure 6.15

A sinusoidal input waveform, and the resulting output waveform v o that

appears across the “load resistor”, RL , are shown below:

vi vo
Vp Vp

t t
0 0

Figure 6.16

PMcL Basic Diode Circuits Index

2015 6 - Diodes and Basic Diode Circuits

 6.26

Operation of the circuit is straightforward when we assume the diode is ideal:

When v i is positive the diode conducts and acts as a short-circuit. The voltage

v i appears directly at the output – that is, vo  vi , and the diode forward

current is equal to vi RL . On the other hand, when v i is negative the diode

cuts off – that is, there is no current. The output voltage v o will be zero, and the

diode becomes reverse-biased by the value of the input voltage v i . It follows

that the output voltage waveform will consist of the positive half cycles of the
input sinusoid. Since only half-cycles are utilized, the circuit is called a half-
wave rectifier.

It should be noted that while the input sinusoid has a zero average value, the
output waveform has a finite average value or DC component. Therefore,
rectifiers are used to generate DC voltages from AC voltages.

The transfer characteristic is often used to describe non-linear circuits – it is

simply a plot of the output, v o , versus the input, v i . The figure below shows
the transfer characteristic of the half-wave rectifier:
Half-wave rectifier
transfer
characteristic
vo

1
1
vi

Figure 6.17

As can be seen, the half-wave rectifier produces an output voltage equal to the
input voltage when the input voltage is positive and produces zero output
voltage when the input voltage is negative.

Index Basic Diode Circuits PMcL

6 - Diodes and Basic Diode Circuits 2015

 6.27
6.6.2 Full-Wave Rectifier

The full-wave rectifier utilizes both halves of the input signal – it inverts the
negative halves of the waveform. One popular implementation is shown below,
where the diodes are connected in a bridge configuration:
A full-wave “bridge
rectifier”

D1 D2
io
vs vi

D4 D3
Ro vo

Figure 6.18

We can perform the usual analysis quickly. In the positive half cycle of the
input voltage, D2 and D4 are on. Meanwhile, D1 and D3 will be reverse

biased. In the negative half cycle of the input voltage, D1 and D3 are on, and

D2 and D4 are off. The important point to note is that during both half-cycles,
the current through the resistor Ro is in the same direction (down), and thus v o
will always be positive. The waveforms are shown below:

vi vo
Vp Vp

0 t 0 t

Figure 6.19

PMcL Basic Diode Circuits Index

2015 6 - Diodes and Basic Diode Circuits

 6.28
6.6.3 Limiter Circuits

Consider the following circuit:

A limiting circuit

D1 D2
vi vo
E1 E2

Figure 6.20

The circuit works very simply. Assume both diodes are off. KVL then gives:

vo  vi (6.21)

If the output voltage is greater than E1 , then diode D1 will be on. This limits or

clamps the output voltage to E1 :

vo  E1 for vi  E1 (6.22)

If the output voltage is less than  E 2 then diode D2 will be on, limiting the
output voltage to  E 2 :

vo   E2 for vi   E2 (6.23)

Index Basic Diode Circuits PMcL

6 - Diodes and Basic Diode Circuits 2015

 6.29

A graph of the output is shown below for a sinusoidal input:

vi
E1 vo
t
-E2

Figure 6.21

The transfer characteristic of this limiter is shown below:

vo
E1

slope = 1
0
vi

-E2

Figure 6.22

PMcL Basic Diode Circuits Index

2015 6 - Diodes and Basic Diode Circuits

 6.30

6.7 Summary
 The silicon junction diode forms the basis of modern electronics. It is a
device that effectively allows a current in only one direction.

 The forward conduction region of practical silicon diodes is accurately

characterised by the Shockley equation:


i  I S ev nVT  1 
 Beyond a certain value of reverse voltage (that depends on the diode)
breakdown occurs, and current increases rapidly with a small
corresponding increase in voltage. This property is exploited in diodes
known as breakdown diodes.

 A variety of diode constructions exist, with many of them essential to the

modern world, such as the LED.

 Since the diode’s characteristic is nonlinear, we can’t apply linear circuit

analysis techniques to circuits containing diodes. We therefore have to
resort to other analysis methods: graphical, numerical and linear modelling

 A hierarchy of diode models exists, with the selection of an appropriate

model dictated by the application.

 In the forward direction, the ideal diode conducts any current forced by the
external circuit while displaying a zero voltage drop. The ideal diode does
not conduct in the reverse direction; any applied voltage appears as reverse
bias across the diode.

 In many applications, a conducting diode is modelled as having a constant

voltage drop, usually approximately 0.7 V.

Index Summary PMcL

6 - Diodes and Basic Diode Circuits 2015

 6.31

 A diode biased to operate at a direct current I D has a small-signal

resistance:

nVT
rd 
I DQ

 The unidirectional-current property makes the diode useful in the design of

a variety of circuits, such as the half-wave rectifier, the full-wave rectifier,
limiting circuits, and many others.

 The half-wave rectifier is:

vo

1
1
vi
vi RL vo

(a) circuit (b) transfer characteristic

 The full-wave rectifier is:

D1 D2
vo
io
vs vi
1 1
D4 D3 1 1
Ro vo vi

(a) circuit (b) transfer characteristic

PMcL Summary Index

2015 6 - Diodes and Basic Diode Circuits

 6.32

 A limiting circuit is:

vo
R
E1

D1 D2 slope = 1
vi vo 0
vi
E1 E2
-E2

(a) circuit (b) transfer characteristic

6.8 References
Sedra, A. and Smith, K.: Microelectronic Circuits, Saunders College
Publishing, New York, 1991.

Index References PMcL

6 - Diodes and Basic Diode Circuits 2015

 7.1

7 Source-Free RC and RL Circuits

Contents

Introduction ..................................................................................................... 7.2

7.1 Differential Operators ................................................................................ 7.3
7.2 Properties of Differential Operators .......................................................... 7.5
7.3 The Characteristic Equation ...................................................................... 7.9
7.4 The Simple RC Circuit ............................................................................ 7.13
7.5 Properties of the Exponential Response .................................................. 7.16
7.6 Single Time Constant RC Circuits........................................................... 7.19
7.7 The Simple RL Circuit ............................................................................. 7.21
7.8 Single Time Constant RL Circuits ........................................................... 7.24
7.9 Summary.................................................................................................. 7.28
7.10 References ............................................................................................. 7.28
Exercises ........................................................................................................ 7.29

PMcL Contents Index

2015 7 - Source-Free RC and RL Circuits

 7.2

Introduction
The analysis of a linear circuit that has storage elements (capacitors and
inductors) inevitably gives rise to a linear differential equation. The solution of
the differential equation always consists of two parts – one part leads to the so-
called forced response, the other is the natural response. The forced response
is due to the application of a source to the circuit. The natural response is due
entirely to the circuit’s configuration, its initial energy, and the amplitude of
the applied source at the instant of application.

Initially, we will study the theory of differential operators, which leads to a

rather simple method of solving linear differential equations. For simple RC
and RL circuits, the differential operator seems like overkill – a powerful
method applied to a simple situation. However, some of the insights resulting
from such a method will put us in good stead when we look at more
complicated circuits that have both capacitors and inductors in them.

We shall then study the natural response of some simple source-free RC and
RL circuits. This study will reveal some surprising results, such as the fact that
there is only ever one form of natural response – an exponential response.

We will become familiar with the exponential response, and we will give some
special names to the algebraic terms involved in it, such as initial condition and
time constant.

With practice, we will also see that we can write down the natural response for
simple circuits by inspection. This will lead to intuition of circuit behaviour,
and we will “get a feel” for the way a circuit behaves by simply looking at it.

Index Introduction PMcL

7 - Source-Free RC and RL Circuits 2015

 7.3

7.1 Differential Operators

Let D denote differentiation with respect to t:

D is just shorthand
d
D (7.1) for d dt
dt
Then D 2 denotes differentiation twice with respect to t, and so on. That is, for
positive integer k:

dk y
D y k
k
(7.2)
dt
The expression:

A  an D n  an1D n1  ...  a1D  a0 (7.3)

is called a differential operator of order n. The coefficients ak in the operator A

may be functions of t, but most of the time they will be constant coefficients.

The product AB of two operators A and B is defined as that operator which

produces the same result as is obtained by using the operator B followed by the
operator A. Thus:

ABy  ABy  (7.4)

Differential
The product of two differential operators always exists and is a differential operators commute
operator. For operators with constant coefficients it is true that AB  BA . if they have constant
coefficients

PMcL Differential Operators Index

2015 7 - Source-Free RC and RL Circuits

 7.4

EXAMPLE 7.1 Product of Differential Operators

Let A  D  2 and B  3D  1 .

Then:

By  3D  1 y  3
dy
y
dt

and:

 dy 
ABy   D  2  3  y 
 dt 
2
d y dy dy
 3 2   6  2y
dt dt dt
2
d y dy
 3 2  5  2y
dt dt

 3D  5 D  2 y
2

Hence AB  D  23D  1  3D2  5D  2 .

The sum of two differential operators is obtained by expressing each in the

form:

an D n  an1D n1  ...  a1D  a0 (7.5)

and adding corresponding coefficients.

EXAMPLE 7.2 Summation of Differential Operators

Let A  3D3  D  2 and B  D2  4D  7 .

Hence A  B  3D3  D2  3D  9 .

Differential Differential operators are linear operators. Therefore, differential operators

operators are linear
operators that obey with constant coefficients satisfy all the laws of the algebra of polynomials
the laws of algebra
with respect to the operations of addition and multiplication.

Index Differential Operators PMcL

7 - Source-Free RC and RL Circuits 2015

 7.5

7.2 Properties of Differential Operators

Since for constant s and positive integer k:

Dk est  s k est (7.6)

it is easy to find the effect that a differential operator has upon e st . Let f D 
be a polynomial in D:

f D  an D n  an1D n1  ...  a1D  a0 (7.7)

Then:

f Dest  an s nest  an1s n1est  ...  a1sest  a0est (7.8)

so:
Operating with D

f De  f s e
st st and multiplication by
(7.9) s are equivalent for
the function e st
This equation does not mean that f D  f s  . f D  is an operator, and it
means “to take a linear sum of derivatives” of a function that it operates on.
f s  is a standard polynomial in s. The equation means that the effect of the D

operator on e st is the same as multiplication by s. The function e st is the only

function that enjoys this property – a deeper insight into the special function
e st will be developed later.

If s is a root of the equation f s   0 , then in view of the above result:

f Dest  0, if f s   0 (7.10)

PMcL Properties of Differential Operators Index

2015 7 - Source-Free RC and RL Circuits

 7.6

EXAMPLE 7.3 Solution of a Homogeneous Differential Equation

Let f D  2D2  5D  12 . Then the equation f s   0 is:

2s 2  5s  12  0

or:

s  42s  3  0

of which the roots are s1  4 and s2  32 .

With the aid of Eq. (7.10), it can be seen that:

2D 2

 5D  12 e4t  0

and that:

2D 2

 5D  12 e3t 2  0

In other words, y1  e4t and y2  e3t 2 are solutions of:

2D 2

 5D  12 y  0 .

Index Properties of Differential Operators PMcL

7 - Source-Free RC and RL Circuits 2015

 7.7

Next consider the effect of the operator D  s on the product of e st and a

function y. Utilising the “product rule” of differentiation, we have:

D  s e st y   De st y   sest y

(7.11)
 e Dy
st

and:

D  s 2 e st y   D  s e st Dy
(7.12)
e D y st 2

Repeating the operation, we are led to:

D  s n est y   est Dn y (7.13)

Using the linearity of differential operators, we conclude that when f D  is a

polynomial in D with constant coefficients, then:
Shifting an

 
exponential factor
e st f Dy  f D  s  est y (7.14) from the left of a
differential operator
to the right

This relation shows us how to shift an exponential factor from the left of an
operator to the right of an operator.

PMcL Properties of Differential Operators Index

2015 7 - Source-Free RC and RL Circuits

 7.8

EXAMPLE 7.4 Solution of a Homogeneous Differential Equation

Let us solve the differential equation:

D  34 y  0

First, we multiply the equation by e3t to obtain:

e3t D  3 y  0
4

Applying the exponential shift as in Eq. (7.14) leads to:

 
D4 e3t y  0

Integrating four times gives us:

e3t y  c0  c1t  c2t 2  c3t 3

and finally:

 
y  c0  c1t  c2t 2  c3t 3 e3t

It can be shown that the four functions e 3t , te 3t , t 2e 3t and t 3e 3t are linearly
independent – thus the solution given is the general solution of the differential
equation.

In Eq. (7.14), if we let f D   D n and y  t k , then:

D  s n t k est   est Dnt k (7.15)

But Dnt k  0 for k  0, 1, 2, ..., n  1 , and so:

D  s n t k est   0,
The solution to a
special class of
differential equation
k  0, 1, ..., n  1 (7.16)

Index Properties of Differential Operators PMcL

7 - Source-Free RC and RL Circuits 2015

 7.9

7.3 The Characteristic Equation

The general linear differential equation with constant coefficients of order n is
an equation that can be written:

dny d n1 y
an n  an1 n1    a1  a0 y  r t 
dy (7.17)
dt dt dt

If r t  is identically zero (i.e. zero for all time, not just a specific time), then
we have an equation that is said to be homogeneous:

n n 1 Homogeneous
d y d y dy differential equation
an  a n 1    a  a0 y  0 (7.18) defined
dt n1
1
dt n dt
Any linear combination of solutions of a linear homogeneous differential
equation is also a solution. If yi , with i  1, 2, ..., k , are solutions of

Eq. (7.18) and if ci , with i  1, 2, ..., k , are constants, then:

y  c1 y1  c2 y2    ck yk (7.19)

is a solution of Eq. (7.18).

If the solutions yi are linearly independent (i.e. they cannot be expressed as

linear combinations of one another), then there are n of them and we say that
the general solution of the differential equation is:

y  c1 y1  c2 y2    cn yn (7.20)

PMcL The Characteristic Equation Index

2015 7 - Source-Free RC and RL Circuits

 7.10

The linear homogeneous differential equation with constant coefficients may

also be written in the form:

f D  y  0 (7.21)

where f D  is a linear differential operator. As we saw in the preceding

A solution to a linear
homogeneous section, if s is any root of the algebraic equation f s   0 , then:
differential equation
with constant

f De st  0
coefficients is
y  e st (7.22)

which means simply that y  e st is a solution of Eq. (7.21). The equation:

f s   0
Characteristic
equation defined (7.23)

is called the characteristic equation associated with Eq. (7.21).

Let the characteristic equation for Eq. (7.21) be of degree n. Let its roots be
s1 , s2 , …, sn . If these roots are all real and distinct, then the n solutions

y1  e s1t , y2  e s2t , …, yn  e snt are linearly independent and the general

General solution of solution of Eq. (7.21) can be written at once. It is:

a linear
homogeneous
differential equation
with constant
y  c1es1t  c2es2t    cnesnt (7.24)
coefficients

in which c1 , c2 , …, cn are arbitrary constants. Repeated roots of the

characteristic equation will be treated later.

Index The Characteristic Equation PMcL

7 - Source-Free RC and RL Circuits 2015

 7.11

EXAMPLE 7.5 General Solution of a Homogeneous Differential Equation

Solve the equation:

d3y d 2 y dy
 4   6y  0
dt 3 dt 2 dt

First write the characteristic equation:

s 3  4s 2  s  6  0
s  1s  2s  3  0

whose roots are s  1, 2, 3 . Then the general solution is seen to be:

y  c1et  c2e2t  c3e3t

EXAMPLE 7.6 General Solution of a Homogeneous Differential Equation

Solve the equation:

3D 3

 5D 2  2 D y  0

The characteristic equation is:

3s 3  5s 2  2s  0
ss  23s  1  0

whose roots are s  0,  2, 13 . Using the fact that eot  1 , the desired solution
may be written:

y  c1  c2e2t  c3et 3

PMcL The Characteristic Equation Index

2015 7 - Source-Free RC and RL Circuits

 7.12

EXAMPLE 7.7 General Solution of a Homogeneous Differential Equation

with Initial Conditions

Solve the equation:

d2y
 4y  0
dt 2

with the conditions that when t  0 , y  0 and dy dt  3 .

The characteristic equation is:

s2  4  0

with roots s  2,  2 . Hence the general solution of the differential equation is:

y  c1e2t  c2e2t

It remains to enforce the conditions at t  0 .

The condition that y  0 when t  0 requires that:

0  c1  c2

Now:

dy
 2c1e 2t  2c2e 2t
dt

The condition that dy dt  3 when t  0 requires that:

3  2c1  2c2

From the simultaneous equations for c1 and c2 we conclude that c1  3

4
and

c2   34 . Therefore:

y 3
4 e 2t
 e2t 

Index The Characteristic Equation PMcL

7 - Source-Free RC and RL Circuits 2015

 7.13

7.4 The Simple RC Circuit

Consider the parallel RC circuit shown below.

The simple RC
circuit

C v R

Figure 7.1

We designate the time-varying voltage by vt  , and we shall let the value of
vt  at t  0 be prescribed as V0 .

Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) applied to the top node gives us:

dv v
C  0 (7.25)
dt R
Division by C gives us:

dv v The governing
 0 (7.26) differential equation
of the simple RC
dt RC circuit

and we must determine an expression for vt  which satisfies this equation and
also has the value V0 at t  0 .

PMcL The Simple RC Circuit Index

2015 7 - Source-Free RC and RL Circuits

 7.14

Written in operator notation, Eq. (7.26) is:

 1 
D  v  0 (7.27)
 RC 
for which the characteristic equation is:

 1 
s  0 (7.28)
 RC 
which has a root at s  1 RC . Therefore, the solution to the differential
equation is:

v  c1et RC (7.29)

It remains to enforce the condition that v0  V0 . Thus:

V0  c1 (7.30)

and the final form of the solution is:

The solution to the
governing
differential equation v  V0et RC (7.31)
of the simple RC
circuit
This solution is known as the natural response of the circuit. Its mathematical
form is Ae st , where s  1 RC and A is the initial condition. It turns out, for
any linear circuit, that this mathematical form is the only form for the natural
response! That is, the solution to a linear homogeneous differential equation
always takes the form Ae st . The actual values of s and A depend only on the
initial energy in the circuit (in this case the initial capacitor voltage), and the
circuit element configuration and values.

Index The Simple RC Circuit PMcL

7 - Source-Free RC and RL Circuits 2015

 7.15

Let us check the power and energy relationships in this circuit. The power
being dissipated in the resistor is:

v 2 V02e 2t RC
pR   (7.32)
R R
and the total energy turned into heat in the resistor is found by integrating the Power and energy
dissipated in the
instantaneous power from zero time to infinite time: simple RC circuit

 V02 
ER   pR dt   e 2t RC dt
0 R 0


V02  RC 2t RC 
  2 e 
R 0

 1
2 CV02 (7.33)

This is the result we expect, because the total energy stored initially in the
capacitor is 1
2 CV02 , and there is no energy stored in the capacitor at infinite
time. All the energy is accounted for by dissipation in the resistor.

PMcL The Simple RC Circuit Index

2015 7 - Source-Free RC and RL Circuits

 7.16

7.5 Properties of the Exponential Response

We will now consider the nature of the response in the parallel RC circuit. We
found that the voltage is represented by:

v  V0et RC (7.34)

At zero time, the voltage is the assumed value V0 and as time increases, the
voltage decreases and approaches zero. The shape of this decaying exponential
is seen by a plot of v V0 versus t, as shown below:

The decaying
exponential
response v
V0
1

Figure 7.2

Since the function we are plotting is e t RC , the curve will not change if RC
does not change. Thus, the same curve must be obtained for every RC circuit
having the same product of R and C. Let’s see how this product affects the
shape of the curve.

If we double the product RC, then the exponent will be unchanged if t is also
doubled. In other words, the original response will occur at a later time, and the
new curve is obtained by moving each point on the original curve twice as far
to the right. With this larger RC product, the voltage takes longer to decay to
any given fraction of its original value.

Index Properties of the Exponential Response PMcL

7 - Source-Free RC and RL Circuits 2015

 7.17
To get a “handle” on the rate at which the curve decays, let’s consider the time
that would be required for the voltage to drop to zero if it continued to drop at
its initial rate.

The initial rate of decay is found by evaluating the derivative at zero time:

d v 1 t RC 1
 e  (7.35)
dt V0 t 0
RC t 0 RC

We designate the value of time it takes for v V0 to drop from unity to zero,

assuming a constant rate of decay, by T (or sometimes the Greek letter  ).

Thus T RC  1 , or:
Time constant
T  RC (7.36) defined for the
simple RC circuit

The product RC has the units of seconds, and therefore the exponent  t RC is
dimensionless (as it must be). The value of time T is called the time constant.
It is shown below:
Time constant
shown graphically
on the natural
v response curve
V0
1

T t

Figure 7.3

PMcL Properties of the Exponential Response Index

2015 7 - Source-Free RC and RL Circuits

 7.18

An equally important interpretation of the time constant T is obtained by

determining the value of v V0 at t  T . We have:

v
 e 1  0.3679 or v  0.3679V0 (7.37)
V0

Thus, in one time constant the response has dropped to 36.8 percent of its
initial value. The value of T may be determined graphically from this fact
from the display on an oscilloscope, as indicated below:

Response curve
values at integer
multiples of the time v
constant
V0
1

0.3679

0.1353
0.0498
0
t
T 2T 3T 4T

Figure 7.4
At some point three to five time constants after zero time, most of us would
agree that the voltage is a negligible fraction of its former self.

Why does a larger value of the time constant RC produce a response curve
which decays more slowly? An increase in C allows a greater energy storage
for the same initial voltage, and this larger energy requires a longer time to be
dissipated in the resistor. For an increase in R, the power flowing into the
resistor is less for the same initial voltage; again, a greater time is required to
dissipate the stored energy.

In terms of the time constant T , the response of the parallel RC circuit may be
written simply as:

v  V0et T (7.38)

Index Properties of the Exponential Response PMcL

7 - Source-Free RC and RL Circuits 2015

 7.19

7.6 Single Time Constant RC Circuits

Many of the RC circuits for which we would like to find the natural response
contain more than a single resistor and capacitor. We first consider those cases
in which the given circuit may be reduced to an equivalent circuit consisting of Single time constant
RC circuit defined
only one resistor and one capacitor. Such a circuit is known as a single time
constant circuit.

Firstly, consider a circuit with any number of resistors and one capacitor. We
fix our attention on the two terminals of the capacitor and determine the
equivalent resistance across these terminals. The circuit is thus reduced to the
simple parallel case.

EXAMPLE 7.8 Analysis of a Single Time Constant RC Circuit

The circuit shown in (a) below may be simplified to that of (b):

i1
R2
R1 R3 C v R eq
C v

(a) (b)

enabling us to write:

t Req C
v  V0e

where:

v0  V0
R1R3
and Req  R2 
R1  R3

Every current and voltage in the resistive portion of the circuit must have the
t Req C
form Ae , where A is the initial value of that current or voltage.

PMcL Single Time Constant RC Circuits Index

2015 7 - Source-Free RC and RL Circuits

 7.20

Since the current in a resistor may change instantaneously, we shall indicate

the instant after any change that may have occurred at t  0 by use of the
symbol 0  .

Thus, the current in R1 , for example, may be expressed as:

 
i1  i1 0 et T

where:

 RR 
T   R2  1 3 C
 R1  R3 

 
and i1 0 remains to be determined from some initial condition. Suppose that

v0 is given. Since v cannot change instantaneously, we may think of the

capacitor as being replaced by an independent DC source, v0 , for the instant
of time t  0 . Thus:

v0
 
i1 0 
R3
R2  R1R3 R1  R3  R1  R3

The solution is obtained by collecting all these results:

v0
t
R3
i1  e  R2  R1R3  R1R3 C
R2  R1R3 R1  R3  R1  R3

Another special case includes those circuits containing one resistor and any
number of capacitors. The resistor voltage is easily obtained by establishing the
value of the equivalent capacitance and determining the time constant.

Some circuits containing a number of both resistors and capacitors may be

Not all RC circuits replaced by an equivalent circuit containing only one resistor and one
can be converted
into single time capacitor; it is necessary that the original circuit be one which can be broken
constant RC circuits
into two parts, one containing all resistors and the other containing all
capacitors. This is not possible in general.

Index Single Time Constant RC Circuits PMcL

7 - Source-Free RC and RL Circuits 2015

 7.21

7.7 The Simple RL Circuit

Consider the series RL circuit shown below.
The simple RL
circuit
i

L v R

Figure 7.5

We designate the time-varying current by i t  , and we shall let the value of i t 

at t  0 be prescribed as I 0 .

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) applied around the loop gives us:

di
L  Ri  0 (7.39)
dt
Division by L gives us:

The governing
di R differential equation
 i0 (7.40) of the simple RL
dt L circuit

This equation has a familiar form; comparison with:

dv v
 0 (7.41)
dt RC
shows that the replacement of v by i and RC by L R produces an equation
identical to Eq. (7.40). It should, for the RL circuit we are now analysing is the
dual of the RC circuit we considered first.

PMcL The Simple RL Circuit Index

2015 7 - Source-Free RC and RL Circuits

 7.22

This duality forces i t  for the RL circuit and vt  for the RC circuit to have
identical expressions if the resistance of one circuit is equal to the conductance
of the other and if L is numerically equal to C. That is, we will obtain the dual
circuit (and equation) if we make the substitution:

Duality relations for

all dual circuits vi
RG (7.42)

CL

Thus, the response of the RC circuit:

vt   v0et RC  V0et RC (7.43)

enables us to write immediately:

The solution to the
governing
differential equation
of the simple RL it   i0etR L  I 0etR L (7.44)
circuit

for the RL circuit.

Let’s examine the physical nature of the response of the RL circuit as expressed
by Eq. (7.44). At t  0 we obtain the correct initial condition, and as t
becomes infinite the current approaches zero. This latter result agrees with our
thinking that if there were any current remaining through the inductor, then
energy would continue to flow into the resistor and be dissipated as heat. Thus
a final current of zero is necessary.

Index The Simple RL Circuit PMcL

7 - Source-Free RC and RL Circuits 2015

 7.23

The time constant of the RL circuit may be found by using the duality
relationships on the expression for the time constant of the RC circuit, or it may
be found by simply noting the time at which the response has dropped to 36.8
percent of its initial value:

L Time constant
T (7.45) defined for the
simple RL circuit
R
Our familiarity with the negative exponential and the significance of the time
constant T enables us to sketch the response curve readily:

i
I0

0.3679 I0

0
t
T

Figure 7.6

An increase in L allows a greater energy storage for the same initial current,
and this larger energy requires a longer time to be dissipated in the resistor. If
we reduce R, the power flowing into the resistor is less for the same initial
current; again, a greater time is required to dissipate the stored energy.

PMcL The Simple RL Circuit Index

2015 7 - Source-Free RC and RL Circuits

 7.24

7.8 Single Time Constant RL Circuits

It is not difficult to extend the results obtained for the series RL circuit to a
circuit containing any number of resistors and inductors. We first consider
Single time constant
RL circuit defined those cases in which the given circuit may be reduced to an equivalent circuit
consisting of only one resistor and one inductor; that is, single time constant
(STC) circuits.

EXAMPLE 7.9 Analysis of a Single Time Constant RL Circuit

The circuit shown in (a) below may be simplified to that of (b):

R3 L i i

R1 R2 R4 L R eq

i1 i2

(a) (b)

The equivalent resistance which the inductor faces is:

R1R2
Req  R3  R4 
R1  R2

and the time constant is therefore:

L
T
Req

The inductor current is:

i  i0et T

and represents what we might call the basic solution to the problem. It is quite
possible that some current or voltage other than i is needed, such as the current
i2 in R2 . We can always apply Kirchhoff’s laws and Ohm’s law to the resistive

Index Single Time Constant RL Circuits PMcL

7 - Source-Free RC and RL Circuits 2015

 7.25
portion of the circuit without any difficulty, but current division provides the
quickest answer in this circuit:

i0e t T
R1
i2  
R1  R2

It may also happen that we know the initial value of some current other than
 
the inductor current. Thus, if we are given the initial value of i1 as i1 0 , then

it is apparent that the initial value of i2 is:

    RR
i2 0  i1 0 1

From these values, we obtain the necessary initial value of i 0 :  

      
i 0   i1 0  i2 0  
R1  R2
R2
 
i1 0

and the expression for i2 becomes:

i2 
R1
R2
 
i1 0 e t T

We can obtain this last expression more directly. Every current and voltage in
the resistive portion of the circuit must have the form Ae t T , where A is the
initial value of that current or voltage. We therefore express i2 as:

i2  Ae t T

and A must be determined from a knowledge of the initial value of i2 . We

found this initial value previously. We therefore have:

i2 
R1
R2
 
i1 0 e t T

PMcL Single Time Constant RL Circuits Index

2015 7 - Source-Free RC and RL Circuits

 7.26

A similar sequence of steps provides a solution to a large number of problems.

This technique is also applicable to a circuit which contains one resistor and
any number of inductors, as well as to those special circuits containing two or
more inductors and also two or more resistors that may be simplified by
resistance or inductance combination until the simplified circuits have only one
inductance or one resistance.

EXAMPLE 7.10 Analysis of a Single Time Constant RL Circuit

Consider the circuit shown below:

120 

60 

iL
t=0 1 mH 50 

18 V 90  2 mH 3 mH

i1

After t  0 , when the voltage source is disconnected, we easily calculate an

equivalent inductance,

23
Leq   1  2.2 mH
23

an equivalent resistance,

9060  120
Req   50  110 
90  180

and the time constant:

Leq 2.2  10 3
T   20 μs
Req 110

Index Single Time Constant RL Circuits PMcL

7 - Source-Free RC and RL Circuits 2015

 7.27

Thus, the form of the natural response is Ae 50000t . With the independent source
connected t  0 , iL is 18
50 , or 0.36 A, while i1 is 18
90 , or 0.2 A. At t  0 , iL

must still be 0.36 A, but i1 will jump to a new value determined by iL 0 .  

Thus, by the current divider rule:

 
i1 0  iL 0   180
270  0.24 A

Hence:

iL  0.36 t0
 0.36e 50000t
t0

and:

i1  0.2 t0
 0.24e  50000t
t0

The responses are sketched below:

iL i1

0.4 0.4

0.3 0.3

0.2 0.2

0.1 0.1

t ( s) 0
t ( s)
-20 0 20 40 60 80 -20 20 40 60 80
-0.1

-0.2

-0.3

A circuit containing several resistances and several inductances does not in

general possess a form which allows either the resistances or inductances to be
combined into single equivalent elements. There is no single negative Not all RL circuits
can be converted
exponential term or single time constant associated with the circuit. Rather, in into single time
constant RL circuits
general, there will be several negative exponential terms, the number of terms
being equal to the number of inductances that remain after all possible inductor
combinations have been made. The natural response of these more complex
circuits is obtained using mathematical techniques that will appear later.

PMcL Single Time Constant RL Circuits Index

2015 7 - Source-Free RC and RL Circuits

 7.28

7.9 Summary
 The solution to the linear homogeneous differential equation f Dy  0 is

y  c1e s1t  c2es2t    cne snt where the si ’s are the roots of the characteristic

equation f s   0 and the ci ’s are arbitrary constants.

 The natural response of any voltage or current in a single time constant

circuit always takes the form of y  Ae t T , where T is the time constant
and A is determined from the initial conditions.

 For single time constant RC circuits, the time constant is T  ReqCeq .

Leq
 For single time constant RL circuits, the time constant is T  .
Req

 Not all RC and RL circuits can be reduced to single time constant circuits.

7.10 References
Bedient, P. & Rainville, E.: Elementary Differential Equations, 6th Ed.
Macmillan Publishing Co., 1981.

Hayt, W. & Kemmerly, J.: Engineering Circuit Analysis, 3rd Ed., Mcgraw-Hill,
1984.

Index Summary PMcL

7 - Source-Free RC and RL Circuits 2015

 7.29

Exercises
1.
The current in a simple source-free series RC circuit is given by
it   20e5000t mA , and the capacitor voltage is 2 V in magnitude at t  0 .
Find R and C.

2.
Consider the circuit shown below:

200 
t=0

1 kV 600  50 F

(a) Find the charge in coulombs present on the capacitor at t  0 .

(b) What is the charge at t  0.01 s ?

3.
Let v and i be the voltage and current variables for a capacitor, assuming the
passive sign convention. The capacitor is the only energy-storage element
   
present in a source-free resistive circuit. If v 0  80 V , i 0  0.1 A , and

 
q 0 for the capacitor is 20 mC, find v0.01 .

PMcL Exercises Index

2015 7 - Source-Free RC and RL Circuits

 7.30

4.
Consider the circuit shown below:

100 

ix
5 ix 400  2 F

 
If ix 0  3 mA , find ix t  for t  0 .

5.
Consider the circuit shown below:

fuse

vs 10 M 2 F

The 10 M resistor in the circuit represents the leakage resistance present in a

typical 2 μF high-voltage capacitor. The fuse blows (opens) at t  0 . Let
v s  23000 cos100t  V . Assuming 50 V is relatively nonlethal, at what time is
it safe to get your hands across the capacitor?

Index Exercises PMcL

7 - Source-Free RC and RL Circuits 2015

 7.31

6.
Consider the circuit shown below:

t=0

2 M 9V

i2
4 M 1 M 20 F 30 F

The switch closes at t  0 . Find i2 t  for t  0 .

7.
The magnitude of the current in a series RL circuit decreases at a rate of
2000 As-1 at t  0 and 100 As-1 at t  0.2 s . At what time has the energy
stored in the inductor decreased to 1 per cent of its initial value?

8.
Consider the circuit shown below:

v( t )
2 8

i1 i2
0.4 
1H 2H
t=0
24 V

Find:

(a) i1 0 (b) i2 0 (c) i1 t  , t  0 (d) i2 t  , t  0 (e) vt  , t  0

PMcL Exercises Index

2015 7 - Source-Free RC and RL Circuits

 7.32

9.
What is the time constant of a series RL circuit if:

(a) the current decreases by a factor of 1000 in 0.2 s?

(b) the time required for the current to drop to half of its initial value is 0.1 s
less than the time required for it to drop to one-quarter of its initial value?

10.
The switch in the circuit shown below has been open for a long time.

1.5 H 2H

i
3
30  20 
t=0
12 V

Find i at t  :

(a) -0.08 s (b) +0.08 s

11.
The voltage across the resistor in a simple source-free series RL circuit is
vR t   50e400t V for t  0 . If the value of resistance changes from 200 Ω to
40 Ω at t  0 when a second resistor is placed in parallel with it, find vR t 
for t  0 .

Index Exercises PMcL

7 - Source-Free RC and RL Circuits 2015

 7.33

12.
The switch in the circuit shown below has been open for a long time.

200 
1 k 100 
t=0
12 V
4 F 0.5 H
i

It closes at t  0 . Find i t  .

Hint: Superposition can be very useful.

PMcL Exercises Index

2015 7 - Source-Free RC and RL Circuits

 8.1

8 Nonlinear Op-Amp Applications

Contents

Introduction ..................................................................................................... 8.2

8.1 The Comparator ......................................................................................... 8.3
8.2 Precision Rectifiers .................................................................................... 8.7
8.2.1 The Superdiode ............................................................................. 8.8
8.2.2 Precision Inverting Half-Wave Rectifier .................................... 8.10
8.2.3 Precision Full-Wave Rectifier .................................................... 8.15
8.2.4 Single-Supply Half-Wave and Full-Wave Rectifier ................... 8.17
8.3 Peak Detector ........................................................................................... 8.18
8.4 Limiter ..................................................................................................... 8.23
8.5 Clamp....................................................................................................... 8.25
8.6 Summary.................................................................................................. 8.27
8.7 References ............................................................................................... 8.28
Exercises ........................................................................................................ 8.29

PMcL Contents Index

2015 8 - Nonlinear Op-Amp Applications

 8.2

Introduction
Nonlinear op-amp circuits play a major role in modern electronics. Examples
include comparators, precision rectifiers, peak detectors, limiters and clamps.
Each of these circuits can be used as a “building block” in the creation of more
advanced signal conditioning circuitry found in a large variety of applications,
such as: communication receivers, automatic gain control circuits, oscillators
and waveform generators.

In non-linear op-amp circuits the non-linearity can be provided by either (or

both) of the following:

 the op-amp’s transfer characteristic, i.e. saturation

 a non-linear element, such as a diode or transistor

An op-amp operated open-loop can be configured as a comparator – a circuit

that can compare one voltage with another, and provide, in effect, a digital
output – either “high” or “low”.

Precision rectifiers are used in instrumentation and communication systems

where the forward voltage drop of a silicon diode (approx. 0.7 V) is larger than
the signal being processed. In this case the op-amp’s extremely large gain
causes the forward diode drop to be effectively reduced to zero, thus allowing
precision rectification of signals in the mV range.

Peak detectors are used in a wide variety of instrumentation and

communication systems, and again the op-amp allows precision detection.

A limiter circuit can be used to limit a signal to within a certain range – such a
circuit can be used to protect following circuitry from overload conditions, and
they are often used in signal generation circuitry.

Clamp circuits are used to restore the DC component of an incoming AC

waveform. Such circuits find utility in communication systems.

Index Introduction PMcL

8 - Nonlinear Op-Amp Applications 2015

 8.3

8.1 The Comparator

The op-amp in an open-loop configuration can be used as a basic comparator.
When two inputs are applied to the open-loop op-amp, it attempts to amplify
the difference, but because the gain is so large, it will saturate close to one of
the supply voltages (within 1 or 2 V), depending on whether the difference was
positive or negative. Thus, the output of a comparator has two voltage levels,
either “high” or “low” – it is not linearly proportional to the input voltage.

A basic non-inverting comparator is shown below:

A basic non-
inverting comparator
vo
positive saturation
+Vsat
vi
vo vi
-Vsat
negative saturation

(a) circuit (b) transfer characteristic

Figure 8.1

Although general purpose op-amps (like the TL071) can be used as

comparators, specially designed comparator ICs (like the LM311) can switch
faster and have additional features not found on general-purpose op-amps.
Some applications of a comparator are:

1. Zero crossing detector

2. Level detector
3. Window detector
4. Pulse width modulator
5. Pulse generator

PMcL The Comparator Index

2015 8 - Nonlinear Op-Amp Applications

 8.4

EXAMPLE 8.1 Zero Crossing Detector

The basic noninverting comparator can be used as a zero crossing detector. A

typical circuit for such a detector is shown below:

vi vo

RL

During the positive half-cycle, the input voltage is positive, hence the output
voltage is  Vsat . During the negative half-cycle, the input voltage is negative,

hence the output voltage is  Vsat . Thus the output voltage switches between

 Vsat and  Vsat whenever the input signal crosses the zero level:

vi

t
T0

vo
+Vsat

t
T0
-Vsat

Looking at the waveform shown above, we realize that a zero crossing detector
can be used as a sine- to square-wave converter.

This is an impractical circuit, since any noise on the input waveform near the
zero crossings will cause multiple level transitions in the output signal.

Index The Comparator PMcL

8 - Nonlinear Op-Amp Applications 2015

 8.5

EXAMPLE 8.2 Level Detector

We would like to monitor a 12 V car battery by having an LED on

continuously when the battery voltage is above 10 V. We have a +10 V supply
available.

The circuit we would use contains an LM311 comparator:

+VCC

R3 R4
8
Vref
LM311
vp
2 7

vn
3

R2
vi
4 1
R1

It consists of a voltage reference to establish a stable switching level, a voltage

divider to scale the desired input level to the value of the voltage reference, and
a voltage comparator to compare the two.

We choose a Zener diode (with VZ  2.5 V and I Z  23 mA ) to provide a

reference voltage. The LED has VLED  1.8 V at I LED  3 mA . We calculate the
Zener diode’s current setting resistor as follows:

VCC  VZ 10  2.5
R3    0.326 k
IZ 23
 330  (standard value)

PMcL The Comparator Index

2015 8 - Nonlinear Op-Amp Applications

 8.6

Careful examination of the LM311 datasheet reveals that the output transistor
will be turned ON when v p  vn . The voltage at the inverting terminal of the

comparator is given by the voltage divider rule:

R1
vn  vi
R1  R2

and the voltage at the noninverting terminal of the comparator is just v p  VZ .

The threshold voltage of the comparator is given by vn  v p , or:

R1
vi  VZ
R1  R2
 R 
vi  1  2 VZ
 R1 

Solving for the resistor ratio we have:

R2 v
 i 1
R1 VZ

The threshold input voltage is given as 10 V, and so:

R2 10
 1  3
R1 2.5

We therefore choose R1  1 k and R2  3 k .

From the datasheet of the LM311, we obtain the saturation voltage of the
output transistor as VCEsat  0.3 V . The current limiting resistor for the LED is
then given by:

VCC  VLED  VCEsat 10  1.8  0.3

R4    2.633 k
I LED 3
 2.7 k (standard value)

Index The Comparator PMcL

8 - Nonlinear Op-Amp Applications 2015

 8.7

8.2 Precision Rectifiers

Rectifier circuits can be implemented with silicon junction diodes. Recall that
for the diode to conduct appreciably, the voltage across it must be  0.7 V.
Therefore, a major limitation of these circuits is that they cannot rectify
voltages below about 0.7 V. In addition, since the input voltage has to rise to
about 0.7 V before any appreciable change can be seen at the output, the output
is distorted:
The output of a half-
wave rectifier is
vi vo distorted due to real
diode characteristics
Half-wave
t Rectifier t
(HWR)

Figure 8.2

The transfer characteristic of a half-wave rectifier with a real silicon junction

diode is shown below:

The transfer
characteristic of a
half-wave rectifier
vo with real diodes
10
1
1
ideal

real
1
0 1.7 10.8
vi

Figure 8.3

Notice the effect of the finite voltage drop of the diode. To achieve precision
rectification we need a circuit that keeps v o equal to v i for vi  0 . Such
circuits can be made using op-amps and are known as precision rectifiers.

PMcL Precision Rectifiers Index

2015 8 - Nonlinear Op-Amp Applications

 8.8
8.2.1 The Superdiode

The figure below shows a precision half-wave rectifier circuit consisting of a

diode placed in the negative-feedback path of an ideal op-amp, with R L being
the rectifier load resistance:
A precision half-
wave rectifier using
a superdiode

vo
vi
RL
"superdiode"

Figure 8.4

If v i is positive, then assuming there is a virtual short-circuit across the

op-amp input terminals (due to a negative feedback path around the op-amp),
then the input voltage appears at the output, and v o equals v i . In this case the
op-amp supplies the load current through the diode, and the output of the op-
amp is vo  vd .

With a real op-amp with a finite open-loop gain, AOL , negative feedback will
work to ensure that the output of the op-amp is:

AOL vi  vo   vo  vd (8.1)

Therefore the output voltage is:

vo 
1
 AOLvi  vd  (8.2)
AOL  1

Index Precision Rectifiers PMcL

8 - Nonlinear Op-Amp Applications 2015

 8.9

Since AOL  100 000 for a typical op-amp, the transfer characteristic is nearly

AOL
perfect, with a slope of  1 , and with vo  0 when vi  vd AOL  0 . In
AOL  1

other words, the rectified output appears when v i exceeds a negligibly small
voltage equal to the diode drop divided by the op-amp open-loop gain.
Thus, for vi  0 , vo  vi (to a high degree of precision).

Now consider the case when v i goes negative, and assume that the diode is

reverse-biased (“off”). Since there is no current, the output voltage is vo  0 ,

the voltage appearing across the op-amp input terminals is negative, and the
op-amp saturates close to its negative supply rail. A quick check of the
assumption that the diode is reverse-biased under these conditions reveals that
our analysis is correct. Thus, for vi  0 , vo  0 .

The transfer characteristic of the circuit will be almost identical to the ideal
characteristic of a half-wave rectifier. The non-ideal diode characteristic has
been almost completely masked by placing it in the negative-feedback path of
an op-amp. This is another dramatic application of negative feedback. The
combination of diode and op-amp, shown in the dotted box in Figure 8.4, is
appropriately referred to as a superdiode.

The circuit does have serious disadvantages which make it impractical. When
v i goes negative and vo  0 , the entire magnitude of v i appears between the
two input terminals of the op-amp. If this magnitude is greater than a few volts,
the op-amp may be damaged unless it is equipped with what is called
“overvoltage protection” (a feature that most modern IC op-amps have).
Another disadvantage is that when v i is negative the op-amp will be saturated
close to its negative supply rail. Although not harmful to the op-amp, saturation
should usually be avoided, since getting the op-amp out of saturation and back
into its linear region of operation takes some time. This time delay is
determined by the op-amp’s slew rate, and even a very fast op-amp will limit
the circuit to a low frequency range of operation.

PMcL Precision Rectifiers Index

2015 8 - Nonlinear Op-Amp Applications

 8.10
8.2.2 Precision Inverting Half-Wave Rectifier

An alternative precision half-wave rectifier circuit that does not suffer from the
disadvantages of the previous circuit is shown below:

A precision half-
wave rectifier
R2
D1
R1
vi D2
vo

Figure 8.5

To analyze this circuit, we firstly remember that the diode is a nonlinear

element so that linear circuit analysis does not apply. We will assume that the
op-amp has a negative feedback path around it so that there is a virtual short
circuit at its input. Thus, the inverting terminal will be kept at 0 V. We will
carry out the analysis with this assumption, and then check that the assumption
is true.

Due to the presence of diodes, we will consider two cases: one where the input
voltage is positive, the other when the input voltage is negative.

Index Precision Rectifiers PMcL

8 - Nonlinear Op-Amp Applications 2015

 8.11

In the positive half cycle ( vi  0 ), direct analysis on the circuit diagram gives:

3
v
R 2 Ri
vi 1

R1 R2
2 D1
0 vD
R1 1 2

vi D2 5 R2
vi 0 V vo = - vi
R1 vo - vD vi R1
2

6 R1 4

Figure 8.6

The analysis steps are:

1. We assume an ideal op-amp, and also assume that there is a negative

feedback path around the op-amp – it is producing a finite output voltage
(i.e., the overall amplifier is “working”). Thus, the ideal op-amp must have
a virtual short-circuit (VSC) at its input terminals. Since there is no
difference in the voltages across the VSC, the voltage at the inverting
terminal is v  0 . The current through resistor R1 , in the direction shown,
is given by Ohm’s Law, i1  vi R1 .

2. Due to the infinite input resistance of the ideal op-amp, the current entering
the inverting terminal is 0 A. We also assume that diode D1 is “off” (an
assumption that we will check later). KCL at the inverting terminal now
gives i2  i1  vi R1 .

PMcL Precision Rectifiers Index

2015 8 - Nonlinear Op-Amp Applications

 8.12

3. The voltage drop across the resistor R2 is given by Ohm’s Law,

vi
v R2  R2 i2  R2 , with the polarity shown.
R1

4. KVL, from the common, across the VSC, across R2 and to the output
vi R
terminal gives vo  0  R2   2 vi .
R1 R1

5. We assume that diode D2 is “on” (an assumption that we will check later).

KCL at the output then gives iD2  i2  vi R1 . The diode “on” voltage drop

is then given by its characteristic, and is labelled v D2 .

6. The output of the op-amp is, by KVL, vo  v D2 , which is a negative voltage

R2
(remember that vo   vi and vi  0 ). Thus, diode D1 is indeed reverse-
R1
biased, and our original assumption about it being “off” is correct. Also, the
diode D2 is indeed forward-biased, thus establishing a negative-feedback
path around the op-amp and forcing a virtual common to appear at the
inverting input terminal. That is, negative feedback works to ensure that the
op-amp output voltage is maintained at vo  v D2 .

Thus, in the positive half cycle ( vi  0 ), the output of the circuit is:

R2
vo   vi (8.3)
R1

That is, the output is negative for positive inputs.

Index Precision Rectifiers PMcL

8 - Nonlinear Op-Amp Applications 2015

 8.13

In the negative half cycle ( vi  0 ), direct analysis on the circuit diagram gives:

0V
2
0 R2
D1 4

R1 1 vD - vi
vi 1

R1 D2
vi 0 V vo = 0
R1 vD 1 0 3
- 5

Figure 8.7

The analysis steps are:

1. With the usual assumption that the ideal op-amp has a negative feedback
path, then a virtual short-circuit (VSC) exists at its input terminals. The
voltage at the inverting terminal is v  0 . The current through resistor R1 ,

in the direction shown, is given by Ohm’s Law, i1   vi R1 . Note that this

current is positive since vi  0 .

2. We assume that diode D2 is “off” (an assumption that we will check later).
Then there is no current in resistor R2 , and hence v R2  0 .

3. KVL, from the common, across the VSC, across R2 and to the output
terminal gives vo  0 .

4. We assume that diode D1 is “on” (an assumption that we will check later).
Due to the infinite input resistance of the ideal op-amp, the current entering
the inverting terminal is 0 A. KCL at the inverting terminal now gives
iD1  i1   vi R1 . The diode “on” voltage drop is then given by its

characteristic, and is labelled v D1 .

PMcL Precision Rectifiers Index

2015 8 - Nonlinear Op-Amp Applications

 8.14

5. The output of the op-amp is, by KVL, 0  v D1 , which is a positive voltage.

Thus, diode D1 is indeed forward-biased, and our original assumption

about it being “on” is correct. Diode D1 thus establishes a negative-
feedback path around the op-amp and forces a virtual common to appear at
the inverting input terminal. That is, negative feedback works to ensure that
the op-amp output voltage is maintained at v D1 . Also, the diode D2 is

indeed reverse-biased.

Thus, in the negative half cycle ( vi  0 ), the output of the circuit is:

vo  0 (8.4)

The transfer characteristic of the circuit is shown below for the case R1  R2 :
The transfer
characteristic of a
precision inverting
half-wave rectifier vo

vi
1
1

Figure 8.8

The circuit is seen to be a precision inverting half-wave rectifier. Note that

unlike the previous circuit, here the slope of the characteristic can be set to any
desired value, including unity, by selecting appropriate values for R1 and R2 .

The major advantage of this circuit is that the feedback loop around the op-amp
remains closed at all times. Hence the op-amp remains in its linear operating
region, avoiding the possibility of saturation and the associated time delay
required to “get out” of saturation.

Index Precision Rectifiers PMcL

8 - Nonlinear Op-Amp Applications 2015

 8.15
8.2.3 Precision Full-Wave Rectifier

There are many applications in instrumentation where the information provided

by both halves of an AC signal is either useful or necessary, but the signal must
be converted into a unipolar waveform. This need can be met by using a
precision full-wave rectifier.

There are many possible arrangements for implementing a precision full-wave

rectifier. One possible arrangement is depicted symbolically below:
Block diagram of a
precision full-wave
rectifier
-1
vo

vi -2
1
1

vo

1
vi 1 vo
vi

Figure 8.9

As shown, the block diagram consists of two boxes: a precision half-wave

rectifier, and a weighted inverting summer. Convince yourself that this block
diagram does in fact realize a precision full-wave rectifier.

PMcL Precision Rectifiers Index

2015 8 - Nonlinear Op-Amp Applications

 8.16

An implementation of the block diagram is shown below:

An implementation
of a precision full-
wave rectifier
R2 R2

R1 R 2 /2
D1 vo

R1
vi D2

Figure 8.10

The output, which is “buffered” since it comes from the output of an op-amp, is
the absolute value of the input voltage:

vo  vi (8.5)

The input resistance of the circuit is:

Rin  R1 || R2 (8.6)

If desired, a voltage follower can be placed at the input to buffer the incoming
signal.

Index Precision Rectifiers PMcL

8 - Nonlinear Op-Amp Applications 2015

 8.17

8.2.4 Single-Supply Half-Wave and Full-Wave Rectifier

There are a number of ways to construct half- and full-wave rectifiers using
combinations of op-amps and diodes, but the circuit shown below requires only
a dual op-amp, two resistors, and operates on a single supply:
A single-supply half-
wave and full-wave
rectifier
0V
R1 R2
vi
100 k 100 k
+VS
+VS
v oF

0V

v oH

0V

Figure 8.11

The circuit will work on any single supply op-amp whose inputs can withstand
being pulled below 0 V. In addition, the op-amps need to have an output that is
capable of swinging “rail-to-rail”, which means that the output can go within a
few millivolts of the supply rails under light loading.

When the input signal is above 0 V, the unity-gain follower presents the input
signal to the noninverting input of the second op-amp. The feedback around the
second op-amp creates a virtual short-circuit across its input terminals, and
subsequently the inputs are equal. Thus, there is no voltage across resistor R1 ,
and no current in R1 and R2 . The output voF therefore “tracks” the input.

Conversely, when the input is negative, the output of the first op-amp is forced
to zero (it saturates at the limit of its supply). The noninverting input of the
second op-amp see the 0 V output, and during this phase operates as a unity-
gain inverter, rectifying the negative portion of the input, v i .

The net output at voF is therefore a full-wave rectified version of v i . In

addition, a half-wave rectified version is obtained at the output voH if desired.

PMcL Precision Rectifiers Index

2015 8 - Nonlinear Op-Amp Applications

 8.18

8.3 Peak Detector

A peak detector is a circuit that produces an output voltage equal to the positive
or negative peak value of the input voltage waveform. The simplest form of
positive peak detector is shown below:
A positive peak
detector…

ideal
vi C vo

Figure 8.12

The ideal diode allows the capacitor to charge, but not to discharge. Therefore,
the capacitor will retain the positive peak value of the input waveform:
… and its input and
output waveforms

v
vo

vi
t

Figure 8.13

Index Peak Detector PMcL

8 - Nonlinear Op-Amp Applications 2015

 8.19

A precision peak detector is implemented using a superdiode and a capacitor:

A precision positive
peak detector with a
decaying output
voltage

vo
vi
C RL
"superdiode"

Figure 8.14

Here we have represented the input resistance of the following circuit as a load
resistance, R L .

For v i positive and greater than the output voltage the op-amp will drive the
diode on, thus closing the negative-feedback path and causing the op-amp to
act as a follower. The output voltage will therefore follow that of the input,
with the op-amp supplying the capacitor charging current. This process
continues until the input reaches its peak value.

Now consider what happens if the input signal falls below the peak value
stored on the capacitor. In this case v   v  at the op-amp’s input terminals,
and the op-amp enters negative saturation, reverse-basing the diode. The
superdiode is effectively in the “off” state and the capacitor will discharge
through the load resistance R L :

t

vo  vˆi e RL C (8.7)

The rate of decay of the output voltage is therefore dictated by the capacitor
value and the attached load. This decay in output voltage is sometimes
desirable – inclusion of a load resistance is essential if the circuit is required to
detect reductions in the magnitude of the positive peak.

PMcL Peak Detector Index

2015 8 - Nonlinear Op-Amp Applications

 8.20
In other applications, we may wish to retain the peak voltage for a long period
of time. In these cases, we should use a circuit like that shown below:
A precision positive
peak detector which
retains its output
voltage for a long R
time

D1

D2 A2 vo
A1
vi
C

Figure 8.15

The op-amp A1 offers a high input impedance to the source. The op-amp A2
acts as a buffer between the capacitor and any attached load, thus preventing it
from discharging. The output v o is equal to the voltage on the capacitor, which
equals the positive peak of the input voltage up to that time.

When vi  vo we will assume that diode D1 is “off” and diode D2 is “on”:

0 R

D1 0V vi

vi D2 A2 vo
vi
A1
vi v1 vD 2

Figure 8.16

Index Peak Detector PMcL

8 - Nonlinear Op-Amp Applications 2015

 8.21

The negative feedback path around A1 consists of diode D2 , the follower A2 ,

and the resistor R. Thus, there is a virtual short-circuit across the input
terminals of A1 , and the input voltage v i appears at the inverting terminal.

Now since diode D1 is “off”, there is no path for current through R. Thus the
voltage across R is 0 V. Thus the follower A2 must output a voltage such that:

vo  vi (8.8)

Thanks to the virtual short-circuit across the follower A2 , this voltage must
appear across the capacitor, and it therefore charges up. The op-amp A1
provides the charging current, and its output voltage must be:

v1  vi  vD2 (8.9)

We can now see that the assumption that diode D1 is “off” is consistent with
the voltage across it:

vD1  vi  v1  vD2  0 (8.10)

So long as vi  vo , the circuit will work in this manner, and the output v o

tracks v i . This mode of operation is called the track mode.

It can be observed that placing the diode D2 and the follower A2 within the
feedback path of A1 eliminates the possible error due to the diode drop across
D2 . We should choose an op-amp for A2 that has low input bias currents so as
to minimize the capacitance discharge. JFET input op-amps are ideal in this
case. The op-amp we choose for A1 must have a high output current capability
to charge C during fast-occurring input voltage peaks. As will be seen shortly,
neither op-amp enters saturation which means the circuit can be operated at
relatively high frequencies.

PMcL Peak Detector Index

2015 8 - Nonlinear Op-Amp Applications

 8.22

When vi  vo we will assume that diode D1 is “on” and diode D2 is “off”:

vo - vi
R
vo - vi
D1 R vi

vD
vi 1
D2 A2 vo
0 vi
A1
vi v1
C

Figure 8.17

Since diode D2 is “off”, there is no path for a current to discharge the

capacitor C. Thus, it retains a voltage v̂ i , the peak of the input voltage up to

that time. The output of follower A2 is then:

vo  vˆi (8.11)

Since diode D1 is “on”, there is a negative feedback path around A1 and so

there is once again a virtual short-circuit across its input terminals such that the
input voltage v i appears at the inverting terminal. The output of A1 is then:

v1  vi  vD1 (8.12)

We can now see that the assumption that diode D2 is “off” is consistent with
the voltage across it:

vD2  v1  vˆi  vi  vD1  vˆi  0 (8.13)

So long as vi  vo , the circuit will work in this manner, and the output v o

retains the peak value of v i . This mode of operation is called the hold mode.

Index Peak Detector PMcL

8 - Nonlinear Op-Amp Applications 2015

 8.23

8.4 Limiter
Circuits which are used to clip off the unwanted portions of the input voltage
above or below certain levels, so as to produce limited outputs, are called
limiters or clippers.

A double limiter circuit works on both positive and negative peaks of an input
waveform. An implementation using an op-amp is shown below:

A double limiter
circuit utilising a
double-anode Zener
"double-anode R2 diode…
Zener diode"
Z2 Z1

R1
vi
vo

Figure 8.18

Its transfer characteristic is:

…and its transfer

characteristic
vo
(VZ 2 + 0.7)

0
vi
R2
slope =
R1
-(VZ 1 + 0.7)

Figure 8.19

Convince yourself that the transfer characteristic will be that shown.

PMcL Limiter Index

2015 8 - Nonlinear Op-Amp Applications

 8.24
EXAMPLE 8.3 Asymmetric Double Limiter

An asymmetric double limiter is shown below:

20 k

8.2 V 5.6 V

10 k
vi
vo

We assume that when a Zener diode conducts in the forward direction, the
voltage drop is approximately 0.7 V. The circuit’s transfer characteristic is:

vo
8.9

3.15
-4.45 0
vi
slope = - 2

- 6.3

The output waveform resulting from a 5 V peak sinusoidal input is shown

below:

vo
8.9 vi
3.15
t
-4.45
-6.3

Index Limiter PMcL

8 - Nonlinear Op-Amp Applications 2015

 8.25

8.5 Clamp
A clamp circuit is used to add a DC component to an AC input waveform so
that the positive (or negative) peaks are forced to take a specified value –
usually zero. In other words, the peaks of the waveform are “clamped” to a
specified voltage value. The simplest form of positive clamp is shown below:
An ideal positive
clamp
vC

C
vi ideal D vo

Figure 8.20

Because of the polarity in which the diode is connected, it will allow the
capacitor to charge to a voltage vC equal to the magnitude of the most negative
peak of the input signal. Subsequently, the diode turns off and the capacitor
retains its voltage indefinitely.

Now since the output voltage v o is given by:

vo  vi  vC (8.14)

it follows that the output waveform will be identical to that of the input except
shifted upwards by vC .

Another way of visualizing the operation of the circuit is to note that because
the diode is connected across the output with the polarity shown, it prevents the
output voltage from going below 0 V (by turning on and charging up the
capacitor).

PMcL Clamp Index

2015 8 - Nonlinear Op-Amp Applications

 8.26
An example of input and output signals is shown below:

Input and output

waveforms of an
ideal positive clamp,
showing DC v
restoration
10 vo
5
vi
0 t
-5

Figure 8.21

As can be seen from the figure above, another appropriate name for the circuit
is a DC restorer. These circuits find application in communication systems.

It should be obvious that reversing the diode polarity will provide an output
waveform whose highest peak is clamped to 0 V – a negative clamp.

If we replace the diode in the clamping circuit of Figure 8.20 by a

“superdiode”, a precision positive clamping circuit is obtained:
A precision positive
clamp

vi vo
C

Figure 8.22

Operation of this circuit should be self-explanatory.

Index Clamp PMcL

8 - Nonlinear Op-Amp Applications 2015

 8.27

8.6 Summary
 The op-amp in an open-loop configuration can be used as a basic
comparator:

vo
+Vsat
vi
vo vi
-Vsat

(a) circuit (b) transfer characteristic

 The inverting half-wave precision rectifier is used to rectify signals in the

mV range:

R2 vo
D1
R1
vi D2 vi
vo 1
1

(a) circuit (b) transfer characteristic

 A precision positive peak detector can retain its output voltage for a long
time:

D1

D2 A2 vo
A1
vi
C

PMcL Summary Index

2015 8 - Nonlinear Op-Amp Applications

 8.28

 A limiter is used to clip off the unwanted portions of the input voltage
above or below certain levels, so as to produce a limited output:

R2
vo
Z2 Z1 (VZ 2 + 0.7)

R1
vi vi
vo 0
R2
slope =
R1
-(VZ 1 + 0.7)

(a) circuit (b) transfer characteristic

 A precision positive clamp is used to clamp a signal’s minimum value to 0

V, thus restoring a DC component:

vi vo
C

8.7 References
Sedra, A. and Smith, K.: Microelectronic Circuits, Saunders College
Publishing, New York, 1991.

Index References PMcL

8 - Nonlinear Op-Amp Applications 2015

 8.29

Exercises
1.
The window detector circuit detects when an unknown voltage falls within a
specified voltage band or window. It consists of two comparators and two
reference voltages VTL and VTH defining the lower and upper limits of the
window, as shown below:

+VCC

Rc
LM311
VTH 2 7

1
vi

LM311
2 7
vo
VTL 3

Note the use of a “wired-OR” output. If either comparator turns on then the
output will be “pulled low” (i.e. vo  0 V ). With both comparators off there is

no current and the output is “pulled high” (i.e. vo  VCC ). The resistor Rc in
this case is called a “pull-up resistor”.

PMcL Exercises Index

2015 8 - Nonlinear Op-Amp Applications

 8.30
Design a circuit to monitor an input voltage and turn an LED on when this
voltage goes either above 5.5 V or below 4.5 V. Assume that VLED  1.8 V and
I LED  2.mA . A supply voltage of 12 V is available.

2.
Draw the transfer characteristic of the following op-amp circuit.

R R R

R D1
vi
A1 A2 vo
D2
R

3.
Draw the transfer characteristic of the following op-amp circuit.

3R R
+15 V
D1
R
vi D2
vo

4.
It is desired to clamp a 1 kHz, 5 V peak, sinusoid so that its maximum value is
0 V. Draw the schematic of a circuit that will achieve such an operation with
precision.

Index Exercises PMcL

8 - Nonlinear Op-Amp Applications 2015

 8.31

5.
The following block diagram shows part of a “clock recovery” circuit for a
communication system. Determine the function of each block, and therefore
give the blocks a name:

Waveform
a b c d
(i) (ii) (iii)

t
a

t
c

t
d

PMcL Exercises Index

2015 8 - Nonlinear Op-Amp Applications

 9.1

9 The First-Order Step Response

Contents

Introduction ............................................................................................................... 9.2

9.1 The Unit-Step Forcing Function .......................................................................... 9.3
9.2 The Driven RC Circuit ......................................................................................... 9.7
9.3 The Forced and the Natural Response ............................................................... 9.11
9.3.1 Finding a Particular Solution using the Inverse Differential Operator . 9.13
9.3.2 Finding a Particular Solution by Inspection ......................................... 9.15
9.3.3 Finding a Particular Solution using an Integrating Factor .................... 9.16
9.4 Step-Response of RC Circuits ........................................................................... 9.19
9.5 Analysis Procedure for Single Time Constant RC Circuits............................... 9.29
9.6 RL Circuits ......................................................................................................... 9.30
9.7 Analysis Procedure for Single Time Constant RL Circuits ............................... 9.32
9.8 Summary............................................................................................................ 9.33
9.9 References ......................................................................................................... 9.33
Exercises .................................................................................................................. 9.34
Leonhard Euler (1707-1783) (Len´ ard Oy´ ler) ..................................................... 9.38

PMcL Contents Index

2015 9 - The First-Order Step Response

 9.2

Introduction
The determination of the natural response of a source-free circuit relies solely
on the configuration of the circuit elements and on any initial energy storage
present in the system (capacitor voltages and inductor currents).

If we apply a DC source to a circuit, it will eventually settle to a state where all

voltages and currents are DC. Such a DC source is termed a forcing function –
it forces the form of the response in the circuit voltages and currents.

If we apply a sinusoidal source to a circuit, it will eventually settle to a state

where all voltages and currents are sinusoidal. Thus the concept of a forcing
function is applicable to other styles of sources. We shall see later that the DC
source and the sinusoidal source are special cases of a general forcing function.

The application of a forcing function to a circuit will result in a “response”

consisting of two parts. The first part is termed the forced response, or steady-
state response. The second part is the natural response. As we know, the
natural response dies out after a period of time, leaving only the forced
response. We can think of the natural response of a circuit as a necessary
transient response to move the circuit from one “state” to another.

We will consider circuits that are initially in a known state – any sources have
either been off for a very long time, or on for a very long time. Any forcing
functions are switched on at t  0 .

The forced response can be obtained by considering the response of the circuit
after a very long time. The form of the natural response will be the same as that
obtained for the source-free circuit.

The complete response will be obtained by adding the forced response to the
natural response.

Index Introduction PMcL

9 - The First-Order Step Response 2015

 9.3

9.1 The Unit-Step Forcing Function

In an analysis of a circuit we often find the need to turn source voltages or
currents on at a specified time. To do this, we define the unit-step function to
be zero for all values of time less than zero, and unity for all values of time
greater than zero:

0, t  0
u t   
The unit-step
function defined

1, t  0 (9.1)

At t  0 , u t  changes abruptly from 0 to 1. Its value at t  0 is undefined, but

its value is known for all points arbitrarily close to t  0 . We often indicate
   
this by writing u 0  0 and u 0  1 .

Graphically, the unit-step function looks like:

and graphed
u(t )
1

0 t

Figure 9.1

Note that a vertical line of unit length is shown at t  0 . This “riser” is of

course impossible (how can a function take on many values simultaneously?)
but is usually shown in drawings.

We cannot always arrange for the switching of a source to occur at t  0 . Since

the unit-step function provides us with a discontinuity when the value of its
argument is zero, then we need to consider a delayed version of the unit-step.

PMcL The Unit-Step Forcing Function Index

2015 9 - The First-Order Step Response

 9.4

The argument of a
We will now make a very important observation: it is the argument of the
function determines function which determines the position of the function along the t-axis. We
its position
therefore have the delayed unit-step function:

0, t  t0
u t  t0   
1, t  t0 (9.2)

We obtain the conditions on the values of the function by the simple

substitution t t  t 0 in Eq. (9.1). Graphically, we have:

u(t- t0 )
1

0 t0 t

Figure 9.2

We see that the argument t  t0  simply shifts the origin of the original

function to t 0 . A positive value of t 0 shifts the function to the right –

corresponding to a delay in time. A negative value shifts the function to the left
– an advance in time.

To represent a constant voltage V being turned on in a circuit, we represent it as

a source which is zero before t  t0 and a constant V after t  t0 :

General
V u(t - t0) network

Figure 9.3
Index The Unit-Step Forcing Function PMcL

9 - The First-Order Step Response 2015

 9.5
The utility of the unit-step function is that it can be used as a “switch” to turn
another function (not necessarily a constant) on or off at some point. For
example, the product given by u t 1cos2t is shown below:

The unit-step
function as a
u ( t- 1) cos 2 t “switch”
1

-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 t

Figure 9.4

Another useful forcing function may be obtained by manipulating the unit-step

forcing function. Let us define a rectangular voltage pulse by the following
conditions:
The rectangular
pulse
 0, t  t0

vt   V , t0  t  t1 (9.3)
 0, t1  t

The pulse is shown below:

v(t)
V

0 t0 t1 t

Figure 9.5

This rectangular pulse is the difference of two step functions:

vt   V ut  t0   ut  t1  (9.4)

PMcL The Unit-Step Forcing Function Index

2015 9 - The First-Order Step Response

 9.6
EXAMPLE 9.1 The Unit-Step as a Switch

The unit-step finds application in mathematically representing the application

of a source via a switch. Consider the circuit shown below:

t=0

General
(a) V network

It is tempting to replace the voltage source and switch by a step function:

General
(b) V u(t ) network

However, this is incorrect, because the circuit with the step function actually
represents:

The circuit
t=0
equivalent of a step-
voltage function
General

(c) V network

That is, the step function applies v  0 for t  0 , and then v  V for t  0 . The
first circuit applies an open circuit for t  0 , and then v  V for t  0 .

However, circuit (b) can often be used if we establish that all initial currents
and voltages in the original network and in circuit (b) for t  0 are equivalent.
This is always the case for circuits that start out with zero initial conditions (no
stored energy) at t  0 .

Index The Unit-Step Forcing Function PMcL

9 - The First-Order Step Response 2015

 9.7

9.2 The Driven RC Circuit

Consider a circuit consisting of a battery V in series with a switch, a resistance
R, and a capacitance C. The switch is closed at t  0 , as shown in the circuit
diagram (a) below:
A simple RC circuit
driven by a step-
voltage
t=0 R R

V C v( t ) Vu ( t ) C v( t )

(a) (b)

Figure 9.6

We will assume that there is no stored energy in the capacitor before t  0 , and
we are therefore able to replace the battery and switch by a voltage-step forcing
function Vu t  , which also produces no response prior to t  0 . Hence, we will
analyse the equivalent circuit shown in circuit diagram (b).

We shall find vt  by writing down the appropriate differential equation that
describes the circuit, and then solve it using Euler’s integrating factor.
Applying KCL to the top capacitor node, we have:

v  Vu t  dv (9.5)
C 0
R dt
which can be rewritten as:
The governing

Vu t 
differential equation
(9.6)
dv v for the RC circuit
  driven by a step-
dt RC RC voltage

PMcL The Driven RC Circuit Index

2015 9 - The First-Order Step Response

 9.8

Since the unit-step function is discontinuous at t  0 , we first consider the

solution for t  0 and then for t  0 . It is obvious that the application of zero
voltage since t   has not produced any response, and therefore:

vt   0, t  0 (9.7)

For positive time u t  is unity, and we must solve the equation:

dv v V
  , t 0 (9.8)
dt RC RC
To solve, first multiply both sides by an integrating factor equal to et RC . This
gives:

dv t RC v V
et RC e  et RC (9.9)
dt RC RC
Thus, recognising that the left hand-side is the derivative of vet RC , we have:

d
dt
 
vet RC  et RC
V
RC
(9.10)

Integrating both sides with respect to time gives:

Ve t RC
ve t RC
 dt  A (9.11)
RC
where A is a constant of integration. Dividing both sides by the integrating
factor gives:

Ve t RC
 RC dt  Ae
t RC t RC
ve (9.12)

Index The Driven RC Circuit PMcL

9 - The First-Order Step Response 2015

 9.9

Noting that V is a constant, we perform the integration and obtain:

vt   V  Ae t RC (9.13)

 
Prior to t  0 , vt   0 , and thus v 0  0 . Since the voltage across a capacitor
cannot change by a finite amount in zero time without being associated with an
 
infinite current, we thus have v 0  0 . We thus invoke the initial condition

 
that v 0  0 and get:

vt   V  Ve t RC , t  0 (9.14)

Thus, an expression for the response valid for all t would be:
The complete


vt   V 1  et RC ut   (9.15) response of an RC
circuit to a step-
voltage

This is the desired solution, but it has not been obtained in the simplest manner.
The complete
In order to establish a more direct procedure, we will interpret the two terms response is
composed of two
appearing in Eq. (9.15). parts…

The exponential term has the functional form of the natural response of the RC
circuit – it is a negative exponential that approaches zero as time increases, and
the natural response
it is characterized by the time constant RC. The functional form of this part of and…
the response is identical with that which is obtained in the source-free circuit.
However, the amplitude of this exponential term depends on V, the forcing
function.

Eq. (9.15) also contains a constant term, V. Why is it present? The natural
response approaches zero as the energy stored in the capacitor gradually
reaches its limit. Eventually the capacitor will be fully charged and it will the forced response
appear as an open circuit – the current will be zero, and the battery voltage V
will appear directly across the capacitor terminals. This voltage is a part of the
response which is directly attributable to the forcing function, and we call it the
forced response. It is the response which is present a long time after the switch
is closed.

PMcL The Driven RC Circuit Index

2015 9 - The First-Order Step Response

 9.10
We see that the complete response is composed of two parts:
The complete
response is the sum
complete forced
of the forced
  natural (9.16)
response and the
natural response
response response response

The forced response has the characteristics of the forcing function; it is found
The forced response
is determined by by pretending that all switches have been thrown a long time ago. For circuits
forcing function
with only switches and DC sources, the forced response is just the solution of a
simple DC circuit problem (all capacitors are open-circuits, all inductors are
short-circuits).

The natural response is a characteristic of the circuit, and not of the sources. Its
The natural
response is form may be found by considering the source-free circuit, and it has an
determined by the
circuit amplitude which depends on the initial amplitude of the source and the initial
energy storage.

The reason for the two responses, forced and natural, may also be seen from
physical arguments. We know that our circuit will eventually assume the
forced response. However, at the instant the switches are thrown, the initial

The natural capacitor voltages (or the currents through the inductors in other circuits) will
response provides have values which depend only on the energy stored in these elements. These
the link between the
initial state and final voltages or currents cannot be expected to be the same as the voltages and
state of a circuit
currents demanded by the forced response. Hence, there must be a transient
period during which the voltages and currents change from their given initial
values to their required final values. The portion of the response which
provides the transition from initial to final values is the natural response (often
called the transient response).

Index The Driven RC Circuit PMcL

9 - The First-Order Step Response 2015

 9.11

9.3 The Forced and the Natural Response

There is an excellent mathematical reason for considering the complete
response to be composed of two parts, the forced response and the natural The solution to a
general differential
response. The reason is based on the fact that the solution of a linear equation consists of
two parts…
differential equation may be expressed as the solution of two parts, the
particular solution (forced response) and the complementary solution (natural
response).

Recall that a general linear differential equation with constant coefficients of

order n is an equation that can be written:

dny d n1 y
an n  an1 n1    a1  a0 y  r t 
dy
dt dt dt (9.17)

This linear nonhomogeneous differential equation with constant coefficients

may also be written in the form:

f Dy  r t  (9.18)

We may identify r t  as a term that is due to the forcing function.

We have already seen that the solution to the homogeneous differential

equation with constant coefficients is the solution of the equation:

f Dyc  0
the complementary
(9.19) solution (natural
response) and…

Such a solution, yc , is called the complementary solution. We know that the

complementary solution has a form given by:

yc  c1e s1t  c2e s2t    cn e snt (9.20)

where the ci ’s are arbitrary constants and the si ’s are the roots of the
characteristic equation.

PMcL The Forced and the Natural Response Index

2015 9 - The First-Order Step Response

 9.12

The particular solution, y p , is any solution we happen to come up with that

satisfies the original differential equation. That is, the particular solution
satisfies:

f Dy p  r t 
the particular
solution (forced (9.21)
response)

To see that the general solution of Eq. (9.18) is composed of two parts, let the
complete solution be written as the sum of the particular solution and the
complementary solution:
The general solution
is the sum of the
particular solution y  y p  yc (9.22)
and the
complementary
solution
Substitution into Eq. (9.18) results in:

f D  y p  yc   f D  y p  f D  yc
 r t   0
 r t  (9.23)

That is, we can safely add yc to any particular solution, since it contributes
nothing to the right-hand side.

We now have to find ways to obtain the particular solution of a differential

equation. We will look at three methods – one where we utilise the concept of
an inverse differential operator, one where the solution can be obtained by
inspection, and one where the differential equation is first-order.

Index The Forced and the Natural Response PMcL

9 - The First-Order Step Response 2015

 9.13

9.3.1 Finding a Particular Solution using the Inverse Differential Operator

The concept of the differential operator can be used to find particular solutions
for nonhomogeneous differential equations.

In seeking a particular solution of:

f Dy  r t  (9.24)

it is natural to write:

(9.25) The inverse

r t 
1
yp  differential operator
f D  is introduced
notationally…

and then try to find an operator 1 f D  so that the function y p will have

meaning and satisfy Eq. (9.24). All we require is that:

with the only

(9.26)
f D   r t   r t 
1 requirement that it

f D 
gives a solution to
the original
differential equation

We proved before that:

f Dest  f s est (9.27)

This suggests that we define:

The effect of the

f s   0
1 st 1 st inverse differential
e  e , operator on an
f D  f s  (9.28)
exponential function

Now from Eq. (9.27) it follows that:

f s e st
(9.29)
e st
f D    e st
f s  f s 

and thus, with the requirement of Eq. (9.26), Eq. (9.28) is verified.

PMcL The Forced and the Natural Response Index

2015 9 - The First-Order Step Response

 9.14
EXAMPLE 9.2 Finding a Particular Solution to a Differential Equation

Solve the equation:

D 2

 D y  e 2t

Here the roots of the characteristic equation are s  0,  1 . Further,

f D   D 2  D and f 2  0 . Hence, using Eq. (9.28):

1 e 2t 1
yp  e 2t
  e 2t
D D
2
2 2 6
2

So the solution is:

y  c1  c2et  16 e2t

EXAMPLE 9.3 Finding a Particular Solution to a Differential Equation

Find a particular solution of:

D 2

 9 y  5  3et

Here the roots of the characteristic equation are s  3,  3 and f D   D 2  9 .

We also have f 0  0 and f 1  0 . Hence, using superposition, we have:

1 5 5
y1  5 2 
D 9
2
0 9 9

and:

1 3et 3
y2  3e t
   et
D 9
2
1 9
2
8

Hence:

y p  y1  y2   95  83 et

is a particular solution.

Index The Forced and the Natural Response PMcL

9 - The First-Order Step Response 2015

 9.15

9.3.2 Finding a Particular Solution by Inspection

For the second method of finding a particular solution, we note that it is

frequently easy to obtain a particular solution of a nonhomogeneous equation:

a D
n
n
 an1Dn1    a1D  a0 y  r t   (9.30)

by inspection.

For example, if r t  is a constant R0 and a0  0 , then:

The particular
(9.31)
R solution for a
yp  0 constant forcing
a0 function is a
constant

is a solution because all derivatives of y p are zero.

EXAMPLE 9.4 Finding a Particular Solution by Inspection

Solve the equation:

D 2

 3D  2 y  16

We obtain the complementary function:

yc  c1et  c2e2t

By inspection a particular solution of the original equation is:

y p  162  8

Hence the general solution is:

y  c1et  c2e2t  8

PMcL The Forced and the Natural Response Index

2015 9 - The First-Order Step Response

 9.16

9.3.3 Finding a Particular Solution using an Integrating Factor

For the third method of finding a particular solution, let us restrict ourselves to
first-order differential equations. The general equation of the type encountered
in analysing the RC circuit of the previous section can be written as:

dv
 Pv  Q (9.32)
dt
P and Q can, in general, be functions of time. We identify Q as a term that is
due to the forcing function, and P as a quantity due solely to the circuit
configuration. Following the steps as before, we first multiply both sides by an
integrating factor equal to e Pt . This gives:

dv Pt
e Pt  e Pv  e Pt Q (9.33)
dt
Thus, recognising that the left hand-side is the derivative of vePt , we have:

d
dt
 
vePt  QePt (9.34)

Integrating both sides with respect to time gives:

vePt   QePt dt  A
(9.35)

where A is a constant of integration. Since the constant is explicitly shown, we

should remember that no integration constant needs to be added to the
remaining integral when it is evaluated.

Dividing both sides by the integrating factor gives:

The general solution

v  e Pt  QePt dt  Ae  Pt
of a first-order
differential
equation… (9.36)

Index The Forced and the Natural Response PMcL

9 - The First-Order Step Response 2015

 9.17

If Qt  , the forcing function, is known, then it remains only to evaluate the
integral to obtain the complete response. However, we shall not evaluate such
an integral for each problem. Instead we are interested in using Eq. (9.36) to
draw several general conclusions.

We should note first that, for a source-free circuit, Q must be zero, and the
solution is the natural response:

has a natural
 Pt
vn  Ae (9.37) response…

In linear time-invariant passive circuits, P is always a positive constant that

depends only on the circuit elements and their interconnection in the circuit (if
a circuit contains a dependent source or a negative resistance, it is possible for
P to be negative). The natural response therefore approaches zero as time
increases without limit.

We therefore find that one of the two terms making up the complete response
has the form of the natural response. It has an amplitude which will depend on
the initial energy of the circuit as well as the initial value of the forcing
function.

We next observe that the first term of Eq. (9.36) depends on the functional
form of Qt  , the forcing function. Whenever we have a circuit in which the and a forced
response
natural response dies out as t becomes infinite, then this first term must
describe the response completely after the natural response has disappeared.
Thus, this term is the forced response.

PMcL The Forced and the Natural Response Index

2015 9 - The First-Order Step Response

 9.18

We have only considered those problems involving the sudden application of

DC sources, and Qt  is therefore a constant for all values of time after the
switch has been closed. We can now evaluate the integral in Eq. (9.36),
obtaining the forced response:

(9.38)
The forced response Q
for DC excitation vf 
P
and we can write the complete response:

The complete Q
response for DC v  v f  vn   Ae  Pt (9.39)
excitation P
For the RC series circuit, Q P is the constant voltage V and 1 P is the time
constant T. We can see that the forced response might have been obtained
without evaluating the integral, because it must be the complete response at
infinite time. The forced response is thus obtained by inspection using DC
circuit analysis.

In the following section we shall attempt to find the complete response for
several RC circuits by obtaining the forced and natural responses and adding
them.

Index The Forced and the Natural Response PMcL

9 - The First-Order Step Response 2015

 9.19

9.4 Step-Response of RC Circuits

We will use the simple RC series circuit to illustrate how to determine the
complete response by the addition of the forced and natural response. This
circuit, shown below, has been analysed earlier, but by a longer method.

The simple RC
circuit driven by a
R step-voltage

Vu ( t ) C v( t )

Figure 9.7

The desired response is the voltage across the capacitor, vt  , and we first
express this voltage as the sum of the forced and natural voltage:
The complete
response expressed
v  v f  vn (9.40) as the sum of the
forced response and
natural response
The functional form of the natural response must be the same as that obtained
without any sources. We therefore replace the step-voltage source by a short-
circuit and recognize the resulting parallel source-free RC circuit. Thus:
The form of the

vn  Ae t RC (9.41) natural response

that results from the
source-free circuit

where the amplitude A is yet to be determined.

PMcL Step-Response of RC Circuits Index

2015 9 - The First-Order Step Response

 9.20

We next consider the forced response, that part of the response which depends
upon the nature of the forcing function itself. In this particular problem the
forced response must be constant because the source is a constant V for all
positive values of time.

After the natural response has died out the capacitor must be fully charged and
the forced response is simply:

The forced response

obtained from DC
circuit analysis
vf  V (9.42)

Note that the forced response is determined completely – there is no unknown

amplitude. We next combine the two responses:

v  V  Ae t RC (9.43)

and apply the initial condition to evaluate A. The voltage is zero prior to t  0 ,
Determining the
amplitude of the and it cannot change value instantaneously since it is the voltage across a
decaying
exponential term capacitor. Thus, the voltage is zero immediately after t  0 , and:

0 V  A (9.44)

Thus:

A  V (9.45)

Therefore:
The complete
response – obtained
without solving a
differential equation!

v  V 1  et RC  (9.46)

Index Step-Response of RC Circuits PMcL

9 - The First-Order Step Response 2015

 9.21

The complete response is plotted below, and we can see the manner in which
the voltage builds up from its initial value of zero to its final value of V.

A graph of the step-

response of the RC
v circuit

0.6321V

0
t
T 2T 3T 4T

Figure 9.8

The transition is effectively accomplished in a time 4T . In one time constant,

the voltage has attained 63.2% of its final value.

PMcL Step-Response of RC Circuits Index

2015 9 - The First-Order Step Response

 9.22