SUGAR GLIDERS
Natural History/Behavior
The sugar glider (Petaurus breviceps) is native to northern and eastern
Australia, New Guinea, and surrounding islands. They inhabit woodlands
and forests, are arboreal and largely nocturnal. They shelter by day in leaf-
lined nests inside of tree hollows.
Sugar gliders resemble flying squirrels in form, having a large gliding
membrane. They are able to glide up to 50 meters, and have been observed
to leap at and catch insects in flight. Gliders are mainly insectivorous,
feeding on insects, larvae, arachnids, and small vertebrates for the most of
the year; sap, blossoms, and nectar only during the wet season (winter).
Sugar gliders are social and produce a variety of sounds. Wild groups
nest in colonies of up to seven adult males, females, and their young. During
winter gliders will huddle together to conserve energy, and may
simultaneously enter a daily torpor during cold weather when food is scarce.
Groups are exclusive and territorial: newly introduced individuals may be
attacked by established members.
Sugar gliders are polygamous. One or two dominant, older males are
usually responsible for most of the territorial maintenance as well as
fathering of the young. A complex system of chemical communication exists
based upon the scents produced by glands on the back of the head, chest, and
genitalia. Each individual has its own characteristic scent. The dominant
male actively marks other members of the group with his scent. Gliders will
urine-mark their territory.
The natural breeding season for wild sugar gliders in Australia is June
to November. Females are polyestrous, cycling every 29 days. A female may
produce a second litter during the breeding season if the first is lost.
However in tropical habitats and in captivity, there seems to be no definite
breeding season. The exportation of sugar gliders has been banned in
Australia since 1959.
Sugar gliders breed readily in captivity and they gained popularity in
the US in the late '90s. Due to their social nature, captive gliders should be
kept in groups of two or more. They are most active in the evenings and
early mornings, and should get most of their social interaction during this
period. Solitary gliders will require socialization periods of at least two
hours a day. They will bond readily with their owners, who often carry them
around in fleece glider-pouches, or close to the body, under clothing.
Captive-bred joeys adopted between 7-12 weeks "out-of-pouch" are the
easiest to socialize. Gliders make loud screeching noises ("crabbing") when
they frightened or excited. They also "bark" or quietly "chatter" for
attention.
Anatomy
Scent glands are involved in group recognition and communication
among gliders. Males have frontal and sternal scent glands. Females have
scent glands in their pouch. Both have paracloacal glands, which produce a
white oily secretion when frightened.
The tail is weakly prehensile: gliders collect leaves by hanging from
the hind feet, grabbing leaves with the front feet and passing them to the tail,
which can coil around and grasp leaves to be used for nest building. The tail
also acts as a rudder during gliding.
A gliding membrane (patagium) extends from the forefoot to the
ankle. There are five digits on each foot. All contain a sharp claw except the
first digit (hallux) on each hind foot, which is opposable. Digits two and
three on the hind foot are identical in length and partially fused
(syndactylous) to form a grooming "comb."
Female sugar gliders have a well-developed, mid-abdominal pouch
which contains four teats. The adrenal glands of females are twice the size of
male adrenals on the basis of weight.
The cloaca is the common opening for the rectum, urinary, and genital
ducts. The cloacal temperature averages 32°C (89.6°F), which is lower than
the actual core body temperature.
Typical marsupials possess marsupial bones (ossa marsupialla) which
articulate which the pelvis and serve as an attachment for abdominal
musculature. These are absent in the sugar glider.
The teeth are brachydont (short crown compared to root). The dental
formula is: 6 top/4 bottom (incisors), 2 top/0 bottom (canine), 6 top/6 bottom
(premolar), 8 top/8 bottom (molar) = 40. The incisors are specialized for
gouging the bark of trees. Sugar gliders possess an enlarged cecum that may
assist in digesting gum from acacia trees.
Female sugar gliders have two uteri and two long, thin lateral vaginae
that open into a single cul-de-sac divided by a septum. When engorged the
bifid clitoris may be visible, protruding from the cloaca.
Testes of male are permanently descended in the pendulous, pre-
penile scrotum. The penis is bifid. The prostate and cowpers glands are
large.
Physiologic/Reproductive Data
Adult weight: 80-160 gm; females smaller than males
Adult body length: about 12.7 cm (5 in)
Total length, including tail: about 28 cm (11 in)
Longevity: 12-14 years in captivity
Body temp: average 32°C (89.6°F)
Heart rate: 200-300 beats/min
Respiratory rate: 16-40 breaths/min
Sexual maturity: female at 8-12 mo; male 12-14 mo; can reproduce until
over 10 yrs old
Estrous cycle: 29 days (seasonally polyestrous); breed all year in captivity
Mating: usually occurs in the evening
Gestation: 16 days, fetus then migrated to pouch
Litter size: one (19%) or two (89%)
Litters/yr: 1-2 in the wild; up to 4 litters/yr in captivity (not recommended)
A sugar glider joey weighs only 0.19 gm and is 5 mm long at birth. It
crawls to pouch (marsupium), where it stays attached to the nipple for 40
days. It first releases the nipple at 40 days, but stays inside until 70 days,
when it first emerges. From 70 days on, the joey leaves the pouch for more
and more time. Weaning occurs at 110-120 days of age, and joeys are
independent by 17 weeks.
Marsupial metabolism is thought to be about two thirds of placental
(eutherian) mammals and the heart rate is usually about one-half the rate that
is seen in eutherians of similar size. During periods of cold or food scarcity
sugar gliders conserve energy by going into torpor (semi-hibernation) for
periods of up to 16 hours per day.
Housing
Sugar gliders need as large an enclosure as possible to allow space to
climb, run, jump, and glide. A large, tall, aviary-type wire cage is ideal.
Wire spacing should be no more than 2.5x1.3 cm (1x0.5 in). Warn owners
that zinc-containing wire is potentially toxic if it is consumed. A hide-box or
sleeping pouch should be placed high up in the cage. Gliders need non-toxic
tree branches (e.g., manzanita, cholla), perches, and shelves to climb on. To
provide additional enrichment place bird toys, swings, and a solid running
wheel (w/out rungs, to avoid injury) at elevated positions within the cage.
Sugar gliders should be housed as pairs or groups due to their social
nature. Keeping a single glider is not recommended as clinical depression
may result. Placing the glider cage in a high-traffic area such as the family
room will provide additional socialization.
Sugar gliders can tolerate environmental temperatures of 18.3-32.2°C
(65-90°F) however the ideal range is 24-27°C (75-80°F). Do not place them
in drafty areas, in direct sunlight, or where temperatures fluctuate widely.
Sugar gliders that are too cold will become torpid and difficult to rouse.
Most collections will need some form of supplemental heat (infrared heat
lamp, ceramic heat emitter) in order to prevent cold-stress.
Cage substrate should be hardwood shavings, recycled paper, corn
cob, or shredded paper. Avoid pine and cedar shavings. The cage, nest box,
and bedding should be kept very clean in order to avoid fur-pulling and self-
mutilation. Do not allow frayed fabric, string, rope, or towels to be placed in
the cage: gliders occasionally get tangled in these.
Nutrition
The natural diet of sugar gliders includes insects, spiders, worms,
small mammals, eggs, nestling birds, tree sap, nectar, and blossoms. In spite
of published advice to the contrary, wild sugar gliders do not rely heavily on
fruit, vegetables, nuts, grains or seeds. Pet gliders will readily accept these
items, however, to the exclusion of healthy foods.
Sugar gliders are largely insectivorous. Their captive diet should
include greater than 50% protein (insects, hardboiled egg with shell,
newborn mice, lean meat, high quality cat food, monkey chow), and 50%
fruit sugars and gums (fresh nectar, honey, acacia gum, gum Arabic,
commercial lory diet, Glideraide).
A popular alternative to the above approach is to feed equal parts of a
homemade diet mixture (Leadbeater's mixture) and a commercial
insectivore/carnivore diet (see below).
In either case, small amounts of various fresh fruits, vegetables, baby
food, dairy products and other items are occasionally offered as treats. All
food should be offered fresh in the evening. A small amount of
vitamin/mineral powder (i.e., Repcal, Herptivite) should be applied to any
fruit or insects given. Provide additional calcium during breeding and
lactation.
Provide fresh food and water daily. Place food bowls and water/nectar
sippers high in the cage, not on the cage floor.
Examination/Restraint
Sugar gliders can be scruffed or held around the thorax, wedging the
thumb between the sternum and chin to avoid being bitten. The examination
can be accomplished in part with the glider in a towel. Once captured, the
glider can be transferred over to the opposite hand, allowing the towel to be
removed. A cursory examination may be all that is possible with the glider
awake. Auscultation (listening to the internal sounds of the body, usually
using a stethescope) will often be hampered by constant "crabbing" noises.
Common Conditions
Nutritional disorders
The majority of clinical problems in sugar gliders can be attributed to
improper diet and husbandry. Signs include: lethargy, weakness,
debilitation, hypothermia, weight loss, dehydration, muscle wasting, anemia,
hypocalcemia, hyproteinemia, blindness, cataracts, ataxia, tremor, tetany,
rear-limb paresis/paralysis, neurological signs, reluctance to move, inability
to support own weight, osteoporosis, pathologic fracture. Secondary
infections are common. Diagnosis is by clinical symptoms, a review of diet
and husbandry, and standard tests. Treatment involves general supportive
care and correction of underlying dietary problems.
Hind limb paralysis syndrome appears to be a result of nutritional
secondary hyperthyroidism. Affected gliders present with sudden onset of
hind limb paresis or paralysis. Tremors or tetany may be observed. Spinal
trauma and nutritional deficiency are differentials. Radiographs may reveal
long bone, pelvic, and vertebral osteoporosis. Bloodwork may reveal
hypocalcemia. Clinical history commonly consists of a diet mostly of fruit
and vegetables, muscle meat and insects, without a source of supplemental
calcium.
Obesity: Obesity occurs with excessive dietary fat or lack of exercise.
This can lead to heart or liver disease as in other species. Treatment for
obesity includes diet modification and increased exercise.
Cataracts: Juvenile cataracts can appear if the mother is pushed for
breeding or fed a diet too rich in fat or sugars. The incidence of cataracts
may be higher in handfed joeys. Vitamin A deficiency, genetics, and
maternal pouch infection are also potentially involved. A thorough physical
exam of the dam and any breeding or genetic records may help in the
prevention of cataracts.
Traumatic injuries
Trauma such as cuts, punctures, and fractures are common. Falls may
occur because of generalized weakness. Gliders are susceptible to bite
wounds from dogs, cats, and ferrets. Secondary infections can be deadly.
Household hazards include drowning in toilets/tubs, chewing on electrical
cords, being stepped or sat upon, being shut in a window or door, and
landing on light bulbs or other hot surfaces. Because of their prominent eyes,
corneal trauma occurs easily. Constricting injuries from frayed fabric are
common; remove tattered or stringy fabrics from the glider cage. Injuries
and trauma are diagnosed and treated the same as other small mammals.
Respiratory disease
Respiratory infections sometimes occur during weaning, shipping,
overcrowding, change of ownership, diet/husbandry changes and other
stressful periods. Many different bacteria have been associated with
symptoms.
Gastrointestinal disease
Diarrhea, constipation, impaction, and rectal prolapse have all been
reported. Diagnosis is based upon standard testing as in other mammals:
fecal floatation and direct smear, Gram staining, stool culture, radiography.
Differential diagnosis should include dietary and husbandry problems,
parasites, protozoal and bacterial infections.
Treat constipation with enemas and stool softeners. Severe impactions
can occur if there has been insufficient roughage in the diet (e.g., excessive
dry cat food). Those that result in megacolin carry a poor prognosis. Rectal
prolapses can be temporarily reduced with vertical sutures, ensuring that the
urogenital slit remains patent.
Clostridium piliforme infection, Giardiasis, coccidiosis, and
cryptosporidiosis have all been diagnosed in captive sugar gliders
Stress-related disease
Stress in gliders can present in numerous ways: self-mutilation of the
tail, limbs, or genitalia; aggressive behavior; eating disorders (coprophagy,
hyperphagy, polydipsia); cannibalism of young; fur-pulling/alopecia;
stereotypic behavior/pacing. Such disorders may be associated with
isolation, overcrowding, unnatural social structure, sexual frustration,
unsanitary conditions, or a perceived threat.
Treatment is by removing the causative factors. Keep cats, dogs, pet
birds out of the immediate cage vicinity. Provide proper nutrition and good
hygiene, normal social grouping, adequate cage space, appropriate nesting
areas and cage accessories. Mature males that mutilate their penis or scrotum
should be castrated.
Pouch disorders
Pouch prolapse is occasionally seen. Consider mastitis, bacterial, or
yeast infections. Over cleaning or other behavioral cause may be considered.
Dental disease
Periodontal disease and tartar buildup will occur in gliders fed only
soft, carbohydrate-rich diets. Treat by scaling teeth while under general
anesthesia, and treat gingivitis with systemic antibiotics (only under the
advisement of your veterinarian). In advanced cases of tooth decay or tooth
fracture, extraction may be indicated. Incisor removal risks symphysial
fracture. Adjusting diet and providing analgesia are palliative.
Parasites
A self-mutilation syndrome has been described which is associated
with aberrant migration of a duodenal nematode. Central nervous system
signs may result. Various nematodes, tapeworms, mites, lice, and fleas are
all potential parasites of sugar gliders. Diagnosis is based upon clinical
signs, fecal, and skin/fur samples.
Supportive Care
Nutritional support can be provided by hand feeding a formula of 50%
chicken baby food and 50% high-calorie enteral formula (Ensure Plus). Try
to tempt gliders with live gut-loaded insects or other favorites. Estimate
intake needed at 2.5% of body weight and adjust upward based upon results.
Provide supplemental heat to stressed or sick gliders. Carefully
regulate to between 80-85°F. Do not assume a cool or sluggish glider is in
shock or near death.
Preventative Medicine
An annual checkup and examination of stool for parasites is
recommended. Closely examine the oral cavity and teeth. Review the diet
and husbandry. Nails will need constant trimming. Perform CBC, chemistry,
radiographs as indicated.
Additional Detail
Leadbeater's mixture (should consist of 50% of dietary intake):
150 ml warm water
150 ml honey
1 hard-boiled with shell on
25 gm high protein baby cereal
1 tsp vitamin/mineral supplement
Mix warm water and honey. In a separate container, blend egg until
homogenized; gradually add honey/water, then vitamin/mineral powder,
then baby cereal, blending after each addition until smooth. Keep
refrigerated or frozen until served.
Nectar diets
Nekton-Lori, NektonUSA, Inc., St. Petersburg, FL
813-381-5800, www.nekton.de
Avico Glideraide, Cuttlebone Plus, San Marcos, CA
760-591-4951, www.cuttleboneplus.com
Gum Arabic
Gum Arabic #76-3503, Country Kitchen SweetArt, Fort Wayne, IN
800-497-3927, www.countrykitchensa.com
Vitamin/mineral powder
Rep-Cal (phosphorus free calcium with Vit. D powder), and
Herptivite (multivitamin, multimineral supplement), RepCal Research
Labs, Los Gatos, CA 800-406-6446, www.repcal.com
Sugar Glider and Insectivore diets
Brisky Sugar Glider Diet, Brisky Pet Products, Franklinville, NY
800-462-2464, www.brisky.com
Mazuri Insectivore Diet-5MK8, Mazuri,
800-227-8941, www.mazuri.com
Insectivore-Fare, Reliable Protein Products, Palm Desert, CA
760-321-7533, www.zoofood.com
Summary
Pet sugar gliders often do not receive the social structure, diet, or
environmental conditions necessary for maintaining optimal health. When
diagnosing and treating this interesting species, the diet and husbandry
should be critically evaluated.
As with all marsupials, sugar gliders exhibit unique reproductive
anatomy and physiology. In most respects, however, surgical and medical
treatments of sugar gliders are not very different from those in other
mammals. Supportive care such as heat, fluids, and hand feeding are as
important as drug therapy and surgery.
