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Design, Manufacturing and Control of UAV

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 OCTOBER 6 UNIVERSITY
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
MECHATRONICS DEPARTMENT

Design, Manufacturing and Control of UAV

(O6UAV)
Graduation Book
In
MECHATRONICS ENGINEERING

Under Supervision of
Dr. Abdelrady Okasha

Lecturer at Mechatronics
Engineering Department
Faculty of Engineering
October 6 University

O6UAV Team Members

Mohamed Ahmed Fouad Mohamed Mounier Abdallah

Mohamed Abo El-Ela Mohamed Mostafa Abd Al Wahab Hasbala
Samir Sayed Mohamed Mohamed Ahmed Ali
Marco Samir Mories Mohamed Ahmed Abd El-Tawab
Mohye El-Din Shaban Khaled Ali Ahmed

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING, OCTOBER 6 UNIVERSITY

GIZA, EGYPT
2017
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We would like to express our gratitude for everyone who helped us during the
graduation project starting with endless thanks for our supervisor Dr. Abdelrady
Okasha who didn’t keep any effort in encouraging us to do a great job, providing
our group with valuable information and advices to be better each time. Thanks for
the continuous support and kind communication which had a great effect regarding
to feel interesting about what we are working on.
Thanks are extended to Eng.Ahmed Hamdy for the valuable information and
advices provided in ANSYS which was what we were looking for and which
facilitated many things in our project. Thanks are extended to all instructors and
engineers who helped us during the stages of our graduation project.

2
TABLE OF CONTENTS Page

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 UAV 17
17
1.2 Terminologies of UAV

18
1.3 History of UAV

21
1.4 Classifications of UAV

22
1.4.1 Other categories include

1.4.1.1 Classifications according to aircraft weight are quite simpler 23

1.5 UAV components 23

1.5.1 Body 23

1.5.2 Power supply and platform 24

1.5.3 Computing 24

1.5.4 Sensors 24

1.5.5 Actuators 24

1.5.6 Software 24

1.5.7 Loop principles 25

1.5.8 Flight controls 25

1.5.9 Communications 26
1.6 Autonomy 26

1.6.1 Basic principles 27

1.6.2 Autonomy features 27

1.7 Applications 28
1.7.1 Civil 28

3
1.7.2 Reconnaissance 29

1.7.3 attack 29

1.7.4 Commercial aerial surveillance 29

1.7.5 Professional aerial surveying 30

1.7.6 Search and rescue 30

1.7.7 Scientific research 30

1.7.8 Oil, gas and mineral exploration and production 31

____________________________________________________________
CHAPTER2 Aircraft design
2.1 Introduction 32
2.2 Background Research 32
2.2.1 Application of UAV in land surveying 32
2.3 Preliminary design 32

2.3.1 Design limitations 32

2.3.2 Speed Range 33

2.4 Preliminary design 33
2.5 INITIAL SIZING 35

2.5.1 Parametric weights 35

2.5.2 Weight categories 35

2.5.3 Determination Of Mission Fuel Weight (WF) 37

2.5.4 Steps Construct Mission Profile 37

2.6 Estimating wing Area, S, Take-Off Thrust, (OR Take-Off Power, P) 41

2.6.1 SIZING TO STALL SPEED REQUIREMENTS 42

2.6.2 SIZING TO CRUISE SPEED 43
2.6.3 Sizing to Gliding Performance 44
2.6.4 Sizing to Climb Required 45
2.6.5 Sizing to Climb Gradient Required 46

4
2.6.6Matching curve 47
2.7 Fuselage design 49
2.8 Tail unit 49
2.8.1 Tail arm length 50
2.8.2 Taper ratio (λ) 51
2.9 O6U Specifications 51
2.10 Different views for the airplane 53
2.11 ENGINE 54

.211.1 Introduction 54

2.11.2 SPECIFICATIONS 54

2.11.3 DIMENSIONS 57

2.11.4 CARBURETOR EXPLODED VIEW 58

2.11.5 PROPELLER 60
____________________________________________________________
CHAPTER 3 AIRODYNAMIC ANALYSIS

3.1 Introduction 61
3.2 The first Stage (Geometry) 62
3.3 Second Stage (Mesh) 63
3.4 Third & Fourth Stage (Setup& Solution) 65
3.4.1 Setup Conditions: 65
3.5 Fifth Stage (Results) 66
3.5.1 Pressure Distribution at zero angle of attack (α=0) 66

3.5.2 Lift& Drag coefficients at zero angle of attack (α=0) 67

3.5.3 Pressure Plot 67

3.5.4 Velocity distribution at zero angle of attack (α=0) 68

3.5.5 Velocity Stream Lines 69

5
3.5.6 Case 2: At angle of attack = 5 degrees 70

3.5.6.1 Pressure Distribution at angle of attack (α=5) 70

3.5.6.2 Velocity Distribution at angle of attack (α=5) 71

3.5.7 Case 3: At angle of attack = 25 degrees 72

3.5.7.1 Static Pressure Plot 72

3.5.7.2 Pressure Distribution at angle of attack (α=25) 73

3.5.7.3 Velocity Distribution at angle of attack (α=25) 74

3.5.7.4 Velocity Stream Lines 75

3.5.8 Lift Coefficient with different Angle of Attack Curve: 76

3.5.9 Drag Coefficient with different Angle of Attack Curve: 77

3.5.10 Lift to Drag Ratio with different Angle of Attack Curve: 78

3.5.11 Lift to Drag Ratio at different Velocities 79

____________________________________________________________
CHAPTER 4 MODELING AND SIMULATION

4.1 O6UAV Dynamics 80

4.1.1 Equation of Motion 80

4.1.2 Force Equations 81

4.1.3Moment Equations 82

4.2 Linearized Equations of Motion 82

4.3 Representation of Aerodynamic Forces and Moments 83

4.4 O6UAV Control Model 85

4.4.1 Longitudinal Motion 85

4.4.2 Lateral Motion 89

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4.4.2.1 lateral Control Derivatives 90

4.4.2.2 Equations for estimating the lateral stability coefficients 91

4.5 Matlab and Simulink 92

4.5.1 Tools used in Simulink 92

4.6 O6UAV aerodynamic coefficient: 93

4.7 O6UAV parameters 93

4.8 longitudinal matrices 93

4.9 Simulink model for simulating the longitudinal motion 94

4.9.1 O6UAV response 94

4.10 Designing a controller for pitch motion 96

4.10.1 Physical setup and system equations 96

4.10.2 Transfer function and state-space models 98

4.10.3 Design requirements 99

4.10.4 MATLAB representation 99

____________________________________________________________
CHAPTER 5 O6U UAV CONTROL

5.1 introduction 109

5.2 Aerodynamic forces. 109
5.3 Angle of Attack and lift. 111
5.4 Airplane control surfaces 112
5.4.1 Ailerons 113
5.4.2 Elevators 114
5.4.3 Rudder 115
5.5 Throttle. 115
5.6 Control surface mixing 116

7
5.6.1 Elevons 116
5.6.2 Ruddervators 117
5.6.3 Flaperons 117
5.6.4 Spoilerons 117
5.7 Autopilot System 117
5.7.1 Accelerometer 117
5.7.2 Gyroscope 118
5.8 Ardupilot Mega(APM) 118
5.8.1 APM Features 119
5.8.2 APM Software 119
5.8.3 APM Firmwares 120
5.8.4 First Time Setup 121
5.9 Remote control system 125
5.10 Flight Test 125
____________________________________________________________
CHAPTER 6 VIRTUAL REALITY
6.1 Introduction 127
6.1.1 What is X-Plane? 127
6.1.2 How X-plane works? 127
6.1.3 Why we use X-plane? 127
6.2 Customizing X-Plane 127
6.2.1 Introduction to Plane Maker 128
6.2.2 An Overview of the Plane Maker Workflow 128
6.2.2.1 Decide on design 129
6.2.2.2 Create the fuselage, wings and the tail of aircraft. 129
6.2.2.2.1-Drawing the Fuselage 129
6.2.2.2.2 – Shaping the Wing 131
6.2.2.2.3 – Creating the Tail Unit 133

6.2.2.3 Create secondary objects, such as landing gears and engine 134
nacelles.

8
6.2.2.3.1-Shaping the Landing Gear 134
6.2.2.3.2-Adding Engine Nacelles 136
6.2.2.4 Set up the systems and internal properties, including the engines, 137
electrical systems, weight and balance, and viewpoints.
6.2.2.4.1-Creating the Engines 137
6.2.2.4.2-Type of Engine, its Location and Specs 138
6.2.2.4.3-Description of Engine and propeller 138
6.2.2.5-Creating an Instrument Panel 139
6.2.2.6-Add textures, 3-D objects, extra liveries, etc. 140
6.2.2.7- Performing A Test Flight 142
_____________________________________________________
CHAPTER 7 MANUFACTURING AND CAD
7.1 Description 144
7.1.1 Fuselage 145
7.1.1.1 Fuselage parameters 145
7.1.2 Wing 146
7.1.2.1 Airfoil 148
7.1.2.2 Wing & Airfoil Parameters Table 148
7.2 Tail unit 149
7.2.1 Horizontal tail unit 149
7.2.2 Vertical tail unit 150
7.3 Different views for the airplane ( Top , SideView , Front ) 151
7.4 O6UAV Specifications: 152
7.5 Introduction 153
7.6 Computer-aided design of aircraft 153
7.7 Material Selection 154
7.8 Manufacturing Method Selection 155
7.9 Designing the UAV 156
7.9.1 Fuselage Design 156
7.9.2 UAV wing design 159
7.9.3 Tail Unit 162
References 164

9
LIST OF TABLES

Table Description Page

Table 2.1 Data collected about similar UAV. 35

Table 2.2 Tail volume coefficient. 50

Table 2.3 Tail aspect ratio and taper ratio. 50

Table 2.4 Data-Required For Our Airplane. 51

Table 2.5 Shown engine specification. 54

Table 2.6 Shown cap screw sets. 55

Table 2.7 Shown specification of engine parts. 56

Table 2.8 Shown parts of carburetor. 59

Table 3.1 Lift coefficients with different angle of attack. 76

Table 3.2 Drag Coefficients with different angle of attack. 77

Table 3.3 Lift to Drag Ratio with different angle of attack. 78

Table 3.4 Lift to Drag Ratio at different Velocities. 79

Table 4.1 longitudinal control derivatives 87

Table 4.2 Estimating the longitudinal stability coefficients 88

Table 4.3 lateral Control Derivatives 90

Table 4.4 Equations for estimating the lateral stability coefficients 91

Table 5.1 airplane motion 113

Table 7.1 fuselage parameters 145

Table 7.2 Wing & Airfoil Parameters 148

Table 7.3 Aircraft Data Specification 152

Table 7.4 Material Selection 154

Table 7.5 Wing dimensions 161

10
LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Description Page

Figure 1.1 UAV Ai450 aerial mapping plantation in Indonesia 18

Figure 1.2 Ryan Firebee was a series of target drones/unpiloted aerial 19

vehicles.
Figure 1.3 MQ-8B Fire Scout 21

Figure 1.4 Schiebel S-100 fitted with a Lightweight Multirole Missile 21

Figure 1.5 Typical flight-control loops for a multirotor 25

Figure 1.6 Predator launching a Hellfire missile 29

Figure 1.7 Aeryon Scout in flight 30

Figure 1.8 AAI Corporation Aerosonde 30

Figure 2.1 Speed ranges of aircraft types 33

Figure 2.2 aircraft configurations 34

Figure 2.3 Relation between W GL & W PL 36

Figure 2.4 Relation between W GL & W E 36

Figure 2.5 mission profile for an arbitrary airplane 37

Figure 2.6 Table of suggested fuel fraction 38

Figure 2.7 flow chart for prossesing data 41

Figure 2.8 Example of stall speed sizing 43

Figure 2.9 Airplane in climbing flight 44

Figure 2.10 Example for gliding Performance 45

Figure 2.11 Example for Sizing to Climb Required 46

Figure 2.12 Example for Climb Gradient Required 47

Figure 2.13 Example for Climb matching curve 47

Figure 2.14 The results of matching curve 48

Figure 2.15 The length of horizontal and vertical tail moment arm 49

11
Figure 2.16 Airplane views 53

Figure 2.17 shown engine max-75ax 54

Figure 2.18 shown parts of engine 55

Figure 2.19 shown engine dimensions (side and top view) 57

Figure 2.21 shown engine dimension elevation view 58

Figure 2.22 shown propeller ship 60

Figure 3.1 Drag with calibrated airspeed in knots (KCAS) 61

Figure 3.2 Lift to Drag ratio with calibrated airspeed in knots (KCAS) 61

Figure 3.3 CFD Stages 62

Figure 3.4 Design Modeler interface 62

Figure 3.5 Airfoil Meshing 63

Figure 3.6 Model Boundaries 64

Figure 3.7 Mesh Metrics 64

Figure 3.8 Setup& Solution interface 65

Figure 3.9 Pressure distribution with vectors 66

Figure 3.10 Pressure distribution 66

Figure 3.11 Lift& Drag Coefficients 67

Figure 3.12 Pressure distribution plot over the airfoil 67

Figure 3.13 Velocity distribution with vectors 68

Figure 3.14 Velocity distribution 68

Figure 3.15 Velocity Stream Lines 69

Figure 3.16 Pressure distribution with vectors 70

Figure 3.17 Pressure distribution 70

Figure 3.18 Velocity distribution with vectors 71

Figure 3.19 Velocity distribution 71

Figure 3.20 Lift& Drag Coefficients 72

12
Figure 3.21 Static Pressure Plot 72

Figure 3.22 Pressure distribution with vectors 73

Figure 3.23 Pressure distribution 73

Figure 3.24 Velocity distribution with vectors 74

Figure 3.25 Velocity distribution 74

Figure 3.26 Velocity Stream Lines 75

Figure 3.27 Lift and different Angle of attack plot 76

Figure 3.28 Drag coefficient with different angle of attack plot 77

Figure 3.29 CL/CD with different angle of attack plot 78

Figure 3.30 CL/CD at different Velocities 79

Figure 4.1 airplane axe 80

Figure 4.2 idealized aircraft 85

Figure 4.3 control surface deflaction 87

Figure 4.4 Simulink tools 92

Figure 4.5 longitudinal model 94

Figure 4.6 rate of pitch 94

Figure 4.7 velocity in X-direction 95

Figure 4.8 velocity in Z-direction 95

Figure 4.9 coordinates axes and forces 96

Figure 4.10 Simulink block diagram 100

Figure 4.11 State space function block 100

Figure 4.12 System response without feedback 101

Figure 4.13 Simulink block diagram state-feedback control gain K 102

Figure 4.14 System response with feedback K 102

Figure 4.15 Simulink block diagram with a constant PR compensator Nbar 103

Figure 4.16 System response with PR compensator Nbar 103

13
Figure 4.18 System response after adding a disturbance 105

Figure 4.19 Simulink block diagram while adding a PID Cont 106

Figure 4.20 PID controller function block 106

Figure 4.21 System response with PID Tuning 107

Figure 5.1 airplane forces 110

Figure 5.2 airfoil 111

Figure 5.3 control surfaces 112

Figure 5.4 Ailerons 113

Figure 5.5 Elevators 114

Figure 5.6 Rudder 115

Figure 5.7 Throttle 116

Figure 5.8 Accelerometer 117

Figure 5.9 mechanical Gyro 118

Figure 5.10 electronic gyro 118

Figure 5.11 Ardupilot 118

Figure 5.12 main window for mission planner 120

Figure 5.13 firmware’s main window 120

Figure 5.14 receiver 121

Figure 5.15 input pins 121

Figure 5.16 receiver pins 122

Figure 5.17 servos connection diagram 122

Figure 5.18 Calibrate Radio Transmitter window 123

Figure 5.19 flight modes window 123

Figure 5.20 Accel Calibration window 124

Figure 5.21 Successful calibration window 124

Figure 5.22 Remote control 125

14
Figure 5.23 take off 125

Figure 5.24 cruse 126

Figure 6.1 Drawing sheet 129

Figure 6.2 Clicking Standard –> Fuselage 130

Figure 6.3 The three tabs across the top of the Fuselage dialog box 130

Figure 6.4 The Cross-Sections box 130

Figure 6.5 Using scale drawings to lay out the points of a fuselage 131

Figure 6.6 The Final Result of our Fuselage 131

Figure 6.7 Clicking Standard –> Wings 132

Figure 6.8 The Foil Specifications Parameters 132

Figure 6.9 The Wing Span 133

Figure 6.10 The Vertical Tail 133

Figure 6.11 The Horizontal Tail 134

Figure 6.12 Clicking Standard –> Landing Gear 134

Figure 6.13 Gear Location 135

Figure 6.14 Gear Data 136

Figure 6.15 Tip of the Propeller 137

Figure 6.17 Type of Engine and Location 138

Figure 6.18 Description Engine and Prop specs 138

Figure 6.19 cockpit panel 139

Figure 6.20 shows the starting-point image file created for our plane 140

Figure 6.21 customize texture using (paint) 141

Figure 6.22 Test flight 143

Figure 7.1 Airplane labels 144

Figure 7.2 Fuselage Body 145

15
Figure 7.3 Fuselage Dimension 145

Figure 7.4 Wing 146

Figure 7.5 wing and ribs 147

Figure 7.6 Airfoil 147

Figure 7.7 Airfoil Dimension 148

Figure 7.8 horizontal tail 149

Figure 7.9 horizontal tail dimensions 149

Figure 7.10 vertical tail unit 150

Figure 7.11 vertical tail dimension 150

Figure 7.12 Airplane Views 151

Figure 7.13 airplane CAD model 153

Figure 7.14 Balsa wood 155

Figure 7.15 CNC Laser cutter machine 156

Figure 7.16 Fuselage CAD drawing 157

Figure 7.17 Fuselage sides gathering 157

Figure 7.18 Fuselage manufacturing process 158

Figure 7.19 Airfoil CAD drawing 159

Figure 7.20 Airfoil Manufacturing 159

Figure 7.21 Flaperons manufactured with motor 160

Figure 7.22 Wing Manufacturing 161

Figure 7.23 Wing Manufacturing (Covering) 161

Figure 7.24 Horizontal Tail CAD drawing 162

Figure 7.25 Manufactured Horizontal Tail 162

Figure 7.26 Vertical tail CAD drawing 163

Figure 7.27 Vertical tail manufacturing 163

16
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 UAV
An unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV), commonly known as a drone, unmanned aircraft
system (UAS), or by several other names, is an aircraft without a human pilot aboard. The
flight of UAVs may operate with various degrees of autonomy: either under remote control
by a human operator, or fully or intermittently autonomously, by onboard computers.

Compared to manned aircraft, UAVs are often preferred for missions that are too "dull,
dirty or dangerous" for humans. They originated mostly in military applications, although
their use is expanding in commercial, scientific, recreational, agricultural, and other
applications, such as policing and surveillance, product deliveries, aerial photography,
agriculture and drone racing. Civilian drones now vastly outnumber military drones, with
estimates of over a million sold by 2015.

1.2 Terminologies of UAV

There are multiple terms are used for unmanned aerial vehicles, which generally refer to
the same concept.

The term drone, more widely used by the public, was coined in reference to the
resemblance of navigation and loud-and-regular motor sounds of old military unmanned
aircraft to the male bee. The term has encountered strong opposition from aviation
professionals and government regulators.

The term unmanned aircraft system (UAS) was adopted by the United States Department
of Defense (DoD) and the United States Federal Aviation Administration in 2005
according to their Unmanned Aircraft System Roadmap 2005–2030.The International
Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) and the British Civil Aviation Authority adopted this
term, also used in the European Union's Single-European-Sky (SES) Air-Traffic-

17
Management (ATM) Research (SESAR Joint Undertaking) roadmap for 2020.This term
emphasizes the importance of elements other than the aircraft. It includes elements such as
ground control stations, data links and other support equipment. A similar term is
an unmanned-aircraft vehicle system (UAVS) remotely piloted aerial
vehicle (RPAV), remotely piloted aircraft system (RPAS). Many similar terms are in use.

A UAV is defined as a "powered, aerial vehicle that does not carry a human operator, uses
aerodynamic forces to provide vehicle lift, can fly autonomously or be piloted remotely,
can be expendable or recoverable, and can carry a lethal or nonlethal payload”.
Therefore, missiles are not considered UAVs because the vehicle itself is a weapon that is
not reused, though it is also unmanned and in some cases remotely guided.

The relation of UAVs to remote controlled model aircraft is unclear. UAVs may or may
not include model aircraft. Some jurisdictions base their definition on size or weight,
however, the US Federal Aviation Administration defines any unmanned flying craft as a
UAV regardless of size. A radio-controlled aircraft becomes a drone with the addition of
an autopilot artificial intelligence (AI), and ceases to be a drone when the AI is removed.

1.3 History of UAV

In 1849 Austria sent unmanned, bomb-filled balloons to attack Venice. UAV innovations
started in the early 1900s and originally focused on providing practice targets for training
military personnel.

Figure 1.1: UAV Ai450 aerial mapping plantation in Indonesia

UAV development continued during World War I, when the Dayton-Wright Airplane
Company invented a pilotless aerial torpedo that would explode at a preset time.

18
The earliest attempt at a powered UAV was A. M. Low's "Aerial Target" in 1916. Nikola
Tesla described a fleet of unmanned aerial combat vehicles in 1915. Advances followed
during and after World War I, including the Hewitt-Sperry Automatic Airplane. The first
scaled remote piloted vehicle was developed by film star and model-
airplane enthusiast Reginald Denny in 1935. More emerged during World War II – used
both to train antiaircraft gunners and to fly attack missions. Nazi Germany produced and
used various UAV aircraft during the war. Jet engines entered service after World War II
in vehicles such as the Australian GAF Jindivik, and Teledyne Ryan Fire bee of 1951,
while companies like Beechcraft offered their Model 1001 for the U.S. Navy in
1955. Nevertheless, they were little more than remote-controlled airplanes until
the Vietnam War.

In 1959, the U.S. Air Force, concerned about losing pilots over hostile territory, began
planning for the use of unmanned aircraft. Planning intensified after the Soviet Union shot
down a U-2 in 1960. Within days, a highly classified UAV program started under the code
name of "Red Wagon”. The August 1964 clash in the Tonkin Gulf between naval units of
the U.S. and North Vietnamese Navy initiated America's highly classified UAVs (Ryan
Model 147, Ryan AQM-91 Firefly, and Lockheed D-21) into their first combat missions
of the Vietnam War. When the Chinese government showed photographs of downed U.S.
UAVs via Wide World Photos, the official U.S. response was "no comment".

The War of Attrition (1967–1970) featured the introduction of UAVs

with reconnaissance cameras into combat in the Middle East.

In the 1973 Yom Kippur War Israel used drones as decoys to spur opposing forces into
wasting expensive anti-aircraft missiles.

Figure 1.2: Ryan Fire bee was a series of target drones/unpiloted aerial vehicles.

19
In 1973 the U.S. military officially confirmed that they had been using UAVs in Southeast
Asia (Vietnam). Over 5,000 U.S. airmen had been killed and over 1,000 more
were missing or captured. The USAF 100th Strategic Reconnaissance Wing flew about
3,435 UAV missions during the war at a cost of about 554 UAVs lost to all causes. In the
words of USAF General George S. Brown, Commander, Air Force Systems Command, in
1972, "The only reason we need (UAVs) is that we don't want to needlessly expend the
man in the cockpit." Later that year, General John C. Meyer, Commander in
Chief, Strategic Air Command, stated, "we let the drone do the high-risk flying ... the loss
rate is high, but we are willing to risk more of them ... they save lives!"

During the 1973 Yom Kippur War, Soviet-supplied surface-to-air missile batteries
in Egypt and Syria caused heavy damage to Israeli fighter jets. As a result, Israel
developed the first UAV with real-time surveillance. The images and radar decoys
provided by these UAVs helped Israel to completely neutralize the Syrian air defenses at
the start of the 1982 Lebanon War, resulting in no pilots downed. The first time UAVs
were used as proof-of-concept of super-agility post-stall controlled flight in combat-flight
simulations involved tailless, stealth technology-based, three-dimensional thrust vectoring
flight control, jet-steering UAVs in Israel in 1987.

With the maturing and miniaturization of applicable technologies in the 1980s and 1990s,
interest in UAVs grew within the higher echelons of the U.S. military. In the 1990s, the
U.S. DoD gave a contract to AAI Corporation along with Israeli company Malat. The U.S.
Navy bought the AAI Pioneer UAV that AAI and Malat developed jointly. Many of these
UAVs saw service in the 1991 Gulf War. UAVs demonstrated the possibility of cheaper,
more capable fighting machines, deployable without risk to aircrews. Initial generations
primarily involved surveillance aircraft, but some carried armaments, such as the General
Atomics MQ-1 Predator, that launched AGM-114 Hellfire air-to-ground missiles.
CAPECON was a European Union project to develop UAVs, running from 1 May 2002 to
31 December 2005.

As of 2012, the USAF employed 7,494 UAVs – almost one in three USAF aircraft.
The Central Intelligence Agency also operated UAVs. In 2013 at least 50 countries used
UAVs. China, Iran, Israel and others designed and built their own varieties.

20
1.4 Classifications of UAV
UAVs typically fall into one of six functional categories (although multi-role airframe
platforms are becoming more prevalent):

a) Target and decoy – providing ground and aerial gunnery a target that simulates an
enemy aircraft or missile
b) Reconnaissance – providing battlefield intelligence

c) Combat – providing attack capability for high-risk missions (see unmanned combat
aerial vehicle)
d) Logistics – delivering cargo

e) Research and development – improve UAV technologies

f) Civil and commercial UAVs – agriculture, aerial photography, data collection

Figure 1.3: Although most UAVs are fixed-wing aircraft, rotorcraft designs (i.e.,
RUAVs) such as this MQ-8B Fire Scout are also used.

The U.S. Military UAV tier system is used by military planners to designate the various
individual aircraft elements in an overall usage plan.

Figure 1.4: Schiebel S-100 fitted with a Lightweight Multirole Missile

21
Vehicles can be categorized in terms of range/altitude. The following has been advanced
as relevant at industry events such as ParcAberporth Unmanned Systems forum:

a) Hand-held 2,000 ft (600 m) altitude, about 2 km range

b) Close 5,000 ft (1,500 m) altitude, up to 10 km range

c) NATO type 10,000 ft (3,000 m) altitude, up to 50 km range

d) Tactical 18,000 ft (5,500 m) altitude, about 160 km range

e) MALE (medium altitude, long endurance) up to 30,000 ft (9,000 m) and range over
200 km
f) High-Altitude Long Endurance (high altitude, long endurance – HALE) over
30,000 ft (9,100 m) and indefinite range
g) Hypersonic high-speed, supersonic (Mach 1–5) or hypersonic (Mach 5+) 50,000 ft

(15,200 m) or suborbital altitude, range over 200 km

h) Orbital low earth orbit (Mach 25+)

i) CIS Lunar Earth-Moon transfer

j) Computer Assisted Carrier Guidance System (CACGS) for UAVs

1.4.1 Other categories include

1) Hobbyist UAVs – which can be further divided into:

a) Ready-to-fly (RTF)/Commercial-off-the-shelf (COTS)
b) Bind-and-fly (BNF) – that require minimum knowledge to fly the platform
c) Almost-ready-to-fly (ARF)/Do-it-yourself (DIY) – that require significant
knowledge to get in the air.
2) Midsize military and commercial drones
3) Large military-specific drones
4) Stealth combat drones

1.4.1.1 Classifications according to aircraft weight are quite simpler

a) Micro air vehicle (MAV) – the smallest UAVs that can weigh less than 1g.
b) Miniature UAV (also called SUAS) – approximately less than 25 kg.

22
 c) Heavier UAVs.

1.5 UAV components

Manned and unmanned aircraft of the same type generally have recognizably similar
physical components. The main exceptions are the cockpit and environmental control
system or life support systems. Some UAVs carry payloads (such as a camera) that weigh
considerably less than an adult human, and as a result can be considerably smaller. Though
they carry heavy payloads, weaponized military drones are lighter than their manned
counterparts with comparable armaments.

Small civilian UAVs have no life-critical systems, and can thus be built out of lighter but
less sturdy materials and shapes, and can use less robustly tested electronic control systems.
For small UAVs, the quad copter design has become popular, though this layout is rarely
used for manned aircraft. Miniaturization means that less-powerful propulsion
technologies can be used that are not feasible for manned aircraft, such as small electric
motors and batteries.

Control systems for UAVs are often different than manned craft. For remote human
control, a camera and video link almost always replace the cockpit windows; radio-
transmitted digital commands replace physical cockpit controls. Autopilot software is used
on both manned and unmanned aircraft, with varying feature sets.

1.5.1 Body

The primary difference for planes is the absence of the cockpit area and its windows.
Tailless Quad-copters are a common form factor for rotary wing UAVs while tailed mono-
and bi-copters are common for manned platforms.

1.5.2 Power supply and platform

Small UAVs mostly use lithium-polymer batteries (Li-Po), while larger vehicles rely on
conventional airplane engines. Battery elimination circuitry (BEC) is used to centralize
power distribution and often harbors a microcontroller unit (MCU). Costlier switching
BECs diminish heating on the platform.

23
1.5.3 Computing

UAV computing capability followed the advances of computing technology, beginning

with analog controls and evolving into microcontrollers, then system-on-a-chip (SOC)
and single-board computers (SBC). System hardware for small UAVs is often called the
Flight Controller (FC), Flight Controller Board (FCB) or Autopilot.

1.5.4 Sensors

Position and movement sensors give information about the aircraft state. Exteroceptive
sensors deal with external information like distance measurements, while exproprioceptive
ones correlate internal and external states.

Non-cooperative sensors are able to detect targets autonomously so they are used for
separation assurance and collision avoidance. Degrees of freedom (DOF) refer to both the
amount and quality of sensors on-board: 6 DOF implies 3-axis gyroscopes and
accelerometers (a typical inertial measurement unit – IMU), 9 DOF refers to an IMU plus
a compass, 10 DOF adds a barometer and 11 DOF usually adds a GPS receiver.

1.5.5 Actuators

UAV actuators include digital electronic speed controllers (which control the RPM of the
motors) linked to motors or engines and propellers, servomotors (for planes and
helicopters mostly), weapons, payload actuators, LEDs and speakers.

1.5.6 Software
UAV software called the flight stack or autopilot. UAVs are real-time systems that require
rapid response to changing sensor data. Examples include RaspberryPis, Beagleboards, etc.
shielded with NavIO, PXFMini, etc. or designed from scratch such as Nuttx, preemptive-
RT Linux, Xenomai, Orocos-Robot Operating System or DDS-ROS 2.0.

24
1.5.7 Loop principles

Figure 1.5: Typical flight-control loops for a multi rotor

UAVs employ open-loop, closed-loop or hybrid control architectures. Open loop—this

type provides a positive control signal (faster, slower, left, and right, up, down) without
incorporating feedback from sensor data. Closed loops – This type incorporates sensor
feedback to adjust behavior (reduce speed to reflect tailwind, move to altitude 300 feet).
The PID controller is common. Sometimes, feed forward is employed, transferring the
need to close the loop further.

1.5.8 Flight controls

Flight control is one of the lower-layer system and is similar to manned aviation: plane
flight dynamics, control and automation, helicopter flight
dynamics and controls and multi rotor flight dynamics were researched long before the rise
of UAVs. Automatic flight involves multiple levels of priority.

UAVs can be programmed to perform aggressive maneuvers or landing/perching on

inclined surfaces, and then to climb toward better communication spots. Some UAVs can
control flight with varying flight medialization, such as VTOL designs. UAVs can also
implement perching on a flat vertical surface.

25
1.5.9 Communications

Most UAVs use a radio frequency front-end that connects the antenna to the analog-to-
digital converter and a flight computer that controls avionics (and that may be capable of
autonomous or semi-autonomous operation). Radio allows remote control and exchange of
video and other data. Early UAVs had only uplink. Downlinks (e.g., real-time video) came
later.

In military systems and high-end domestic applications, downlink may convey payload
management status. In civilian applications, most transmissions are commands from
operator to vehicle. Downstream is mainly video. Telemetry is another kind of downstream
link, transmitting status about the aircraft systems to the remote operator. UAVs use
also satellite "uplink" to access satellite navigation systems.

The radio signal from the operator side can be issued from either:

a) Ground control – a human operating a radio transmitter/receiver, a smartphone, a

tablet, a computer, or the original meaning of a military ground control station
(GCS). Recently control from wearable devices, human movement
recognition, human brain waves were also demonstrated.
b) Remote network system, such as satellite duplex data links for some military

powers. Downstream digital video over mobile networks has also entered consumer
markets, while direct UAV control uplink over the cellular mesh is under
researched.
c) Another aircraft, serving as a relay or mobile control station – military manned-
unmanned teaming (MUM-T).

1.6 Autonomy
ICAO classifies unmanned aircraft as either remotely piloted aircraft or fully autonomous.
Actual UAVs may offer intermediate degrees of autonomy. E.g., a vehicle that is remotely
piloted in most contexts may have an autonomous return-to-base operation.

26
Basic autonomy comes from proprioceptive sensors. Advanced autonomy calls for
situational awareness, knowledge about the environment surrounding the aircraft from
exterioceptive sensors: sensor fusion integrates information from multiple sensors.

1.6.1 Basic principles

One way to achieve autonomous control employs multiple control-loop layers, as

in hierarchical control systems. As of 2016 the low-layer loops (i.e. for flight control) tick
as fast as 32,000 times per second, while higher-level loops may cycle once per second.
The principle is to decompose the aircraft's behavior into manageable "chunks", or states,
with known transitions. Hierarchical control system types range from
simple scripts to finite state machines, behavior trees and hierarchical task planners. The
most common control mechanism used in these layers is the PID controller which can be
used to achieve hover for a quad copter by using data from the IMU to calculate precise
inputs for the electronic speed controllers and motors.

Examples of mid-layer algorithms:

a) Path planning: determining an optimal path for vehicle to follow while meeting
mission objectives and constraints, such as obstacles or fuel requirements
b) Trajectory generation (motion planning): determining control maneuvers to take in

order to follow a given path or to go from one location to another

c) Trajectory regulation: constraining a vehicle within some tolerance to a trajectory

Evolved UAV hierarchical task planners use methods like state tree searches or genetic
algorithms.

1.6.2 Autonomy features

UAV manufacturers often build in specific autonomous operations, such as:

a) Self-level: The aircraft stabilizes its altitude.

b) Hover: attitude stabilization on the pitch, roll and yaw axes. The latter can be achieved

by sensing GNSS coordinates, called alone position hold.

27
c) Care-free: automatic roll and yaw control while moving horizontally
d) Take-off and landing

e) Failsafe: automatically landing upon loss of control signal

f) Return-to-home
g) Follow-me

h) GPS waypoint navigation

i) Orbit around an object

j) Pre-programmed tricks such as rolls and loops

1.7 Applications
UAVs are often preferred for missions that are too "dull, dirty or dangerous" for humans.
They originated mostly in military applications, although their use is expanding in
commercial, scientific, recreational, agricultural, and other applications, such as policing
and surveillance, product deliveries, aerial photography, agriculture and drone racing.
Civilian drones now vastly outnumber military drones, with estimates of over a million
sold by 2015.

1.7.1 Civil
Civil uses include aerial crop surveys, aerial photography, search and rescue, inspection of
power lines and pipelines, counting wildlife delivering medical supplies to otherwise
inaccessible regions, and detection of illegal hunting, reconnaissance
operations, cooperative environment monitoring, border patrol missions, convoy
protection, forest fire detection and monitoring, surveillance, coordinating humanitarian
aid, plume tracking, land surveying, fire and large-accident investigation, landslide
measurement, illegal landfill detection, the construction industry and crowd monitoring.

US government agencies use UAVs such as the RQ-9 Reaper to patrol borders, scout
property and locate fugitives. One of the first authorized for domestic use was the Shadow
Hawk in Montgomery County, Texas SWAT and emergency management offices.

Private Citizens and media organizations use UAVs for surveillance, recreation, news-
gathering, or personal land assessment. In February 2012, an animal rights group used
a MikroKopter hex copter to film hunters shooting pigeons in South Carolina. The hunters

28
then shot the UAV down. In 2014, a drone was used to successfully locate a man
with dementia, who was missing for 3 days.

1.7.9 Reconnaissance

The Tu-141 "Swift" reusable Soviet reconnaissance drone is intended for reconnaissance
to a depth of several hundred kilometers from the front line at supersonic speeds. The Tu-
123 "Hawk" is a supersonic long-range reconnaissance drone (UAV) intended for
conducting photographic and signals intelligence to a distance of 3200 km; it was produced
beginning in 1964.The La-17P (UAV) is a reconnaissance UAV produced since 1963.In
1945 the Soviet Union began producing "doodlebug".43 Soviet/Russian UAV models are
known.

In 2013, the U.S. Navy launched a UAV from a submerged submarine, the first step to
"providing mission intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance capabilities to the U.S.
Navy's submarine force.

1.7.10 Attack

Figure 1.6: Predator launching a Hellfire missile

MQ-1 Predator UAVs armed with Hellfire missiles have been used by the U.S. as
platforms for hitting ground targets. Armed Predators were first used in late 2001, mostly
aimed at assassinating high-profile individuals (terrorist leaders, etc.) inside Afghanistan.
UAVs avoid potential diplomatic embarrassment when a manned aircraft is shot down and
the pilots captured.

1.7.11 Commercial aerial surveillance

Aerial surveillance of large areas is possible with low-cost UAS. Surveillance applications
include livestock monitoring, wildfire mapping, pipeline security, home security, road

29
patrol and antipiracy. UAVs in commercial aerial surveillance is expanding with the advent
of automated object detection.

1.7.12 Professional aerial surveying

UAS technologies are used worldwide as aerial photogrammetry and LiDAR platform

1.7.13 Search and rescue

Figure 1.7: Aeryon Scout in flight

UAVs were used in search and rescue after hurricanes struck Louisiana and Texas in 2008.
Predators, operating between 18,000 and 29,000 feet, performed search and rescue and
damage assessment. Payloads were an optical sensor and a synthetic aperture radar. The
latter can penetrate clouds, rain or fog and in daytime or nighttime conditions, all in real
time. Photos taken before and after the storm are compared and a computer highlights
damage areas. Micro UAVs, such as the Aeryon Scout, have been used to perform search
and rescue activities on a smaller scale, such as the search for missing persons.

UAVs have been tested as airborne lifeguards, locating distressed swimmers using thermal
cameras and dropping life preservers to swimmers

1.7.14 Scientific research

Figure 1.8: AAI Corporation Aerosonde

30
UAVs are especially useful in accessing areas that are too dangerous for manned aircraft.
The U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration began using
the Aerosonde unmanned aircraft system in 2006 as a hurricane hunter. The 35-pound
system can fly into a hurricane and communicate near-real-time data directly to
the National Hurricane Center. Beyond the standard barometric pressure and temperature
data typically culled from manned hurricane hunters, the Aerosonde system provides
measurements from closer to the water's surface than before. NASA later began using
the Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk for hurricane measurements.

1.7.15 Oil, gas and mineral exploration and production

UAVs can be used to perform geophysical surveys, in particular geomagnetic

surveys where measurements of the Earth's varying magnetic field strength are used to
calculate the nature of the underlying magnetic rock structure. A knowledge of the
underlying rock structure helps to predict the location of mineral deposits. Oil and gas
production entails the monitoring of the integrity of oil and gas pipelines and related
installations. For above-ground pipelines, this monitoring activity can be performed using
digital cameras mounted on UAVs.

In 2012, Cavim, the state-run arms manufacturer of Venezuela, claimed to be producing

its own UAV as part of a system to survey and monitor pipelines, dams and other rural
infrastructure.

31
 CHAPTER 2
AIRCRAFT DESSIGN

2.1 Introduction
The Team UAV (O6UAV) design project is a response to a request for proposal from the
University for a Low Cost, UAV to be used for surveillance missions. The University
would use this UAV as an alternative to more expensive manned and unmanned
reconnaissance systems.

2.2 Background Research

2.2.1 Application of UAV in land surveying
1.) The UAV can carry a 0.5 kg reconnaissance payload.
2.) The UAV can fly for 1 hours to accept alterations to the flight plan based on
observations made by the controller.
3.) At the end of the mission the UAV will be recovered, and will be required to landing

2.3 Preliminary design

2.3.1 Design limitations
In addition to the requirements, Team developed additional design specifications for our
UAV concepts. These specifications are discussed below.
1.) To increase the range, adaptability, and marketability of the UAV, all concepts will be
capable of aerial deployment.
2.) For agreement with the design altitude of current low cost reconnaissance cameras, the
design mission altitude for the UAV shall be 200 – 300 m.
3.) To allow for variations in mission profiles, a minimum service of shall be required.
4.) A speed range for the UAV of 35 -75 KM shall be required to allow deployment at a
wide range of velocities.
5.) A 30-minute cruise to station shall be required in addition to the 30 minute loiter on
space.

32
2.3.2 Speed Range
Driven particularly by the necessary speed of response, this could range typically as
follows:
0–100 kt for a close-range surveillance role.
0–150 kt plus for many off-board naval roles.
80–500 kt for long-range surveillance and AEW roles.
100 kt to mach 1 plus for future interception / interdiction roles.

Figure 2.1: Speed ranges of aircraft types

The required speed range will be a dominant factor in determining the configuration and
propulsive power of the aircraft. Figure indicates the aircraft configurations most
appropriate to the above speed ranges. However, speed generally comes at a cost in terms
of fuel consumption and airframe complexity resulting in reduced efficiency of payload
and/or range for size, mass and financial cost. A notional value E for relative efficiency is
ventured on the vertical axis of the figure.

2.4 Preliminary design

Each member of Team created a (O6UAV) configuration concept as a solution to the UAV.
From these original concepts, five distinct designs were produced. The original concepts
are as follows: a conventional concept with Tail-aft on fuselage, a delta wing concept, a

33
tall-aft on Booms concept, a canard concept, and a flying wing concept. A graphical
summary of the initial concepts and the selection process is shown in figure:

Figure 2.2: aircraft configurations

Main Wing Forward with Control Surfaces aft
This is accepted as the conventional arrangement and is by far the most ubiquitous. The
aircraft centre of mass is forward of the wing centre of lift and this is balanced by a down-
load on the tailplane, thus providing aerodynamic speed and attitude stability in the
horizontal plane. A vertical fin provides weathercock stability in yaw with wing dihedral
giving stability in roll. This established configuration is the datum against which other
configurations are compared. This is probably because the volume of a long fuselage is
required to carry the large amount of equipment and fuel load needed on their type of
operation. An indication of the volume demande dis shown in Figure.by an artist’s
exploded view of a typical long-range UAV. The twin-boom arrangement is popular for
the medium- and close-range UAV as this allows the engine to be mounted as a pusher
system just aft of the wing, again freeing the front fuselage for payload installation. It also
provides a degree of protection for and from the engine and propeller. There are also some
aerodynamic advantages to be gained with this configuration. A pusher propeller and
engine closely behind the aircraft centre of mass reduces the inertia of the aircraft in pitch
and yaw. The relative proximity of the propeller to the empennage enhances the control

34
power through the slipstream passing over the elevators and rudders and, with the lower
inertia, gives an aircraft that is more responsive to pitch and yaw control.

2.5 INITIAL SIZING

2.5.1 Parametric weights
1. Weight categories

2. Weight fractions

a. Empty weight

b. Fuel

c. Payload

d. Miscellaneous

e. Performance

3. Geometry based weights

2.5.2 Weight categories

W GL =W E +W F +W PL+ W crew (1)
W E = Empty weight
W PL = Payload weight
W F = Fuel weight
W crew= crew weight
Hence, we could modified the equation (1) by removing all the unnecessary term such
as weight of the crew. Then, the equation (1) becomes
W GL =W E +W F +W PL (2)
The collected data about similar UAV system
S/N Launch weight Empty weight Payload
(W GL ) (W E ) (W PL )
(Kg) (Kg) (Kg)
1 2.040 1.586 0.453
2 2.268 1.814 0.453

35
 3 4.535 3.628 0.907
4 3.970 2.920 1.050
5 3.900 2.000 1.000
6 2.800 2.620 0.180
7 1.900 1.720 0.180
8 3.700 3.040 0.680
Table 2.1 : Data collected about similar UAV
From data in the table, a linear regression was performed between (log W GL, log
W E ), and (log W GL, log W PL ) as shown in equations
Log 10 W GL = A + B* log 10 W E
Log 10 W GL = C+ D* log 10 W P

Figure2.3: Relation between W GL & W PL . Figure 2.4: Relation between

W GL & W E .

A=0.1365, B=0.9289 C=0.5832, D=0.3635

By using matlab then get A,B,C and D
Log 10 W GL = 0.1365+ 0.9289 log 10 W E
Log 10 W GL = 0.5832+ 0.3635 log 10 W PL
Results:
 W GL =2.977 kg

 W E =2.3073 kg

 W PL =0.5 kg

 W F =0.1697 kg

36
2.5.3 Determination Of Mission Fuel Weight (WF)
Mission fuel Weight, WF can be written as :
W F = W Fused + W Fres
Where :
W Fused is the fuel actually used during the mission,
W Fres are the fuel reserves required for the mission
Fuel reserves are normally specified in the mission specification. They are also specified
in those FAR’s which regulate the operation of passenger transports.
Fuel reserves are generally spacified in one or more of the following types:
1. As a fraction of W Fused ( Mff)
2. As a requirement for additional range so that an alternate airport can be reached
3. As a requirement for (additional) loiter time to determine W Fused , the fuel weight
actually used

Figure 2.5: mission profile for an arbitrary airplane

2.5.4 Steps Construct Mission Profile
a) Engine start and warm up

As before, the mission segment weight fraction for engine start, taxi, and takeoff is
estimated historically. A reasonable estimate is:
• Begin weight W GL ,
• End weight W 1 ,
• Weight ratio W 1 /W GL
• WGL ~= W1

37
 • Weight ratio W 1 /W GL =1
b) Launch

• Begin weight W 1 ,

• End weight W 2 ,

• Weight ratio W 2 /W 1

• Weight ratio W 2 /W 1 = 0.998

c) Climb to Cruise

• Begin weight W 2

• End weight W 3,

• Weight ratio W 3 /W 2

• Weight ratio W 3 /W 2 =0.992 to 0.99

From historical data we can verify values of weight ratios :

Figure 2.6 : Table of suggested fuel fraction

38
d) Cruise to target

is derived from the Breguet range equation for cruise. For propeller aircraft, the specific
fuel consumption "C p " is calculated from the propeller specific fuel consumption
• Begin weight W 3 ,

• End weight W 4 ,

• Weight ratio W 4 /W 3

From Bergut’s range equation:

ηp 𝐿𝐿 𝑊𝑊3
R cr = 357 ( ) ( ) cr ln ( )
Cp 𝐷𝐷 𝑊𝑊4

Where :
R cr : Required cruise range
ηp: propller efficiency
C p : Engine specific fuel consumption
𝐿𝐿
( ) 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐: lift to drag ratio during cruise
𝐷𝐷

Then get W 4 /W 3 =0.997

e) Loiter over target

The weight fraction for loiter mission segment is:

• Begin weight W 4 ,
• End weight W 5 ,
• Weight ratio W 5 /W 4
From Bergut’s endurance equation:
1 ηp 𝐿𝐿 𝑊𝑊4
E ltr = 357( ) ( ) ltr ( ) ltr ln ( )
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 Cp 𝐷𝐷 𝑊𝑊5

Where:
E ltr: Loitering endurance in hours
Vltr:loitering speed in mph
𝐿𝐿
( ) ltr: Lift to drag ratio during loiter
𝐷𝐷

(W 5 /W 4 )=0.9855
f) Cruise back
• Begin weight W 5 ,

39
 • End weight W 6 ,

• Weight ratio W 6 /W 5

g) Descent

Descent is estimated historically:

• Begin weight W 6 ,
• End weight W 7 ,
• Weight ratio W 7 /W 6

W7/W6=0.993 to 0.996
h) Engine shut down

Again, a historical approximation is used.

Begin weight W 7 ,
End weight W 8 ,
Weight ratio W 8 /W 7 =1
i) From the above weight ratios we can get fuel fraction M ff :

it is now possible to calculate the mission fuel-fraction

M ff = (W 8 /W 7 ) (W 7 /W 6 ) (W 6 /W 5 ) (W 5 /W 4 ) (W 4 /W 3 ) (W 3 /W 2 ) (W 2 /W 1 ) (W 1 /W GL )
M ff = 0.9711
Estimation of ground launch weight
As we define W GL , W E , W PL we define mission fuel weight (W F ), now we can say that :
W GL = W E + W PL + W F
And
W F = W GL -W 8
W 8 =M ff * W GL
∴ W F = W GL - M ff * W GL
∴ W F = W GL *(1-M ff )
By help of previous equations in addition to the regression equations and the following
equation
W E = W GL -W f –W PL

40
Starting with knowledge of W PL

Figure 2.7 : flow chart for prossesing data

Estimation of ground launch weight:
W GL =8.261 lbs (3.747 Kg)
W E =6.9453 lbs (3.150 Kg)
W PL =1.1016 lbs (0.50000 Kg)
W f =0.2392 lbs (0.1084 Kg)

2.6 Estimating wing Area, S, Take-Off Thrust, (OR Take-Off

Power, P)
In Addition to meeting rang, endurance and cruise speed objectives, airplanes are usually
designed to meet performance objectives in the following categories:
a) Stall speed
b) cruise speed
c) Gliding Performance
d) Climb Gradient Required

The results of performance sizing are:

41
 • Wing area.

• Engine power required.

• Maximum lift coefficient.

2.6.1 SIZING TO STALL SPEED REQUIREMENTS

The calculation of V stall , as well as aerodynamic methods of making as small as
possible, are of vital importance. The stalling velocity is readily obtained in terms
maximum coefficient, as follows. From the definition of CL. The lift produced by a
wing is given by the equation:
From L =W Where L: lift , W: weight
L =0.5ρV2SC L
Where ρ: air density at sea level,
V: stall speed,
C L : lift coefficient,
S: wing area
∴ L =0.5ρV2 stall SC Lmax
Taking this values of C Lmax , V stall
C Lmax =1.2-1.8
V stall =0.75 V cruise
Where CL max is a coefficient that determines the ability of the wing of area S to deflect the
airstream. This coefficient, itself, is a function of the design of the wing section, the
Reynolds number at which it is operating and the wing incidence, increasing in value with
incidence and peaking at a value, CL max , .beyond which it sharply reduces. The value of
the absolute minimum flight speed is obtained by rearranging Equation as:
V =(2L/ρ S CL max )0.5

42
 Figure 2.8: Example of stall speed sizing
2.6.2 SIZING TO CRUISE SPEED
Thrust available is the ability for the propulsion system to produce forward thrust. Thrust
is a function of power and the aircraft velocity, thus the thrust available can be obtained if
we are using the power available value by
P=T*V = (0.5ρV2SC D )*v
Basically, the power available will not be the same with the power output of the motor as
each motor will have its own different efficiency which mostly affected by the propeller
that been used. The equation below shows the relationship between the power available
and power output of the motor.
p=η prop p 0
Pɳp = (0.5ρV2SC D )*v
Where ɳp = propeller efficiency ~= 0.6
Divide this eqn. by W
(p/w) = (2ɳp/ρv^3CD)*(w/s)
Then plot:
(w/s) = (ρv^3CD/2ɳp)*(w/p)
Let C D =0.02 to 0.05

43
2.6.3 Sizing to Gliding Performance

Figure 2.9: Airplane in climbing flight

Acting on the airplane:
1. Lift L, which is perpendicular to the flight path direction
2. Drag D, which is parallel to the flight path direction
3. Weight W. which acts vertically toward the center of the earth (and hence is inclined
at the angle 6 with respect to the lift direction)
4. Thrust which in general is inclined at the angle 5ar with respect to the flight path
direction
During gliding
L =0.5 ρ V2 S C L =W Cosϴ (1)
D =0.5 ρ V2 S C D =W Sinϴ (2)
Where D: drag
L: lift & W: weight of UAV
From the above two equations (1) & (2) we can get
𝑊𝑊 𝜌𝜌𝑉𝑉 2 sin 𝜃𝜃
( )=
𝑆𝑆 4 𝐾𝐾 cos 𝜃𝜃

Where V: gliding velocity

K: drag due to lift

44
 ϴ: gliding angle
The optimum gliding angle gets from
sin 𝜃𝜃 𝐿𝐿
tan 𝜃𝜃𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = = 1/( ) max =√4 𝐾𝐾 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶0
cos 𝜃𝜃 𝐷𝐷

Figure 2.10 : Example for gliding Performance

2.6.4 Sizing to Climb Required
𝑑𝑑ℎ
RC =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑊𝑊
𝜂𝜂𝜂𝜂 ( 𝑆𝑆 )0.5
RCP = 𝑊𝑊 - 3 0.5
( 𝑃𝑃 ) 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 �2
19� 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 �

Where:
RC =rate of clime in (fpm)
RCP = rate of clime parameter
And
C LR max = 3 C D0 𝜋𝜋 A e
C D R max = 4 C D0
3 3
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 �2 (𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴) �4
( )𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 1
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶0 �4

For ηp = 0.8
A = 7.6
C D =C D0 +K C L 2
Where C D0 : zero lift drag coefficient
K = 1/ (ᴨA*e)
The extra drag due to the non-elliptical lift distribution and the flow separation can be
accounted for using e, the "Oswald span efficiency factor." This effectively reduces the
aspect ratio, producing the following equation for K. The Oswald efficiency factor is

45
typically between 0. 7 and 0.85. Numerous estimation methods for e have been developed
over the years.
A: aspect ratio 6 ----- 9
e: familiar span efficiency factor(wing) =0.82
Straight-Wing Aircraft: e = l.78*(1- 0.045A0.68) - 0.64
A=b^2/s = b/c
C D0 = f/s
Where f: equivalent parasite area
S: wing area
Log 10 f =-2.1549+log 10 S wet
Log 10 S wet 1.0892+0.5147log 10 W GL

Figure 2.11: Example for Sizing to Climb Required

2.6.5 Sizing to Climb Gradient Required

𝑑𝑑ℎ�
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Climb gradient: CGR=
𝑉𝑉
𝐿𝐿
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶+(𝐷𝐷)−1
Climb gradient parameter: CGRP = , Where:
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶0.5
18.97𝜂𝜂𝜂𝜂𝜎𝜎 0.5
CGRP = 𝑊𝑊 𝑊𝑊
( 𝑃𝑃 )( 𝑆𝑆 )0.5

σ =ρ/ρo=1
The value of climb lift coefficient will be in the range 0.6 to 1.2
And maximum lift coefficient will take C L max =1.2

46
Aspect ratio A =7.6

Figure 2.12: Example for Climb Gradient Required

2.6.6Matching curve

Figure 2.13: Example for Climb matching curve

47
 Figure 2.14: The results of matching curve
The results of performance sizing are:
 Wing area.

 Engine power required.

 Maximum lift coefficient.

 Design point

Chose the design point:

W/S = 1.9113 lbs/ft2.
W/P = 20.4665 lbs/ft2.
P MAX = 0.5 hp
S =4.322 ft2 (0.475 m2).
C LMAX =1.2
b =1.90 m
c = 0.25 m

48
As most early wings were rectangular in shape, the aspect ratio was initially defined as
simply the span divided by the chord.
Aspict ratio = 7.6

2.7 Fuselage design

The mission requirement for the required UAV which are given in preliminary sizing
based on these requirement the following items needed to be carried in the fuselage:
 Payload : camera ,autopilot

 Fuel tank

 Receiver

 Power supply

 Servos and cables

Based on statistical data of similar UAVs:

Lf=3.5(WGL) 0.23
= 5.688 ft (1.7337024 m)

2.8 Tail unit

From the fuselage general arrangement the following moment arm was selected based
on a 60% length of the fuselage overall length:
 horizontal tail moment arm

L h = 1.0398 (m)
 vertical tail moment arm

L v = 1.0398 (m)

Figure 2.15: The length of horizontal and vertical tail moment arm

49
Horizontal tail volume coefficient:
𝐿𝐿ℎ ∗ Sh
Vh =
S∗C

Vertical tail volume coefficient:

𝐿𝐿𝑣𝑣 ∗Sv
Vv =
S∗b

C: the wing mean geometric chord

b: the wing span
L h : moment arm horizontal tail
L v : moment arm vertical tail
Tail volume coefficient
Type of aircraft Horizontal V h Vertical V v
Homebuilt 0.5 0.04
General Aviation – single 0.7 0.04
engine
Table 2.2: Tail volume coefficient
The following tail volume coefficients are chosen based on statistical data of similar UAVs:
V h = 0.5
V v = 0.04
S h =0.0444 m2
S v =0.02934 m2

2.8.1 Tail arm length

Table 2.3: Tail aspect ratio and taper ratio

50
  Horizontal tail Aspect ratio

Ah = 6
 Vertical tail Aspect ratio

A v = 1.5
Then get b h = 0.5161 m b v = 0.2096 m
C h = 0.0860 m C v =0.1441 m
2.8.2 Taper ratio (λ)
The taper ratio (λ) has a effect on the span wise lift distribution. The span wise portion
of the center of pressure of a half wing moves in the direction of the wing root as a
taper ratio decreases the root bending moment due to lift decreases accordingly. For
small aircraft a practical lower limit to taper ratio is imposed by the structure height
required at the tip to provide room for the ailerons and their control elements.
Ones the taper ratio is chosen the wing geometry is known, provided the wing area and
aspect ratio have also been selected. For straight tapered wings, the tip and root chords
are given by:
2 𝑆𝑆
c t = 𝜆𝜆 cr cr = *
1 + 𝜆𝜆 𝑏𝑏
R

λ= 0.457 Cr =20 Cm Ct = 9 Cm

2.9 O6U Specifications

SI Units Imperial Units
Wpl 0.5 (kg) 1.1016 lbs Payload
A 0.1365 ‫ــــــــ‬ constants of Rcr
B 0.9289 ‫ـــــــــ‬ constants of Rcr
C 0.5832 ‫ــــــــ‬ Constants of Stat of art
D 0.3635 ‫ــــــــ‬ Constants of Stat of art
Rcr 1 km 3280 ft Required cruise Rang (km)

51
 Cp 0.7 ‫ــــــــ‬ Engine Specific fuel
consumption
in(lb/hp/hr)
Ecr 1 hour ‫ــــــــ‬ Endurance
Eltr 0.5 hour Loiter endurance
Vcr 50 Km/hr 31.06 mph Cruise Speed
Vltr 45 Km/hr 27.96 mph Loiter Speed
Vgl 40 Km/hr 36.45 ft/sec Gliding Speed
Alt 200 m 656.168 ft Altitude
ETAp 0.6 ‫ــــــــ‬ propeller Efficiency
LtoDcr 8 ‫ــــــــ‬ Lift to Drag Ratio
during Cruise.
LtoDltr 9 ‫ــــــــ‬ Lift to Drag Ratio during
loitering
Ro 1.225 Kg/m3 0.002367 slug/ft3 Density at sea level
Vstall 37.5 Km/hr 23.3 mph Stall speed
AR 7.6 ‫ــــــــ‬ Aspect ratio
E 0.82 ‫ــــــــ‬ Wing efficiency
CLmax 1.2 ‫ــــــــ‬ Maximum lift
coefficient
Cb 0.02 ‫ ــــــــ‬0.05 ‫ــــــــ‬ Drag coefficient
Table 2.4: Data-Required For Our Airplane

52
2.10 Different views for the airplane :

Figure 2.16: Airplane views

53
2.11 ENGINE
2.11.1 Introduction:
According to our calculation a 1.5hp engine is required to generate the necessary thrust for
the airplane so that we chose
The O.S engine MAX-75AX

Figure 2.17: shown engine max-75ax

2.11.2 SPECIFICATIONS:
Displacement 12.29 cc / 0.75cu.in.
Power output at recommended
R.P.M. range 1.5hp / 10,000 r.p.m.
Recommended R.P.M. range 2,000 - 11,000 r.p.m.

Max power output 2.4 hp – 15,000 r.p.m.

Weight 578 g / 20.39 oz.
(E-4040 Sliencer) 178 g / 6.28 oz.
Stroke 2 stroke
Table 2.5: shown engine specification

54
 Figure 2.18: shown parts of engine
CAP SCREW SETS (10pcs. /sets)
Code No. Size Pcs. Used in an engine
79871110 M3×8 Cover Plate Retaining Screw(4pcs.)
79871160 M3×16 Cylinder Head Retaining Screw(5pcs.)
*Type of screw C…. Cap Screw
Table 2.6: shown cap screw sets

55
 No. Code No. Description
1 27404000 Cylinder Head
2 27414010 Head Gasket
3 27403000 Cylinder & Piston Assembly
4 27406000 Piston Pin
5 27917000 Piston Pin Retainer (2pcs.)
6 29115000 Connecting Rod
7 27482010 Carburetor Complete (Type 61A)
8 45910100 Lock Nut Set
9 27408000 Drive Hub
10 29320000 Thrust Washer
11 27731000 Crankshaft Ball Bearing (F)
12 27401000 Crankcase
13 29030001 Crankshaft Ball Bearing (R)
14 27402000 Crankshaft
15 27414020 Cover Gasket
16 27407000 Cover Plate
71608001 Glow Plug No.8
72200080 Needle Valve Extension Cable Set
27425000 E-4040 Silencer Assembly
29122540 O Ring
27425300 Assembly Screw
22681957 Pressure Nipple (NO.7)
26625210 Silencer Retaining Screw (C.M4×40 2pcs.)
The specifications are subject to alteration for improvement without notice.
Table 2.7: shown specification of engine parts

56
2.11.3 DIMENSIONS

Figure 2.19: shown engine dimensions (side and top view)

57
 Figure 2.20: shown engine dimension elevation view
2.11.4 CARBURETOR EXPLODED VIEW

Figure 2.21: shown carburetor exploded view

58
 No. Code No. Description

1 27881400 Throttle Level Assembly

2 27482200 Carburetor Rotor

3 25781600 Mixture Control Valve Assembly

3-1 46066319 O Ring (L) (2pcs.)

3-2 22781800 O Ring (R) (2pcs.)

4 27482100 Carburetor Body

5 45581820 Rotter Guide Screw

6 22681953 Fuel Inlet (N0.1)

7 24081970 Needle Assembly

7-1 24981837 O ring (2pcs.)

7-2 26381501 Set Screw

8 27381940 Needle-valve Holder Assembly

8-1 26711305 Ratchet Spring

9 46215000 Carburetor Rubber Gasket

10 25081700 Carburetor Retaining Screw

Specifications are subject alteration for improvement without notice.
Table 2.8: shown parts of carburetor

59
2.11.5 PROPELLER

The choice of propeller depends on the design and weight of the aircraft and the type of
flying in which you well be engaged.
SIZE(D*P) 13×8-10 , 14×6-8

Figure 2.22: shown propeller ship

60
 CHAPTER 3
AERODYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3.1 Introduction
The aerodynamic characteristics of our O6UAV airplane are to be considered as:

Figure 3.1: Drag with calibrated airspeed in knots (KCAS)

Figure 3.2: Lift to Drag ratio with calibrated airspeed in knots (KCAS)

61
The minimum velocity that corresponding to the maximum lift coefficient to drag
coefficient ratio is equal to 25.46 knots
In this chapter we discuss the Aerodynamic analysis on the Airplane Airfoil using ANSYS
software. We will be analyzing our airplane model using ANSYS Fluent solver.
The ANSYS CFD case process consists of 5 stages:
a) Geometry
b) Mesh
c) Setup
d) Solution
e) Results

Figure 3.3: CFD Stages

3.2 The first Stage (Geometry)

In stage we insert our Airplane Airfoil (GEO 387) points to the ANSYS design modeler
geometry and draw a 2D plane around our airfoil that represents our boundaries

Figure 3.4: Design Modeler interface

62
3.3 Second Stage (Mesh)
In stage the ANSYS solves the Airfoil geometry using finite element method which solves
the equations at every cell/nodal location by dividing the domain into discrete cells
(Meshed)

Figure 3.5: Airfoil Meshing

After meshing the Airfoil geometry, we determine and name our model boundaries which
are represent as below:
A- Inlet
B- Outlet
C- Walls
D- Airfoil
E- Plane face

63
 Figure 3.6: Model Boundaries

After meshing we make sure that our skewness ratio is within limit (Max
Skewness<0.95)

Figure 3.7: Mesh Metrics

64
3.4 Third & Fourth Stage (Setup& Solution)
In these two stages we insert our conditions that ANSYS will use to solve the model and
obtain the lift and drag coefficients (CL & CD) as well as pressure and velocity distribution
over the Airfoil.
3.4.1 Setup Conditions:
General: Type >Pressure-Based, Time > Steady
Models: Viscous-K-epsilon
Materials: Air >Properties: Density (Constant), Viscosity(Constant)
Boundary Conditions: Inlet: Type>Velocity-inlet > Velocity Magnitude = 20.8333 m/s
Reference Values: Compute from > inlet
Solution: Solution method > pressure-velocity coupling > SIMPLE
Monitors: Create>lift, drag
Solution Initialization: Hybrid initialization
Run Calculations: Number of iterations >5000

Figure 3.8: Setup& Solution interface

65
3.5 Fifth Stage (Results)
In the final stage we display the results obtained from ANSYS, and our main case is α=0

3.5.1 Pressure Distribution at zero angle of attack (α=0)

Figure 3.9: Pressure distribution with vectors

Figure 3.10: Pressure distribution

66
3.5.2 Lift& Drag coefficients at zero angle of attack (α=0)
Cl= 4.7580e-02, CD= 7.2179e-03

Figure 3.11: Lift& Drag Coefficients

3.5.3 Pressure Plot

Figure 3.12: Pressure distribution plot over the airfoil

67
3.5.4 Velocity distribution at zero angle of attack (α=0)

Figure 3.13: Velocity distribution with vectors

Figure 3.14: Velocity distribution

68
3.5.5 Velocity Stream Lines

Figure 3.15: Velocity Stream Lines

69
3.5.6 Case 2: At angle of attack = 5 degrees
3.5.6.1 Pressure Distribution at angle of attack (α=5)

Figure 3.16: Pressure distribution with vectors

Figure 3.17: Pressure distribution

70
3.5.6.2 Velocity Distribution at angle of attack (α=5)

Figure 3.18: Velocity distribution with vectors

Figure 3.19: Velocity distribution

71
3.5.7 Case 3: At angle of attack = 25 degrees
CL= 1.301e-01, CD= 4.5005e-02

Figure 3.20: Lift& Drag Coefficients

3.5.7.1 Static Pressure Plot

Figure 3.21: Static Pressure Plot

72
3.5.7.2 Pressure Distribution at angle of attack (α=25)

Figure 3.22: Pressure distribution with vectors

Figure 3.23: Pressure distribution

73
3.5.7.3 Velocity Distribution at angle of attack (α=25)

Figure 3.24: Velocity distribution with vectors

Figure 3.25: Velocity distribution

74
3.5.7.4 Velocity Stream Lines

Figure 3.26: Velocity Stream Lines

75
 3.5.8 Lift Coefficient with different Angle of Attack Curve:
Lift Coefficient Angle of Attack (ALPHA)

-0.0043709 -5

0.04758 0

0.098365 5

0.13287 10

0.16212 15

1.6939e-01 20

1.8301e-01 25

Table 3.1: Lift coefficients with different angle of attack

lIFT & ALPHA

0.18 1.69E-01
0.16212
0.16
0.13287 1.30E-01
0.14

0.12
0.098365
0.1
LIFT

0.08

0.06
0.04758

0.04

0.02
-0.0043709
0
-10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
-0.02
ALPHA

Figure 3.27: Lift and different Angle of attack curve

76
 3.5.9 Drag Coefficient with different Angle of Attack Curve:
Drag Coefficient Angle of Attack (ALPHA)

0.0076564 -5

0.0072179 0

0.0091933 5

0.014309 10

0.020285 15

2.8306e-02 20

4.5005e-02 25

Table 3.2: Drag Coefficients with different angle of attack

DRAG & ALPHA

0.05
4.50E-02
0.045

0.04

0.035
2.83E-02
0.03
drag

0.025
0.020285
0.02
0.014309
0.015
0.0091933
0.0076564 0.0072179
0.01

0.005

0
-10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
alpha

Figure 3.28: Drag coefficient with different angle of attack curve

77
3.5.10 Lift to Drag Ratio with different Angle of Attack Curve:

CL/CD Angle of Attack α

-0.5708818766 -5
6.591945026 0
10.69963996 5
9.285764204 10
7.992112398 15
5.984243623 20
4.066437063 25 (No converge solution)
Table 3.3: Lift to Drag Ratio with different angle of attack

CL/CD & ALPHA

12
10.69963996

10 9.285764204

7.992112398
8
6.591945026
5.984243623
6
CL/CD

4.066437063
4

-0.570881877 0
-10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30

-2
ALPHA

Figure 3.29: CL/CD with different angle of attack curve

78
3.5.11 Lift to Drag Ratio at different Velocities

CL/CD Velocity (m/s) α

-0.5708818766 162.0616871 -5

6.591945026 49.1194587 0

10.69963996 34.16217341 5

9.285764204 29.39356912 10

7.992112398 26.61016047 15

5.984243623 26.03286145 20

4.066437063 25.04542355 25

Table 3.4: Lift to Drag Ratio at different Velocities

CL/CD & Velocity

14

12
10.69963996

10 9.285764204

7.992112398
8
6.591945026
5.984243623
CL/CD

6
4.066437063
4

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
-2
Velocity

Figure 3.30: CL/CD at different Velocities

79
 CHAPTER 4
MODELING AND SIMULATION
4.1 O6UAV Dynamics
4.1.1 Equation of Motion
The equations of motion for a flight vehicle usually are written in a body-fixed coordinate
system. It is convenient to choose the vehicle center of mass as the origin for this system,
and the orientation of the (right-handed) system of coordinate axes is chosen by convention
so that, as illustrated in Fig 4.1

Figure 4.1: airplane axe

• the x-axis lies in the symmetry plane of the vehicle1 and points forward.
• the z-axis lies in the symmetry plane of the vehicle, is perpendicular to the x-axis,
and points down.
• the y-axis is perpendicular to the symmetry plane of the vehicle and points out the
right wing.

The precise orientation of the x-axis depends on the application; the two most common
choices are:

80
 • to choose the orientation of the x-axis so that the product of inertia

The other products of inertia, Ixy and Iyz, are automatically zero by vehicle symmetry.
When all products of inertia are equal to zero, the axes are said to be principal axes.
• to choose the orientation of the x-axis so that it is parallel to the velocity vector for
an initial equilibrium state. Such axes are called stability axes.

The choice of principal axes simplifies the moment equations, and requires
determination of only one set of moments of inertia for the vehicle – at the cost of
complicating the X- and Z-force equations because the axes will not, in general, be
aligned with the lift and drag forces in the equilibrium state. The choice of stability
axes ensures that the lift and drag forces in the equilibrium state are aligned with the Z
and X axes, at the cost of additional complexity in the moment equations and the need
to re-evaluate the inertial properties of the vehicle (Ix, Iz, and Ixz) for each new
equilibrium state.

4.1.2 Force Equations

The equations of motion for the vehicle can be developed by writing Newton’s second law
for each differential element of mass in the vehicle
The force equations can be written as:

Eq(4.1):forces equations

where ( X , Y , Z) are the components of the net aerodynamic and propulsive forces
acting on the vehicle

81
4.1.3 Moment Equations

The vector form of the equation relating the net torque to the rate of change of angular
momentum is

where (L, M, N) are the components of moments about the (x, y, z) body axes, respectively,
of the net aerodynamic and propulsive moments acting on the vehicle. Note that there is no
net moment due to the gravitational forces, since the origin of the body-axis system has
been chosen at the center of mass of the vehicle.

The moment equations can be written as:

Eq(4.2):moments equations

Note that if principal axes are used, so that Ixz = 0, Eqs (4.2) simplify to

Eq(4.3):moment equation at principal axes

4.2 Linearized Equations of Motion
The equations developed in the preceding section completely describe the motion of a flight
vehicle, subject to the prescribed aerodynamic (and propulsive) forces and moments. These
equations are nonlinear and coupled, however, and generally can be solved only

82
numerically, yielding relatively little insight into the dependence of the stability and
controllability of the vehicle on basic aerodynamic parameters of the vehicle.
after making these approximations, subtracting the equilibrium equations, and neglecting
terms that are quadratic in the small perturbations, the force equations can be written

Eq(4.4): Linearized forces Equations

and the moment equations can be written

Eq(4.5): Linearized forces Equations

4.3 Representation of Aerodynamic Forces and Moments

The perturbations in aerodynamic forces and moments are functions of both, the
perturbations in state variables and control inputs. The most important dependencies can
be represented as follows. The dependencies in the equations describing the longitudinal
state variables can be written

Eq(4.6): Aerodynamic Force equations

In these equations, the control variables δe and δT correspond to perturbations from trim
in the elevator and thrust (throttle) settings. Note that the Z force and pitching moment M
are assumed to depend on both the rate of change of angle of attack w˙ and the

83
pitch rate q, but the dependence of the X force on these variables is neglected.
Also, the dependencies in the equations describing the lateral/directional state variables
can be written

Eq(4.7): Aerodynamic moment equations

In these equations, the variables δr and δa represent the perturbations from trim in the
rudder and aileron control settings

Note that the representations in Eq(4.6) and Eq(4.7) are completely decoupled. That is, the
perturbations in longitudinal forces and moments (∆X, ∆Z, and ∆M) depend neither on the
lateral/directional perturbations (v, p, and r) nor the lateral/directional control inputs (δr
and δa); And the perturbations in lateral/directional forces and moments (∆Y, ∆L, and ∆N)
depend neither on the longitudinal perturbations (u, w, w˙, and q) nor the longitudinal
control inputs (δe and δT). This is a good approximation for vehicles with left/right
symmetry. This decoupling is exact for the dependence of the lateral/directional forces and
moments on the longitudinal state variables, since a change in a longitudinal variable, say
angle of attack, cannot produce a change in the side force, rolling moment, or yawing
moment, for a perfectly symmetric vehicle. The decoupling is only approximate for the
dependence of the longitudinal forces and moments on the lateral/directional state
variables, since a change in a lateral/directional variable, say roll rate, produces no change
in axial or vertical force or pitching moment only to within first order for a symmetric
vehicle. Consider, for example, the change in lift force due to roll rate. The increased lift
on the down-going wing is canceled by the decreased lift on the up going wing only to
within the linear approximation.

84
4.4 O6UAV Control Model
When designing a Flight Control System (FCS), 6DOF the system was divided into two
subsystems in form of:

1-longitudinal

thrust and elevator are the main control inputs for the longitudinal system.

2-lateral
aileron and rudder the main control inputs for the lateral system

Dividing the system can be done because none or little coupling exist between the lateral

and longitudinal motion.

Figure 4.2: idealized aircraft

4.4.1 Longitudinal Motion

The equation for the longitudinal motion in form of 𝑋𝑋 . =AX+BU
is given by:

85
 𝛥𝛥𝑢𝑢. 𝑋𝑋𝑢𝑢 𝑋𝑋𝑤𝑤 0 −𝑔𝑔 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥
𝛥𝛥𝑤𝑤 .
𝑍𝑍𝑢𝑢 𝑍𝑍𝑢𝑢 𝑢𝑢0 0 � �𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥 �+
� 𝛥𝛥𝑞𝑞 . �=� 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥
𝑀𝑀𝑢𝑢 + 𝑀𝑀𝑤𝑤 . 𝑍𝑍𝑢𝑢 𝑀𝑀𝑢𝑢 + 𝑀𝑀𝑤𝑤 . 𝑍𝑍𝑤𝑤 𝑀𝑀𝑢𝑢 + 𝑀𝑀𝑤𝑤 . 𝑢𝑢0 0
𝛥𝛥𝛳𝛳 .
0 0 1 0 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥
𝑋𝑋ẟ𝑒𝑒 𝑋𝑋ẟ𝑇𝑇
𝑍𝑍ẟ𝑒𝑒 𝑍𝑍ẟ𝑇𝑇 𝛥𝛥ẟ
� � � 𝑒𝑒 � Eq(4.8)
𝑀𝑀ẟ𝑒𝑒 + 𝑀𝑀𝑤𝑤 . 𝑍𝑍ẟ𝑒𝑒 𝑀𝑀ẟ𝑇𝑇 + 𝑀𝑀𝑤𝑤 . 𝑍𝑍ẟ𝑇𝑇 𝛥𝛥ẟ 𝑇𝑇
0 0
X: force in x-direction
Y: force in y-direction
Z: force in z-direction
L: rolling moment
M: pitching moment
N: yawing moment
p: rate of roll
q: rate of pitch
r: rate of yaw
{u, v, w}: components of velocity

4.4.1.1 Summary of longitudinal derivatives

The longitudinal derivatives can be summarized as:

−(𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 +2𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 )QS −(𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 −𝐶𝐶𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 )𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄

Xu = (s-1) Xw= (s-1)
𝑚𝑚𝑢𝑢0 𝑚𝑚𝑢𝑢0

−(𝐶𝐶𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 +2𝐶𝐶𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 )𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄

Zu= (s-1)
𝑚𝑚𝑢𝑢0

−(𝐶𝐶𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 +2𝐶𝐶𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 )𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄 𝑐𝑐

Zw= (s-1) Zw.=Cz𝑎𝑎̇ 𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄⁄(𝑚𝑚𝑢𝑢0 )(m/s2)
𝑚𝑚𝑢𝑢0 2𝑢𝑢0

Zα=𝑢𝑢0 Zw (m/s2) Zw. =𝑢𝑢0 Zw (m/s2)

𝑐𝑐
Zq = Czq QS/m (m/s2) Zẟe =CZẟe QS/m (m/s2)
2𝑢𝑢0

(𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄) 1
Mu =Cmu ( )
𝑢𝑢0 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑚𝑚 . 𝑠𝑠

(Q𝑆𝑆𝑐𝑐̅) 1 𝑐𝑐̅ Q𝑆𝑆𝑐𝑐̅

Mw =Cmα ( ) Mu. = Cmα. (m-1)
𝑢𝑢0 𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦 𝑚𝑚 . 𝑠𝑠 2𝑢𝑢0 𝑢𝑢0 𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦

Mα = 𝑢𝑢0 Mw (s-2) Mα. = 𝑢𝑢0 Mw. (s-1)

86
 𝑐𝑐̅
Mq = Cmq (Q𝑆𝑆𝑐𝑐̅)/ 𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦 (s-1) Mẟe= Cmẟe (Q𝑆𝑆𝑐𝑐̅)/ 𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦 (s-2)
2𝑢𝑢0

4.4.1.2 Longitudinal Control Derivatives

X Y M

ẟe 1
Cxẟe ρu02S
1
Czẟe ρu02S
1
Cmẟe ρu02S
2 2 2

ẟT 1
Cxẟp ρu02S
1
Czẟp ρu02S
1
Cmẟp ρu02S
2 2 2

Table 4.1: longitudinal control derivatives

Figure 4.3 : control surface deflaction

87
 4.4.1.3 Equations for estimating the longitudinal stability coefficients

X-force Z-force Pitching Moment

derivatives derivatives derivatives

𝑀𝑀2 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑚𝑚
u 𝐶𝐶𝑥𝑥𝑢𝑢 =- 𝐶𝐶𝑧𝑧𝑢𝑢 = -
1−𝑀𝑀2
𝐶𝐶𝑙𝑙0 - 2𝐶𝐶𝑙𝑙0 𝐶𝐶𝑚𝑚𝑢𝑢 =
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
Mo
[CDu+2CDo]+CTu

2𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿0 𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿𝛼𝛼 𝐶𝐶𝑍𝑍𝛼𝛼 =-(𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿𝛼𝛼 − 𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷0 ) 𝑋𝑋𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑋𝑋𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎

α 𝐶𝐶𝑥𝑥𝛼𝛼 =𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿0 - п𝑒𝑒 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
𝐶𝐶𝑚𝑚𝛼𝛼 = 𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 (
𝑐𝑐̅
−
𝑐𝑐̅
) +𝐶𝐶𝑚𝑚𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 -ƞVH𝐶𝐶𝑙𝑙𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 (1-
𝑑𝑑ɛ
)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑ɛ 𝑙𝑙𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑ɛ

𝛼𝛼̇ 0 𝐶𝐶𝑍𝑍𝛼𝛼. =-2ƞ𝐶𝐶𝑙𝑙𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 VH 𝐶𝐶𝑚𝑚𝛼𝛼. =-2ƞ𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 VH
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑐𝑐 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

q 0 𝐶𝐶𝑍𝑍𝑞𝑞 = - 2ƞ𝐶𝐶𝑙𝑙𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 VH 𝐶𝐶𝑚𝑚𝑞𝑞 = -2ƞ𝐶𝐶𝑙𝑙𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 VH

𝑙𝑙𝑡𝑡
𝑐𝑐

αe 0 𝐶𝐶𝑍𝑍ẟ𝑒𝑒 = - 𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿ẟ𝑒𝑒 = -
𝑆𝑆𝑡𝑡
ƞ
𝑑𝑑𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿𝑡𝑡
𝐶𝐶𝑚𝑚ẟ = - ƞ VH
𝑑𝑑𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿𝑡𝑡
𝑆𝑆 𝑑𝑑ẟ𝑒𝑒 𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑ẟ𝑒𝑒

Table 4.2: Estimating the longitudinal stability coefficients

AR: Aspect ratio

VH: Horizontal tail volume ratio
CDo: Reference drag coefficient
M: Flight Mach number
CLo: Reference drag coefficient
S : Wing Area
𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿𝛼𝛼 : Airplane lift curve slope
St : Horizontal tail area
𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 : Wing lift curve slope
𝑑𝑑ɛ
: Change in downwash due to change in angle of attack
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 : Tail lift curve slope
ƞ : Efficiency factor of the horizontal tail
𝑐𝑐̅ : Mean aerodynamic chord

88
 e : Oswald’s span efficiency factor
𝑙𝑙𝑡𝑡 : Distance from center of gravity to tail quarter chord

note:)
Q =0.5ρ(U0)^2 (dynamic pressure)

S:wing area
δe is the deflection of the elevator from trim (down positive)

(δT)or(δp) change in thrust

Xδe and Xδp are the control stability derivatives

4.4.2 Lateral Motion

The equation for the lateral motion in form of 𝑋𝑋 . =AX+BU
is given by:
𝛥𝛥𝑢𝑢. 𝑌𝑌𝑢𝑢 𝑌𝑌𝑝𝑝 −(𝑢𝑢0 − 𝑌𝑌𝑟𝑟 ) 𝑔𝑔 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝛳𝛳0 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥 0 𝑌𝑌ẟ𝑇𝑇
𝛥𝛥𝑝𝑝 .
𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿𝑢𝑢 𝐿𝐿𝑟𝑟 0 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥 𝐿𝐿ẟ 𝐿𝐿ẟ𝑟𝑟 𝛥𝛥ẟ𝑎𝑎
� . �=� 𝑢𝑢 � � �+� 𝑎𝑎 �� � Eq(4.9)
𝛥𝛥𝑟𝑟 𝑁𝑁𝑢𝑢 𝑁𝑁𝑝𝑝 𝑁𝑁𝑟𝑟 0 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥 𝑁𝑁𝑎𝑎 𝑁𝑁ẟ𝑟𝑟 𝛥𝛥ẟ𝑟𝑟
𝛥𝛥Ф. 0 0 1 0 𝛥𝛥Ф 0 0
QS𝐶𝐶𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 -2 𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄𝐶𝐶𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 -2 𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄𝐶𝐶𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 -2
YB = (ft s ) Nβ= (s ) Lβ= (s )
𝑚𝑚 𝐼𝐼𝑧𝑧 𝐼𝐼𝑥𝑥

𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄𝐶𝐶𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑏𝑏2 𝐶𝐶𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛

Yp= (ft/s) or (m/s) Np= (s-1)
2𝑚𝑚𝑢𝑢0 2𝐼𝐼𝑧𝑧 𝑢𝑢0

𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑏𝑏2 𝐶𝐶𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
Lp= (s-1)
2𝐼𝐼𝑥𝑥 𝑢𝑢0

𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄𝐶𝐶𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑏𝑏2 𝐶𝐶𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛

Yr = (ft/s) or (m/s) Nr= (s-1)
2𝑚𝑚𝑢𝑢0 2𝐼𝐼𝑧𝑧 𝑢𝑢0

𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑏𝑏2 𝐶𝐶𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
Lr= (s-1)
2𝐼𝐼𝑥𝑥 𝑢𝑢0

𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄𝐶𝐶𝑦𝑦ẟ𝑎𝑎 𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄𝐶𝐶𝑦𝑦ẟ𝑟𝑟
Yẟa= (ft/s2) or (m/s2) Yẟr= (ft/s2) or (m/s2)
𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚

𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑛𝑛ẟ𝑎𝑎 𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑛𝑛ẟ𝑟𝑟
Nẟa= (s-2) Nẟr= (s-2)
𝐼𝐼𝑧𝑧 𝐼𝐼𝑧𝑧

𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑙𝑙ẟ𝑎𝑎 𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑙𝑙ẟ𝑟𝑟
Lẟa= (s-2) Lẟr= (s-2)
𝐼𝐼𝑥𝑥 𝐼𝐼𝑥𝑥

89
4.4.2.1 lateral Control Derivatives

Y L N

ẟa 1
Cyẟa ρu02S
1
C𝑙𝑙ẟ𝑎𝑎 ρu02Sb
1
Cnẟa ρu02Sb
2 2 2

ẟr 1
Cyẟr ρu02S
1
Clẟr ρu02Sb
1
Cnẟr ρu02Sb
2 2 2

Table 4.3: lateral Control Derivatives

90
 4.4.2.2 Equations for estimating the lateral stability coefficients

Y-force Yawing moment Rolling Moment

derivatives derivatives derivatives

𝑆𝑆𝑢𝑢 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝐶𝐶𝑛𝑛𝛽𝛽 =𝐶𝐶𝑛𝑛𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽 +ƞu Vu 𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿𝛼𝛼𝑢𝑢 (1+ ) 𝐶𝐶𝑙𝑙𝛽𝛽
β 𝐶𝐶𝑦𝑦𝛽𝛽 =-ƞ
𝑆𝑆
𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿𝛼𝛼𝑢𝑢 (1+ )
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐶𝐶𝑙𝑙𝛽𝛽 = � � ᴦ + 𝛥𝛥𝐶𝐶𝑙𝑙𝛽𝛽
ᴦ

𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴+𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐ʌ 𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿 𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 1+3𝜆𝜆

P 𝐶𝐶𝑦𝑦𝑝𝑝 = CL tanʌ 𝐶𝐶𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝 = - 𝐶𝐶𝑚𝑚𝛼𝛼 = -
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴+4𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐ʌ 8 12 1+𝜆𝜆

𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑙 𝐶𝐶𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑙 𝑍𝑍𝑢𝑢
𝑟𝑟 𝐶𝐶𝑦𝑦𝑟𝑟 =-2( 𝑣𝑣)(𝐶𝐶𝛾𝛾𝛽𝛽 )tail
𝑏𝑏
𝐶𝐶𝑛𝑛𝑟𝑟 =-2ƞuVv( 𝑣𝑣)𝐶𝐶𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑎𝑢𝑢
𝑏𝑏
𝐶𝐶𝑙𝑙𝑟𝑟 =
4
-2 𝑣𝑣
𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏
𝐶𝐶𝑦𝑦𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽

ẟa 0 𝐶𝐶𝑛𝑛ẟ𝑎𝑎 = 2K𝐶𝐶𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜 𝐶𝐶𝑙𝑙ẟ𝑎𝑎 𝐶𝐶𝑙𝑙ẟ𝑎𝑎 =

2𝐶𝐶𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑎 𝜏𝜏
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
𝑦𝑦2
∫𝑦𝑦1 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

ẟr 𝐶𝐶𝑦𝑦ẟ𝑟𝑟 =-
𝑆𝑆𝑣𝑣
𝑆𝑆
𝜏𝜏 𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿𝛼𝛼𝑢𝑢 𝐶𝐶𝑛𝑛ẟ𝑟𝑟 = - Vv ƞv 𝜏𝜏 𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿𝛼𝛼𝑢𝑢 𝐶𝐶𝑙𝑙ẟ𝑟𝑟 =
𝑆𝑆𝑣𝑣 𝑆𝑆𝑣𝑣
𝑆𝑆
( ) 𝜏𝜏 𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿𝛼𝛼𝑢𝑢
𝑏𝑏

Table 4.4: Equations for estimating the lateral stability coefficients

AR : Aspect ratio
S : Wing Area
b: wing span
St : Horizontal tail area
CDo: Reference drag coefficient
Sv :Vertical tail area
CLo: Reference drag coefficient
Zv : distance from center of pressure of vertical tail of fuselage
𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿𝛼𝛼 : Airplane lift curve slope
ᴦ : Wing dihedral angle
𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 : Wing lift curve slope

91
𝑑𝑑ɛ
: Change in downwash due to change in angle of attack
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 : Tail lift curve slope
ƞ : Efficiency factor of the horizontal tail
𝑐𝑐̅ : Mean aerodynamic chord
ƞv : : Efficiency factor of the vertical tail
e : Oswald’s spane efficiency factor λ : Taper ratio (tip chord / root chord)
𝑙𝑙𝑡𝑡 : Distance from center of gravity to tail quarter chord
𝑙𝑙𝑣𝑣 : Distance from c.g to vertical tail aerodynamic center
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
: change in sidewash angle with a change in side slip angle
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
VH : Horizontal tail volume ratio
Vv : Vertical volume ratio
M : Flight Mach number

4.5 Matlab and Simulink

The backbone of effectively designing controllers for the UAV is a good simulation
environment. Therefore, MATLAB and SIMULINK was chosen for data analysis and
simulation. Using powerful known software with automatic Real Time Workshop.
Wind tunnel testing and analytical analysis are the basis for obtaining aerodynamic
coefficients and stability derivatives. This data should be sufficient to build the simulation
environment.

4.5.1 Tools used in Simulink:

Figure 4.4: Simulink tools

The longitudinal model can be written as:

Δu. = Xu U+Xw W +0- g ϴ+ Xẟ ẟ + XẟT ẟẟT
Eq(4.10)
Δw . = Zu U+Zw W+U0 Q + 0 + Zẟ ẟ + ZẟT ẟẟT
Eq(4.11)
Δq. =(Mu + Mw. Zu ) U + (Mu + Mw. Zw ) W + (Mu + Mw. u0 ) Q + 0 +(Mẟ + Mw. Zẟ ) ΔẟT +
(MẟT + Mw. ZẟT ) ΔẟT Eq(4.12)

92
Δϴ. = 0 + 0 + Q + 0 + 0
Eq(4.13)
Let:
G0= (MẟT+MW. ZẟT) , G1=(Mẟ+MW. ZẟT) , G2=(Mq+MW. U0) , G3=( Mw+MW. Zw)
,G4=(Mu+MW. Zu) , G5=ZẟT , G6=Zẟ , G7= U0 , G8= Zw , G9=Zu , G10=XẟT ,G11=Xẟ ,G12= -g ,
G13=Xw , G14=Xu .

The lateral model can be written as:

.
V =YV V+YP P-(U0-Yr) R+ g cos(ϴ0) Ф+ 0 +YẟR ẟR
Eq(4.14)
.
P =LV V+LP P+Lr R+ 0 +LẟA ẟA+ LẟR ẟR
Eq(4.15)
.
R =NV V+NP P+Nr R+ 0 +NẟA ẟA+ NẟR ẟR Eq(4.16)
.
Ф=0+P+0+0+0 Eq(4.17)
Let:
G0=NẟR , G1=NẟA , G2=Nr , G3=NP ,G4=NV , G5= LẟR , G6= LẟA , G7= Lr , G8= LP , G9= LV
, G10= YẟR ,G11= g cos(ϴ0) ,G12=-(U0-Yr) , G13= YP,
G14= YV

4.6 O6UAV aerodynamic coefficient:

𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷𝑢𝑢 = 0 𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷𝑜𝑜 = 0.102 𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷𝛼𝛼 = 0.66
𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿𝑢𝑢 = −0.81 𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿𝑜𝑜 = 1.11 𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿𝛼𝛼 = 5.71
𝐶𝐶𝑚𝑚𝑢𝑢 = 0.27 𝐶𝐶𝑚𝑚𝛼𝛼 = −1.26 𝐶𝐶𝑚𝑚𝛼𝛼. = 3.2
𝐶𝐶𝑚𝑚𝑞𝑞 =20.8 𝐶𝐶𝑚𝑚ẟ𝑒𝑒 = −1.34

4.7 O6UAV parameters:

S=0.475 (𝑚𝑚2 ) m=3.747(kg) 𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦 =0.444(kg. 𝑚𝑚2 ) c=𝑐𝑐̅=0.25
𝑢𝑢𝑜𝑜 =50(km/hr)=13.8889(m/s) Q=1250(kg/𝑚𝑚2 . 𝑠𝑠)

4.8 longitudinal matrices

𝑋𝑋𝑢𝑢 𝑋𝑋𝑤𝑤 0 −𝑔𝑔 𝐺𝐺14 𝐺𝐺13 0 𝐺𝐺12
𝑍𝑍𝑢𝑢 𝑍𝑍𝑤𝑤 𝑢𝑢0 0 �=� 𝐺𝐺9 𝐺𝐺8 𝐺𝐺7 0 �
A=�
𝑀𝑀𝑢𝑢 + 𝑀𝑀𝑤𝑤 . 𝑍𝑍𝑢𝑢 𝑀𝑀𝑢𝑢 + 𝑀𝑀𝑤𝑤 . 𝑍𝑍𝑤𝑤 𝑀𝑀𝑢𝑢 + 𝑀𝑀𝑤𝑤 . 𝑢𝑢0 0 𝐺𝐺4 𝐺𝐺3 𝐺𝐺2 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
−2.327 5.134 0 −9.81
−16.086 −66.195 13.8889 0 �
=� 17.59 −72.16
15.35 0
0 0 1 0

and

93
 𝑋𝑋ẟ 𝑋𝑋ẟ𝑇𝑇 𝐺𝐺11 𝐺𝐺10 10 100
𝑍𝑍ẟ 𝑍𝑍ẟ𝑇𝑇 𝐺𝐺6 𝐺𝐺5 −1.58 ∗ 103 0
B=�
𝑀𝑀ẟ + 𝑀𝑀𝑤𝑤 . 𝑍𝑍ẟ 𝑀𝑀ẟ𝑇𝑇 + 𝑀𝑀𝑤𝑤 . 𝑍𝑍ẟ𝑇𝑇
�=� 𝐺𝐺1 𝐺𝐺0 �=� −5.2 ∗ 104 0 �
0 0 0 0 0 0

4.9 Simulink model for simulating the longitudinal motion

Figure 4.5: longitudinal model

4.9.1 O6UAV response:

Figure 4.6: rate of pitch

94
Figure 4.7: velocity in X-direction

Figure 4.8: velocity in Z-direction

95
4.10 Designing a controller for pitch motion
4.10.1 Physical setup and system equations

The equations governing the motion of an aircraft are a set of six nonlinear coupled
differential equations. However, under certain assumptions, they can be decoupled and
linearized into longitudinal and lateral equations.
Aircraft pitch is governed by the longitudinal dynamics, and we will design an autopilot
that controls the pitch of an aircraft.
The basic coordinate axes and forces acting on an aircraft are shown in the figure given
below.

Figure 4.9: coordinates axes and forces

We will assume that the aircraft is in steady-cruise at constant altitude and velocity; thus,
the thrust, drag, weight and lift forces balance each other in the x- and y-directions.
We will also assume that a change in pitch angle will not change the speed of the aircraft
under any circumstance. Under these assumptions, the longitudinal equations of motion
for the aircraft can be written as follows.

α' = µ ϭ Ω [-(Cl+ CD) α + (ƿ / (µ - Cl)) – (Cw sin ɣ ) θ + Cl ]

q' = (µ Ω /2*iyy) [[CM - η (Cl + CD)] α + [CM + ϭ CM (1 - µ Cl)] q + (η
Cw sin ɣ) δ ]
θ' = Ω q

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4.10.1.1 System Variables:
α = Angle of attack. q = Pitch rate.

θ = Pitch angle. δ = Elevator deflection

angle.

. ƿ = Density of air.
S = Platform area of the wing. C' = Average chord length.
m = Mass of the aircraft.
U = Equilibrium flight speed. Ct = Coefficient of thrust.
CD = Coefficient of drag. Cl = Coefficient of lift.
Cw = Coefficient of weight. CM = Coeff. of pitch
moment.

ɣ = Flight path angle. = Constant.

iyy = Normalized moment of inertia. = Constant.

These values are taken from the data of our O6UAV.

ƿ = 1.225 kg/m^3 C' = 0.25 m U = 50km/h m = 3.747

S = 0.4015 m^2 ɣ = 15 deg iyy = 0.8204 Cl = 1.2

CD = 0.05 Cw = 36.758 CM = 1 Ct = 1

For this system, the input will be the elevator deflection angle ( ) and the output will be
the pitch angle ( ) of the aircraft.

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4.10.2 Transfer function and state-space models
Before finding the transfer function and state-space models, let us plug in some numerical
values to simplify the modeling equations shown above:
α '= -4.0621 α -2.7265q +31.271 δ
q'= 1.62402 α +3.2496 q +0.236 δ
𝜃𝜃 ′ = 400*q

a- Transfer function
To find the transfer function of the above system, we need to take the Laplace transform
of the above modeling equations. Recall that when finding a transfer function, zero initial
conditions must be assumed. The Laplace transform of the above equations:
sA(s) = -4.0621A(s) -2.7265Q(s) +31.271
sQ(s) = 1.62402A(s) +3.2496Q(s) +0.236
θ(s) =400Q(s)

After few steps of algebra, we can obtain the transfer function but it does not matter
now.

b- State space
Recognizing the fact that the modeling equations above are already in the state-variable
form, we can rewrite them as matrices as shown below.
α′ −4.0621 −2.7265 0 α 31.271
�q ′� = � 1.62402 3.2496 0� � � + � 0.236 � δ
q
θ′ 0 400 0 θ 0

Since our output is pitch angle, the output equation is the following.
α
y= [ 0 0 1 ] �𝑞𝑞 �
θ

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4.10.3 Design requirements
We will design a feedback controller so that in response to a step command of pitch angle
the actual pitch angle overshoots less than 10%, has a rise time of less than 2 seconds, a
settling time of less than 10 seconds, and a steady-state error of less than 2%.
For example, if the reference is 0.2 radians (11 degrees), then the pitch angle will not
exceed approximately 0.22 rad, will rise from 0.02 rad to 0.18 rad within 2 seconds, will
settle to within 2% of its steady-state value within 10 seconds, and will settle between
0.196 and 0.204 radians in steady-state.

Overshoot less than 10%

Rise time less than 2 seconds
Settling time less than 10 seconds
Steady-state error less than 2%

4.10.4 MATLAB representation

Now, we are ready to represent the system using MATLAB. To generate the state-space
model described above, instead enter the following commands at the command line.
A = [-4.0621 -2.7268 0; 1.62402 3.2496 0; 0 400 0];
B = [31.271; 0.236; 0];
C = [0 0 1];
D = [0];
pitch_ss = ss(A, B,C,D)

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a- Simulink model:

To provide a appropriate step input at t=0, double-click the Step block and set the Step
time to "0". Also set the Final value to "0.2" to represent the 0.2-radian reference we are
assuming.

Figure 4.10: Simulink block diagram

Figure 4.11: State space function block

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 Figure 4.12: System response without feedback

This response is unstable. In order to view a stable response, we will now quickly add the
state-feedback control gain K. Recall that this gain was designed using the Linear
Quadratic Regulator method and resulted in a calculation of K = [-0.6435 169.6950
7.0711].

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 Figure 4.13: Simulink block diagram state-feedback control gain K

Figure 4.14: System response with feedback K

Examination of the above demonstrates that the rise time, settle time, and overshoot
requirements are all met.

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However, the steady-state error requirement is not met since the response does not settle
to within 2% of the commanded reference of 0.2 radians.
This deficiency was addressed by adding a constant PR compensator Nbar = 7.0711 to
scale the output to the desired level.
This PR compensator can be implemented by adding a Gain block. Insert the block
between the Step block and the Sum block.

Figure 4.15: Simulink block diagram with a constant PR compensator Nbar

Figure 4.16: System response with precompensator Nbar

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The addition of the precompensator succeeded in driving the steady-state error to zero
such that now all of the given requirements are satisfied.

b- System robustness
The precompensator is calculated based on a model of the plant and is located outside of
the feedback loop such that the output of the summing junction in the above model is no
longer the true error.
Therefore, if there are errors in the model or an unknown disturbance, the
precompensator will not correct for them and there will be steady-state error.
In order to investigate this phenomenon, let's add a disturbance to our model. The
disturbance is generated by a Step block with the Final value set to "0.2" and the Step
time set to "3". The disturbance is modeled as entering the system in the same manner as
the control input .

Figure 4.17: Simulink block diagram while adding a disturbance

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 Figure 4.18: System response after adding a disturbance

The occurrence of the disturbance at a time of 3 seconds drives the system away from the
desired steady-state value of 0.2 radians and the presence of the constant precompensator
is not able to correct for the effect of the disturbance. You may recall that the addition of
integral control can help correct for uncertainty, such as this disturbance.

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c- Automated PID tuning with Simulink
As mentioned above, adding integral control to our compensator can help to reduce the
steady-state error that arises due to disturbances and model uncertainty. It is possible to
extend the state vector to include a state for the integral of error and reapply the State-
Space techniques we employed previously. Rather, we will implement a PID controller
assuming only the output is measured. Furthermore.

Figure 4.19: Simulink block diagram while adding a PID Cont.

Figure 4.20: PID controller function block

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The default values of the PID controller can be manually modified to balance the
system's performance and robustness.

Figure 4.21: System response with PID Tuning

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Figure 4.22: System response after adding a disturbance

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 Chapter 5
O6UAV CONTROL

5.1 introduction
The basic principles of why and how airplanes fly apply to all planes, from the Wright
Brothers' first machine Wright Flyer to a modern Stealth Bomber, and those principles are
the same for radio control and full size airplanes alike.
Although the true physics of flying airplanes are quite complex, the whole subject can be
simplified a bit - enough for us to get a fundamental understanding of what makes a plane
fly, at least!

5.2 Aerodynamic forces.

Essentially there are 4 aerodynamic forces that act on an airplane in flight; these are lift,
drag, thrust and weight (i.e. gravity).
In simple terms, drag is the resistance of air molecules hitting the airplane (the backward
force).
thrust is the power of the airplane's engine (the forward force)
lift is the upward force and weight is the downward force.
So for airplanes to fly and stay airborne, the thrust must be greater than the drag and the
lift must be greater than the weight (so as you can see, drag opposes thrust and lift opposes
weight).
This is certainly the case when an airplane takes off or climbs. However, when it is in
straight and level flight the opposing forces of lift and weight are balanced. During a
descent, weight exceeds lift and to slow an airplane drag has to overcome thrust.
The picture below shows how these 4 forces act on an airplane in flight:

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 Figure 5.1: airplane forces

Thrust is generated by the airplane's engine (propeller or jet), weight is created by the
natural force of gravity acting upon the airplane and drag comes from friction as the plane
moves through air molecules. Drag is also a reaction to lift, and this lift must be generated
by the airplane in flight. This is done by the wings of the airplane.
The generation of lift has been an argued theory in the past, but certain principles have
been known about and agreed on for a long time now.
A cross section of a typical airplane wing will show the top surface to be more curved than
the bottom surface. This shaped profile is called an 'airfoil' (or 'aerofoil') and the shape
exists because it's long been proven (since the dawn of flight) that an airfoil generates
significantly more lift than opposing drag i.e. it's very efficient at generating lift.
During flight air naturally flows over and beneath the wing and is deflected upwards over
the top surface and downwards beneath the lower surface. Any difference in deflection
causes a difference in air pressure ('pressure gradient') and because of the airfoil shape the
pressure of the deflected air is lower above the airfoil than below it. As a result the wing

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is 'pushed' upwards by the higher pressure beneath or, you can argue, it is 'sucked' upwards
by the lower pressure above.
One of the argued, but commonly discounted, theories of lift generation is related to
Newton's 3rd Law of Action & Reaction, whereby the air being deflected downwards off
the lower surface of the wing creates an opposite reaction, effectively pushing the wing
upwards. This may well be the case but it's the pressure difference between both surfaces
that is the commonly agreed factor of lift generation.

Figure 5.2: airfoil

The faster a wing moves through the air, so the actions are exaggerated and more lift is
generated. Conversely, a slower moving wing generally creates less lift.
It's important to note, though, that different wing designs (airfoil and shape) generate lift
more (and less) efficiently than other designs at different speeds, depending on what the
plane has been designed for.
A direct reaction to lift is drag and this too increases with airspeed. So airfoils need to be
designed in a way that maximizes lift but minimizes drag, in order to be as efficient as
possible.

5.3 Angle of Attack and lift.

Another crucial factor of lift generation is the Angle of Attack - this is the pitch angle at
which the wing sits in relation to the relative airflow around it.

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As the Angle of Attack increases so more lift is generated, but only up to a point until the
smooth airflow over the wing starts to break down and so the generation of lift cannot be
sustained; this point is called the critical Angle of Attack.
When the AoA is reached the sudden loss of lift results in the wing stalling and the weight
of the airplane cannot be supported any longer.
When a stall occurs a sudden loss of altitude is inevitable unless the pilot rectifies the
situation immediately by decreasing the AoA and getting the wing to generate lift once
again. Typically a stall recovery means simultaneously pushing the nose of the plane down
and increasing power to gain airspeed.

5.4 Airplane control surfaces.

For an airplane to fly in a controlled manner, control surfaces are necessary. The 4 main
surfaces are ailerons, elevators, rudder and flaps as shown below:

Figure 5.3: control surfaces

To understand how each works upon the airplane, imagine 3 lines (axis - the dashed lines
in the picture above) running through the plane. One runs through the center of the fuselage
from nose to tail (longitudinal axis), one runs from side to side (lateral axis) and the other

112
runs vertically (vertical axis). All 3 axis pass through the Centre of Gravity (CG), the
airplane's crucial point of balance.

When the airplane is in forward flight it will rotate around each axis when movement to
any control surface is made by the pilot. The table below shows the appropriate actions...

Table 5.1 airplane motion

The following sections explain how each control surface effects the airplane. It's important
to understand that all control surfaces work in the same way, in that they alter the camber
(airfoil shape) of the complete flying surface. This, in turn, changes the forces acting on
the surfaces and so that surface reacts in accordance with the change in force. The force in
question is best known to us as lift, but this particular force occurs in any direction - not
just upwards.

5.4.1 Ailerons.

Figure 5.4: Ailerons

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Located on the trailing edge (rear) of the wing, the ailerons control the airplane's roll about
its longitudinal axis. Each aileron moves at the same time but in opposite directions i.e.
when the left aileron moves up, the right aileron moves down and vice versa.
This movement causes a slight decrease in lift on the wingtip with the upward moving
aileron, while the opposite wingtip experiences a slight increase in lift. Because of these
subtle changes in lift the airplane is forced to roll in the appropriate direction i.e. when the
pilot moves the stick left, the left aileron will rise and the airplane will roll left in response
to the change in lift on each wing.
The ailerons are controlled by a left/right movement of the control stick, or 'yoke'.

5.4.2 Elevators.

Figure 5.5: Elevators

The elevators are located on the rear half of the tail plane, or horizontal stabilizer. The job
of the tail plane is to generate a downward force to counteract the natural nose-diving
tendency of planes, which happens as a result of the natural forces that are generated about
a plane's Centre of Gravity and Centre of Lift.
As the elevators are deflected up or down, so the amount of down force changes and this
results in the airplane's nose pitching up or down; up elevator means more down force, so
the plane pitches up, and vice versa.
However, pitching the nose up doesn't necessarily mean the plane will climb. In fact it's
quite possible to be flying level, or even descending, with a nose-up attitude. Only when
power is added and speed increased, will the plane climb with up elevator.

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Elevators are the single most important control surface of a plane, and they effect the
airplane's airspeed more than the need to climb or dive.

5.4.3 Rudder.

Figure 5.6: Rudder

The rudder makes up the rear portion of the vertical stabilizer, or fin, and is controlled by
2 pedals at the pilot's feet. When the pilot pushes the left pedal the rudder moves to the left,
while depressing the right pedal deflects the rudder to the right. The rudder works in the
same way as ailerons and elevators, in that it changes the airflow over the fin. Essentially,
you can think of a fin as a vertical wing. The air flowing over it and the rudder acts in
exactly the same way as it does flowing over a wing and aileron - except the forces are
vertical and not horizontal. Deflecting the rudder to the left increases the air pressure on
the left side of the fin and rudder, and so the whole back end of the plane is pushed across
to the right, thus yawing the nose to the left.

5.5 Throttle.
Throttle controls the speed of the engine and hence how fast or slow the propeller turns.
On a glow plug (or petrol) RC airplane engine the throttle works the same as any internal

115
combustion engine throttle, by changing the amount of fuel and air that enters the
combustion chamber of the engine. The carburettor is operated by a single servo connected
to the venturi of the carb, which opens and closes (thus changing the fuel/air mixture) in
response to your throttle stick movements on the transmitter.

Figure 5.7: Throttle

In the air throttle/motor power not only controls the forward speed of the airplane but also,
more importantly, the rate of climb and descent, because different amounts of lift are
generated at different airspeeds. For example, if your landing approach path is too low you
can make the airplane rise slightly without changing speed much, simply by opening the
throttle instead of using up elevator. Conversely, closing the throttle will cause the airplane
to sink before the speed reduces. Using throttle/motor power in this way is the correct way
to fly your rc airplane, but many pilots use the elevator to control altitude and rates of climb
and descent rather than engine speed.

5.6 Control surface mixing.

5.6.1 Elevons,
When elevators and ailerons are combined together on a flying-wing or delta type plane.
Elevons move up and down together, as elevators do, and individually, as ailerons do. In
short, one pair of elevons does the job of elevators and ailerons.

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5.6.2 Ruddervators
are the control surfaces found on 'V' tail airplanes - like elevons except that rudder and
elevator control is combined, rather than aileron and elevator.
5.6.3 Flaperons
are control surfaces that mix the actions of ailerons with flaps. In other words, one pair of
control surfaces along the trailing edge of the wing take on the job of aileron control and
flap control, when needed.
5.6.4 Spoilerons
are, in effect, the inverted version of flaperons. Spoilers are often found on large rc gliders
and operate by the control surfaces moving upwards as opposed to flaps that drop down.
When spoilerons are deflected, the amount of lift is drastically reduced and so the glider's
rate of descent quickly increases, enabling the pilot to land it in a smaller space. There are
other types of rc airplane control mixing too, but those listed above are by far the most
common that you'll encounter.

5.7 Autopilot System

In terms of hardware, a flight controller is essentially a normal programmable
microcontroller, but has specific sensors on board these sensors are:
5.7.1 Accelerometer

Figure 5.8: Accelerometer

Accelerometers are devices that measure acceleration, which is the rate of change of the
velocity of an object. They measure in meters per second squared (m/s2) or in G-forces (g).
A single G-force for us here on planet Earth is equivalent to 9.8 m/s2.

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5.7.2 Gyroscope

Figure 5.9: mechanical Gyro

Gyroscopes, or gyros, are devices that measure or maintain rotational motion.

Figure 5.10 electronic gyro

5.8 Ardupilot Mega(APM)

the flight controller we used in this project and containing these sensors called
ARDUPILOT MEGA (APM2.8).

Figure 5.11: Ardupilot

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it is a professional quality IMU autopilot that is based on the Arduino Mega platform. This
autopilot can control fixed-wing aircraft, multi-rotor helicopters, as well as traditional
helicopters. It is a full autopilot capable for autonomous stabilization. Supporting 8 RC
channels with 4 serial ports.
5.8.1 APM Features
• Free open source autopilot firmware that supports planes, multicopters (tri, quad,
hex, oct, etc), traditional helicopters and ground rovers!
• Simple setup process and firmware loading via a point-and-click utility. No
programming required! (But if you do want to fiddle with the code, you can with
the easiest embedded programming toolkit available: Arduino)
• Full mission scripting with point-and-click desktop utilities
• Two-way telemetry and in-flight command using the powerful MAVLink protocol
• Autonomous takeoff, landing and special action commands such as video and
camera controls
• 4MB of onboard data-logging memory.
• Built-in hardware failsafe processor, can return-to-launch on radio loss

5.8.2 APM Software

the software used to communicate with APM is called MISSION PLANNER Mission
Planner is a full-featured ground station application for the ArduPilot open source autopilot
project.
Mission Planner can be used as a configuration utility. Here are just a few things you can
do with Mission Planner:
• Load the firmware into the autopilot
• Setup, configure, and tune your vehicle for optimum performance.

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 Figure 5.12 main window for mission planner
5.8.3 APM Firmwares
Mission planner offers a lot of firmwares for APM these firmwares are:
• APM Plane - for fixed wing aircraft
• APM Copter - for multicopters and traditional helicopters
• APM Rover - for land vehicles and boats
• APM Sub - for ROVs and underwater vehicles

Figure 5.13 firmware’s main window

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5.8.4 First Time Setup
a) choosing the firmware
In our project we will choose the fixed wing firmware by clicking on the fixed wing icon from the firmwares
main window
b) connect everything
• connect the receiver of the remote control at the input pins of APM
• connect the control surfaces servos to the output pins of the APM

Figure 5.14 receiver

Figure 5.15 input pins

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 Figure 5.16 receiver pins

Figure 5.17 servos connection diagram

c) Calibrate Radio Transmitter
The first tab that will open will be the radio calibration screen. Please make sure that your
receiver has power (via APM), and your transmitter is on. When you move the sticks on
your transmitter you should see the green bars move accordingly. If they are not, please
make sure your receiver has power. If you notice that any channels are reversed, you can
either tick the reverse button on the planner, or change the settings on your radio
(suggested)

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 Figure 5.18 Calibrate Radio Transmitter window

d) Choosing your Flight Modes

You can choose different flight modes that you can change while you are flying with your
RC transmitter (channel 5). Some radios don't have a 6 position switch, so you may only
be able to use 2 or 3 modes. If you mix some channels you can use more flight
modes. Toggle your channel 5 switch to see which mode you are currently in (indicated
by the green highlighted mode)

Figure 5.19 flight modes window

e) calibrating accelerometer
• Under Initial Setup | Mandatory Hardware, select Accel Calibration from the
left-side menu

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 Figure 5.20 Accel Calibration window
• Click Calibrate Accel to start the calibration and Mission Planner will prompt
you to place the vehicle each calibration position. (front, back, left, right, top and
bottom)
• When you’ve completed the calibration process, Mission Planner will display
“Calibration Successful!” as shown below.

Figure 5.21: Successful calibration window

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5.9 Remote control system
remote control system is needed to control the motion of O6UAV in the air

Figure 5.22: Remote control

5.10 Flight test

Figure 5.23: take off

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Figure 5.24: cruse

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 Chapter 6
Virtual reality
6.1 Introduction
6.1.1 What is X-Plane?
X-Plane is the world’s most comprehensive and powerful flight simulator for personal
computers, and it offers the most realistic flight model available.
X-Plane is not a game, but an engineering tool that can be used to predict the flying
qualities of fixed- and rotary-wing aircraft with incredible accuracy.

6.1.2 How X-plane works?

X-Plane works by reading in the geometric shape of any aircraft and then figuring out
how that aircraft will fly. It does this by an engineering process called “blade element
theory”, which involves breaking the aircraft down into many small elements and then
finding the forces on each little element many times per second. These forces are then
converted into accelerations, which are then integrated to velocities and positions.

6.1.3 Why we use X-plane?

Because X-Plane predicts the performance and handling of almost any aircraft, it is a
great tool for pilots to keep up their currency in a simulator that flies like the real plane,
for engineers to predict how a new airplane will fly, and for aviation enthusiasts to
explore the world of aircraft flight dynamics.
X-Plane contains subsonic and supersonic flight dynamics, allowing users to predict the
flight characteristics of the slowest aircraft or the fastest.

6.2 Customizing X-Plane

Make the simulator truly your own by making custom scenery and aircraft. while X-Plane
includes the Plane Maker program to customize aircraft, and World Editor for scenery.

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6.2.1 Introduction to Plane Maker
Plane Maker is a program bundled with X-Plane that lets users design their own aircraft.
Using this software, nearly any aircraft imaginable can be built. Once all the physical
specifications of the airplane have been entered (e.g., weight, wing span, control
deflections, engine power, airfoil sections, etc.), the X-Plane simulator will predict how
that plane will fly in the real world; it will model the aircraft’s performance just like it
does for X-Plane’s built-in aircraft.

6.2.2 An Overview of the Plane Maker Workflow

There are as many different ways to go about working in Plane Maker as there are aircraft
designers. The following steps, though, serve as a good workflow sequence to start from
when modeling in Plane Maker:
Decide on a design.
Create the fuselage, wings, and tail of the aircraft.
Create secondary objects, such as landing gears and engine nacelles.
Set up the systems and internal properties, including the engines, electrical systems, weight
and balance, and viewpoints.
Set up any additional features of the aircraft, such as added weapons or special controls.
Create a 2-D instrument panel.
Test-fly the aircraft in X-Plane and fine-tune the features of the aircraft from steps 2–6 as
needed.
Add textures, 3-D objects, extra liveries, etc

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6.2.2.1 Decide on design
In our project, we choose Solid Work 3D CAD software to draw our airplane and decided
on our design

Figure 6.1: Drawing sheet

6.2.2.2 Create the fuselage, wings and the tail of aircraft.

6.2.2.2.1-Drawing the Fuselage

To begin work on a fuselage, open the Standard menu and click Fuselage, as seen
in Figure 6.2. There are three tabs across the top of the Fuselage dialog box, seen
in Figure 6.3. In order, these are Section, Top/Bottom, and Front/Back.

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 Figure 6.2: Clicking Standard –> Fuselage

Figure 6.3: The three tabs across the top of the Fuselage dialog box

a-The Cross-Sections Box

The Cross-Sections box shows slices of the aircraft’s fuselage. There is one slice of the
fuselage for the number of stations set in the Body Data box, each slice in a gridded,
white box, as seen in Figure 6.4. Each of these slices is composed of the number of points
you specified in the “number radii/side” parameter in the Body Data box. Since most
designs warrant the maximum of nine radii per side, each of your slices will probably be
composed of nine points.

Figure 6.4: The Cross-Sections box

b-The Top/Bottom Tab
The Top/Bottom tab of the Fuselage dialog box displays the fuselage’s cross-sectional
“slices” stitched together in three different views; that is, it shows the top, side, and bottom

130
views of the complete fuselage formed from the cross-sections. (Recall that these cross-
sections may initially be laid out in the Section tab, described in the preceding section of
the manual.)

Figure 6.5: Using scale drawings to lay out the points of a fuselage

Figure 6.6: The Final Result of our Fuselage

6.2.2.2.2 – Shaping the Wing
Wings in Plane Maker are composed of individual wing sections. A very simple wing might
be made up of a single wing section, while a very complex wing might be made up of four
or more wing sections. Each wing section can have control surfaces added, such as ailerons,

131
elevators, or flaps. Furthermore, each wing section can have its cross-sectional shape (its
airfoil) set independently of other sections

Figure 6.7: Clicking Standard –> Wings

Figure 6.8: The Foil Specifications Parameters

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 Figure 6.9: The Wing Span

6.2.2.2.3 – Creating the Tail Unit

A typical aircraft tail is made up of a horizontal stabilizer and a vertical stabilizer. With
this in mind, there are two vertical stabilizer sections and a single horizontal stabilizer
wing section available in the Wings dialog box (launched from the Standard menu).
These wing sections are shaped just like a standard wing, as described in the previous
section

Figure 6.10: The Vertical Tail

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 Figure 6.11: The Horizontal Tail

6.2.2.3 Create secondary objects, such as landing gears and engine

nacelles.
6.2.2.3.1-Shaping the Landing Gear
The landing gear is created using the Landing Gear dialog box, which is opened from the
Standard menu

.
Figure 6.12: Clicking Standard –> Landing Gear

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A-Setting the Gear’s Type, Size, and Position
Landing gears come in a variety of configurations, ranging from simple metal skids, to a
single wheel, to groups of many wheels. Any landing gear needs to have its position on the
aircraft specified, and if the gear is retractable, it must have a retracted position that is
different from its extended position. The gear also must have a size—both its tire size and
its strut length.
These properties of the gear are defined using the first tab of the Landing Gear dialog box,
labeled Gear Loc (that is, gear location). In this tab, you can create up to ten different gears.
Each gear has a column dedicated to setting its properties

Figure 6.13: Gear Location

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 Figure 6.14: Gear Data
6.2.2.3.2-Adding Engine Nacelles
An engine in X-Plane is primarily a point from which thrust is generated: propellers are no
more than spinning, thrust-producing blades. To create the body of the engine (like the tip
of the propeller), you must add an engine nacelle. Figure 6.14 shows the parts of a propeller
which would be modeled as nacelles in Plane Maker. Like every surface in X-Plane, these
nacelles will have both visual and aerodynamic consequences.

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 Figure 6.15: Tip of the Propeller
6.2.2.4 Set up the systems and internal properties, including the engines,
electrical systems, weight and balance, and viewpoints.
6.2.2.4.1-Creating the Engines
The aircraft’s engine, along with any related propellers, thrusters, and so on constitute its
propulsion sub-system.
To begin creating an aircraft’s engine, open the Standard menu and click Engine Specs.
The Location tab of the Engine Specs dialog box is the best place to start. There, you can
set the number, type, location, and other properties of both the engines and propellers. The
parameters available here will vary depending on what type of engine(s) you choose.

Figure 6.16: Clicking Standard –> Engine Specs

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6.2.2.4.2-Type of Engine, its Location and Specs
(Injected recip)- An internal combustion, reciprocating (piston) engine used to drive a
propeller. It uses a fuel injector to mix air with fuel at high pressure. Fuel-injected engines
are far more common today than carbureted ones, due partly to their increased reliability.

Figure 6.17: Type of Engine and Location

6.2.2.4.3-Description of Engine and propeller

After setting the engine’s location and the basic features of its propeller, you can set the
details of its engine performance, such as its horsepower and the RPM for various modes.
Most of these details for a propeller-driving engine are set in the box labeled “Prop Engine
Specs,” located in the Engines dialog box’s Description tab and shown in Figure 6.16 Other
engine details, like the maximum throttle and the critical altitude, are common to all engine
types, and are described in the section

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 Figure 6.18: Description Engine and Prop specs
6.2.2.5-Creating an Instrument Panel
Creating a basic 2-D instrument panel in Plane Maker is as easy as choosing a panel
background image and dragging the instruments you want where you want them.
Creating panels that use generic (user-created) instruments are more complicated

Figure 6.19: cockpit panel

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6.2.2.6-Add textures, 3-D objects, extra liveries, etc.
An aircraft in Plane Maker may have a paint job applied to it by telling Plane Maker how
to drape an image file over its model, or you can use 3-D objects (as might be created in
Blender, Maya, 3ds Max, etc.) attached to various points of the aircraft to achieve a much
higher quality appearance.
To create this starting-point texture, open the Special menu and click Output Texture
Map Starting Points. This will create two PNG files. The second file may not have any of
the aircraft’s bodies outlined in it- depending on your use of the “use second texture”
checkboxes in the Visual Texture Regions dialog box.

Figure 6.20: shows the starting-point image file created for our plane

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These image file(s) will be saved in your aircraft’s folder with the proper names. The first
image will be called [ACF file name] _paint.png. The second image will be called [ACF
file name] _paint2.png. Note that in order for Plane Maker and X-Plane to find the image
textures, they must keep these names.
If you want to customize the starting point texture layout before exporting the starting-
point texture, we will be working by Photoshop or paint program as shows in figure 6.19

Figure 6.21: customize texture using (paint)

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6.2.2.7-Performing a Test Flight
At some point-any point you choose, really-you will need to bring your aircraft into
X-Plane and test it out. A typical test flight might include:
checking all control surface movements (by switching to an external view and giving full
deflection in each direction for all controls), Noting the aircraft’s ability to fly straight-and-
level (how much trim it requires, etc.), confirming that the center of gravity feels like it is
where it should be, and Checking the lift and drag vectors (by pressing the keyboards / key
by default) and confirming that they appear as expected.

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Figure 6.22: Test flight

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 CHAPTER 7
MANUFACTURING & CAD

7.1 Description
The airframe of a fixed-wing aircraft consists of five principal units are:

1) Fuselage

2) Wings

3) Stabilizers

4) Flight control surfaces

5) Landing gear

Figure 7.1: Airplane labels

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7.1.1 Fuselage
The fuselage is the main structure or body of the fixed-wing aircraft. It provides space for
cargo, controls, accessories, and other equipment. In single-engine aircraft, the fuselage
houses the power plant.

Figure 7.2: Fuselage Body

Figure 7.3: Fuselage Dimension

7.1.1.1 Fuselage parameters:

Fuselage Length 1.73 m 5.688 ft

Depth 0.18 m 0.59 ft
width 0.95 m 3.11 ft
Table 7.1: fuselage parameters

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7.1.2 Wing

Wings are airfoils that, when moved rapidly through the air, create lift. They are built in
many shapes and sizes. Wing design can vary to provide certain desirable flight
characteristics.
Control at various operating speeds, the amount of lift generated, balance, and stability all
change as the shape of the wing is altered.
Both the leading edge and the trailing edge of the wing may be straight or curved, or one
edge may be straight and the other curved.
One or both edges may be tapered so that the wing is narrower at the tip than at the root
where it joins the fuselage.
The wing tip maybe square, rounded, or even pointed.
-The wing consists of two symmetric parts, each part contains 13 ribs

Figure 7.4: wing

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 Figure 7.5: wing and ribs
7.1.2.1 Airfoil
-The chosen airfoil is NACA GOE 387 that satisfy our mission is with the following
specifications:
-Deep camber - High lift -low speed-Thick wing section

Figure 7.6: airfoil

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 Figure 7.7: Airfoil Dimension

7.1.2.2 Wing & Airfoil Parameters Table:

Wing
Span 1.90 m 6.233 ft
Area 0.4015 m2 4.322 ft2
Dihedral 3 degree

Airfoil Chord 0.25m 0.82 ft

Table 7.2: Wing & Airfoil Parameters

7.2 Tail unit:

The tail unit consists of the two units, horizontal tail unit and vertical tail unit. Horizontal
tail unit consists of horizontal stabilizer and elevator. Vertical tail unit consists of vertical
stabilizer and rudder.

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7.2.1 Horizontal tail unit

Figure 7.8: horizontal tail

Figure 7.9: horizontal tail dimensions

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7.2.2 Vertical tail unit

Figure 7.10: vertical tail unit

Figure 7.11: vertical tail dimension

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7.3 Different views for the airplane ( Top , SideView , Front )

Figure 7.12: Airplane Views

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7.4 O6UAV Specifications:

SI Units Imperial Units

Wing Span 1.90 m 6.233 ft
chord 0.25 m 0.82 ft
Aspect ratio 9
Sweep 0 degree
Dihedral 3 degree
twist 0 degree
Area 0.4015 m2 4.322 ft2

Fuselage Length 1.73 m 5.688 ft

Depth 0.18 m 0.59 ft
Width 0.95 m 3.11 ft
Mass Empty 3.150 Kg 6.945 lbs
Max.TO (design) 3.747 Kg 8.261 lbs
Payload 0.5 Kg 1.1016 lbs
Fuel load 0.1084 Kg 0.2392 lbs
Engine Model O.S.Max75AX
1.5 hp @10,000
Power output
r.p.m
1.274 lbs
Weight
0.578 Kg
Performance Maximum Allowable 60 Km/hr 37.282 Mph
Speed

Cruise Speed - 75% 50 Km/hr 31.06 Mph

Power
Stall Speed 37.5 Km/hr 23.3 Mph
Maximum Operating 200 m 656.168 ft
Altitude
Range 1 Km 3280 ft

Table 7.3: Aircraft Data Specification

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7.5 Introduction
The design of the UAV is first discussed follow by building the 3D CAD model, the
material selection and manufacturing method selection. Then the fabrication process of
fuselage, wing and landing gear are discussed in detail. Problems faced during the
manufacturing process are also included.

7.6 Computer-aided design of aircraft

In our project, we choose Solid Work 3D CAD software to draw our airplane. The
SOLIDWORKS CAD software is a mechanical design automation application that lets
designers quickly sketch out their ideas, experiment with features and dimensions, and
produce models and detailed drawings.

Figure 7.13: airplane CAD model

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7.7 Material Selection
The material selected to fabricate the UAV is essential, as this will determine the success
or failure of the whole project. This is as the structure UAV must be built lightly but with
enough strength to withstand all forces acting on it. Besides that, the overall structure has
to be strong to withstand all odd events that may happen during flight mission. Material
selected for the UAV must be light, strong and cost reasonable and therefore material
selection for the UAV is one of the hardest parts in the whole project.

[Rated from 1 (the best) to 5(the worst)]

Aluminum Balsa Stainless Carbon Iron

Wood steel Rod

Manufacturability 3 1 5 5 5
Cost 4 1 5 5 3
Strength 2 5 1 3 1
Weight 2 1 5 5 5
Manufacturing 4 1 5 5 5
Cost

Easy Available 2 1 5 5 4
Total score 17 10 26 28 23
Table 7.4 Material Selection
Based on the table above, balsa wood is the ideal material to construct our frame. The only
drawback of balsa wood is that its strength is not strong as compared to metal form
materials. However, in terms of manufacturability, balsa wood rated one, which is the best
among all compared material.

154
 Figure 7.14: Balsa wood
Balsa wood is cheap compared to aluminum, stainless steel, carbon rod,
and iron. The lightest weight among all materials is balsa wood.
The cost for manufacturing of balsa is low as it is soft and can be crafted manually
without any machine.

7.8 Manufacturing Method Selection

CNC machining is preferred for the fabricated process of the UAV. This is because CNC
machining has high accuracy in every aspect of cutting, milling and drilling. However, the
cost of CNC machining is very high that cannot be affordable due to budget constrain.Since
the material that are going to be used in the fabrication process are EPS foam, balsa wood,
3-ply hardened plywood and other nonmetallic material, it is decided that manual
handwork will be used to fabricate UAV. Therefore, no fabrication cost will be included
expect material costing

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 Figure 7.15: CNC Laser cutter machine

7.9 Designing the UAV

7.9.1 Fuselage Design

The unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) fuselage is to be designed into main sections:
a- The front section is the payload bay. This is the area for imaging device
(High-end imaging camera with supporting equipment is supporting device for downlink
with wiring and computer systems) to be mounted in the UAV.

b- The back section will be the wing box of the UAV. Wing box is a crucial for UAV
fuselage as this is the part where the wings will be mounted on. The wing must withstand
the lift force of the wings and UAV during takeoff, descent, turning and even the side
force during flight mission.

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c- Fuselage sides have manufactured and gathered together by putting wood
sections between them in specific places and carefully pasted to ensure their
cohesion.

Figure 7.16: Fuselage CAD drawing

Figure 7.17: Fuselage sides gathering

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 Figure 7.18: Fuselage manufacturing process

7.9.2 UAV wing design

Wings of unmanned aerial vehicles according to its destination vary in airfoil shape,
thickness, chords dimensions, span, surface area and geometry.
CAD model of wing was used to obtain mold model. Next, using CAM software, G-code
was generated for CNC milling machine.

Wing consists of two parts, each one contains 13 airfoil of type NACA GOE 387

a- Airfoil shape
The chosen airfoil is NACA GOE 387 that satisfy our mission

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 Figure 7.19: Airfoil CAD drawing

Figure 7.20: Airfoil Manufacturing

b- Flaperons
Flaperons are ailerons which can also act as flaps, they are fixed by hinges on the wing
body and moved by servo motors to control roll motion of the airplane

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 Figure 7.21: Flaperons manufactured with motor

c- Wing dimensions

Wing Span 1.90 m 6.233 ft

chord 0.25 m 0.82 ft
Aspect ratio 9
Sweep 0 degree
Dihedral 3 degree
twist 0 degree
Area 0.4015 m2 4.322 ft2

Table 7.5 Wing dimensions

The abovementioned phase concerns calculation of wing main dimensions based on the
project assumptions and selected airfoil and main wing dimensions: span, root and tip
chords, twists, dihedrals and airfoil distribution are established.

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First step of creating wing construction was cutting wing parts using the laser cutter CNC
machine

Second step was attaching balsa wood ribs in order to obtain desired shape and geometry.

Figure 7.22: Wing Manufacturing

Third step was covering the upper and lower surface.

Figure 7.23: Wing Manufacturing (Covering)

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7.9.3 Tail Unit
The Tail Unit of the UAV gives the whole aircraft stability in a similar way such that
feathers work on arrows. UAV Tail Unit incorporating vertical and horizontal stabilizing
surfaces, which stabilizes the flight dynamics of, pitch and yaw, as well as housing
control surfaces.

a- Horizontal tail unit

Figure 7.24: Horizontal Tail CAD drawing

Figure 7.25: Manufactured Horizontal Tail

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b- Vertical tail unit

Figure 7.26: Vertical tail CAD drawing

Figure 7.27: Vertical tail manufacturing

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  References
• Dynamics of Flight: Stability and Control 3rd Edition by
Bernard Etkin
• Flight Stability and Automatic Control 2nd Edition by Robert
Nelson
• Aircraft - Airplane Design - 7 Volumes Dr Jan Roskam
• ANSYS Training Manual

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