The Department of Civil Engineering

Faculty of Engineering

Laboratory Manual For

Environmental Engineering

Prof. Ahmed . N. A. Bdour

Eng. Nisrein M. A. Al-Qutaish

 TABLE OF CONTENT

TABLE OF FIGURE……………………………………………………………………………iii

LABORATORY SAFETY GUIDELINES……………………………………………………..v

EXPERIMENT #1: DETERMINATION OF CHLORIDE …………..……………….………1

EXPERIMENT #2: DETERMINATION OF RESIDUAL CHLORINE………….………..….4

EXPERIMENT #3: DETERMINATION OF TOTAL HARDNESS…………………….…….7

EXPERIMENT #4: DETERMINATION OF CALCIUM HARDNESS ………………………10

EXPERIMENTS #5: DETERMINATION OF ALKALINITY ………………….…………….13

EXPERIMENT #6: DETERMINATION OF ACIDITY ………………………………………18

EXPERIMENT #7: DETERMINATION OF CONDUCTIVITY………………..………….....21

EXPERIMENT #8: DETERMINATION OF TURBIDITY……………………………………23

EXPERIMENT #9: DETERMINATION OF TOTAL SOLID….……………………………..26

EXPERIMENT #10: JAR TEST EXPERIMENT…..………………………………………….29

EXPERIMENT #11: CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (COD)………………………….…31

EXPERIMENT #12: DETERMINATION OF DISSOLVED OXYGEN (DO)….……………35

EXPERIMENT #13: DETERMINATION OF BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND…….40

ii
 TABLE OF FIGURE

Figure 1.1: Apparatus required for Chloride experiment …………………………….........2

Figure 1.2: Procedure of Chloride experiment ....................................................................2
Figure 2.3:Apparatus required for Residual chlorine experiment…………………………5
Figure 2.4: Procedure for Residual chlorine experiment…………………………………..5
Figure 3.5: Apparatus required for Total hardness experiment ...........................................8
Figure 3.6: Procedure of Total hardness experiment ...........................................................8
Figure 4.7: Apparatus required for calcium hardness experiment ......................................10
Figure 4.8: Procedure of calcium hardness experiment ......................................................11
Figure 5.9: Apparatus required for Alkalinity experiment ………………………………..14
Figure 5.10: Procedure of Alkalinity experiment ................................................................15
Figure 6.11: Apparatus required for Acidity experiment.....................................................19
Figure 6.12: Procedure of Acidity experiment…………………………………………….19
Figure 7.1: Apparatus of Conductivity experiment ….........................................................21
Figure 7.2: Procedure of Conductivity experiment ….........................................................22
Figure 8.1: Schematic view of a Nephelometric instrument................................................23
Figure 8.2: Apparatus for Turbidity experiment .................................................................24
Figure 8.3: Procedure of Conductivity experiment .............................................................25
Figure 9.1: Apparatus for Turbidity experiment .................................................................26
Figure 9.2: Procedure of Conductivity experiment . ...........................................................27
Figure 10.1: Coagulation-Sedimentation Diagram . ...........................................................29
Figure 7.2: Apparatus for Jar test experiment .. ..................................................................30
Figure 7.3: Turbidity Vs. Cougulation dosage.. ..................................................................30
Figure 11.1: Apparatus required for COD...............................................................………31
Figure 11.2: Procedure for COD experiment ...............................................................…...33
Figure 12.1: Dissolved Oxygen meter .................................................................................36

iii
Figure 12.13: Apparatus required for DO ...........................................................................37
Figure 12.14: Procedure of DO experiment. ......................................................................38
Figure 12.1: Apparatus required for BOD experiment........................................................40
Figure 12.2: Procedure of BOD experiment. ......................................................................43

iv
 LABORATORY SAFETY GUIDLINES
Never attempt to carry out an experiment without knowing the safety rules and
procedures. Determine the potential hazards of all chemicals and any other appropriate
information on chemicals, equipment and procedures. Remember laboratory safety is a full time
job, all day and every day.

GENERAL SAFETY

1. No smoking in the laboratory.

2. No food or drinks in the laboratory.
3. No using laboratory glassware in your food.
4. Don’t play in the laboratory
5. Lab coats and gloves must be worn at all times. Avoid chemical contact on skin.
6. No children in the laboratory.
7. Never work alone.
8. Only enclosed shoes are to be worn in the laboratory. No sandals.
9. Keep work area clean and uncluttered.

CHEMICAL HAZARDS

1. Know the hazards of chemicals you are using.

2. Don’t touch, drink, eat and smell any of chemicals.
3. Don’t drink from distilled water.
4. Hands should be washed after contact with hazardous materials and before leaving.
5. Use fume hood if noxious gases are involved.
6. Dilute acids in the fume hood. Always add acid to water. DO NOT add water to acid.
7. Do not pipette by mouth.

EQUIPMENT SAFETY

1. Calibrate all equipment prior to use.

2. Laboratory equipment is expensive and care should be taken when using it.
3. Don’t operate equipment if you are not familiar with.
4. Return all chemicals and supplies to the proper location after use.
5. Clean glassware with water and laboratory detergent, and let it to dry.
6. No experiment is complete until the laboratory is cleaned.

v
 EXPERIMENT #1: DETERMINATION OF CHLORIDE

1.1 AIM

To determine the chlorides concentrations present in given water sample.

1.2 INTRODUCTION

Chlorides are widely distributed as salts of calcium, sodium and potassium in water and
wastewater. In potable water, the salty taste produced by chloride concentrations is variable and
dependent on the chemical composition of water. The major taste producing salts in water are
sodium chloride and calcium chloride. The salty taste is due to chloride anions and associated
cations in water. Chlorides associated with sodium (Sodium Chloride) exert salty taste when its
concentration is more than 250 mg/L and this is the limit of chloride concentration in public
water supplies. On the other hand, a typical salty taste may be absent even if the water is having
very high chloride concentration for example 1000 mg/L. This is because the predominant cation
present in the water is not sodium but either calcium or magnesium may be present.

In many areas of the world where water supplies are scarce, sources containing as much
as 2000 mg/L are used for domestic purposes without the development of adverse effect, once
the human system becomes adapted to the water.

The measured chloride ions can be used to know salinity of different water sources. For
brackish water (or sea water or industrial brine solution), it is used to determine the type of
desalting of apparatus required and to control pumping of ground water from locations where
intrusion of seawater is a problem. It also interferes with COD determination.

1.3 PRINCIPLE

The amount of chloride present in water can be easily determined by titrating the given
water sample with silver nitrate solution. After all the chloride has been precipitated as white
silver chloride, the first excess of titrant results in the formation of a silver chromate precipitate,
which signals the end point (1). The reactions are:

The end of titration is indicated by formation of red silver chromate from excess silver
nitrate.

1
1.4 Materials Required

1.4.1 Apparatus required

1. Burette
2. Pipette
3. Conical flask
4. Measuring cylinder
5. Funnel

1.4.2 REAGENTS

1. Silver nitrate
2. Potassium chromate indicator Figure 1.15: Apparatus required for Chloride experiment
2.5 PROCEDURE

1. Take 20 mL of the sample in a clean 250mL conical flask

2. Adjust pH to be between (7.0 and 8.0) either with sulpheric acid or sodium hudroxide
solution.
3. Add 1 mL of Potassium Chromate indicator to get light yellow color
4. Titrate the sample against silver nitrate solution until the color changes from yellow to
brick red. i.e., the end point.
5. Note the volume of Silver nitrate added (VS).
6. Repeat the procedure for distilled water and note the volume of silver nitrate (VB).

*End point: Changing the color from yellow to brick red

Figure 1.16: Procedure of Chloride experiment

2
2.6 DATA SHEET

DETERMINATION OF CHLORIDE DATA SHEET

Date Tested: August 30, 2010

Tested By: CEM Class, Group A

Project Name: CEM, NITTTR Lab

Sample Number: BH1

Sample Location: Perungudi (Lat 12’ 57’’ 31.74 & Long 80’14’’ 8.82)

Sample Description: Surface water

TABULATION

3
 EXPERIMENT #2: DETERMINATION OF RESIDUAL CHLORINE

2.1 AIM

To determine the amount of total residual chlorine present in the given sample of
chlorinated water by starch Iodide method

2.2 INTRODUCTION

Water chlorination is the process of adding chlorine as a gas (Cl2) or as sodium

hypochlorite solution (NaOCl) or solid calcium hypochlorite (Ca(OCl)2 to water. This method is
used to kill certain bacteria and other microbes in tap water as chlorine is highly toxic. In
particular, chlorination is used to destroy or deactivate disease-producing microorganism in the
public water supplies and polluted water.

When chlorine is added to water, some of the chlorine reacts first with organic materials
and metals in the water and is not available for disinfection (this is called the chlorine demand of
the water). The remaining chlorine concentration after the chlorine demand is accounted for is
called total chlorine. Total chlorine is further divided into: 1) the amount of chlorine that has
reacted with nitrates and is unavailable for disinfection which is called combined chlorine and, 2)
the free chlorine, which is the chlorine available to inactivate disease-causing organisms, and
thus a measure to determine the potability of water.

Residual chlorine is the amount of chlorine that remains in the water after a certain period
or contact time.

2.3 PRINCIPLE

Chlorine will liberate free Iodine from Potassium Iodide solution at pH 8.0 or less. The
liberated Iodine is titrated against standard sodium thiosulphate (Na2S2O3) with starch as
indicator. This Iodometric Method used for total chlorine testing at levels above 1 mg/l Cl2.

4
2.4 Materials Required

2.4.1 Apparatus required

1. Burette
2. Pipette
3. Conical flask
4. Spatula
5. Balance
6. Funnel

2.4.2 REAGENTS

1. Concentrated Acetic acid

2. Potassium Iodide, KI, crystal Figure 2.17:Apparatus required for Residual chlorine
3. Sodium Thiosulphate (0.025N) experiment
4. Starch solution

2.5 PROCEDURE

1. Take 200ml of sample in an Erlenmeyer

flask
2. Add 5ml of Acetic acid to bring pH (3.0 to
4.0)
3. Add 1g of potassium iodide and mix
thoroughly. Yellow color is obtained
4. Titrate against standard sodium thiosulphate
solution in the burette until a pale yellow
color is obtained
5. Add 1ml of starch indicator and continue the
titration till the blue color disappears.
6. Note down the volume (V1)

*End point: Disappearance of blue color Figure 2.18: Procedure for Residual chlorine
experiment

5
2.6 DATA SHEET

DETERMINATION OF RESIDUAL CHLORINE DATA SHEET

Date Tested: August 30, 2010

Tested By: CEM Class, Group A

Project Name: CEM, NITTTR Lab

Sample Number: BH1

Sample Location: Perungudi (Lat 12’ 57’’ 31.74 & Long 80’14’’ 8.82)

Sample Description: Surface water

TABULATION

6
 EXPERIMENT #3: DETERMINATION OF TOTAL HARDNESS

3.1 AIM

To determine the hardness of the given sample by EDTA Titrimetric method

3.2 INTRODUCTION

Hard water is water that has high mineral content (in contrast with "soft water"(. Scaling
of hot water pipes, boilers and other household appliances is due to hard water and it cause’s
excessive consumption of soap used for cleaning. Hard water is not seriously harmful to human
health its useful to growth of children due to the presence of calcium and magnesium is an
essential nutrient for plants.

Total hardness is determined by the multivalent cations' concentrations present in water.

The most common cations present in hard water are Mg2+ and Ca2+.

Total hardness is defined as the sum of the calcium and magnesium concentrations, both
expressed as calcium carbonate in mg/L.

when hard water is heated, Ca2+ ions react with bicarbonate (HCO3−) ions to form
insoluble calcium carbonate (CaCO3) (Equation 1). This precipitate, known as scale, coats the
vessels in which the water is heated, producing the mineral deposits on your cooking dishes.
(Equation 2) presents magnesium hardness.

Ca2+(aq) + 2HCO3−(aq) ⇋ CaCO3(s) + CO2 (aq) + H2O(l) Eq. 1

Mg2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) ⇋ Mg(OH)2(s) Eq. 2

3.3 PRINCIPLE

In alkaline conduction, Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (abbreviated EDTA) reacts with

Ca and Mg to form a soluble chelated complex. If a small amount of dye such as Eriochrome
black T (abbreviated EBT) is added to an aqueous solution containing small calcium and
magnesium ions at a pH of a 10±0.50 the solution become wine red. When EDTA is added as a
titrant, Ca2+ and Mg2+ divalent ions get complexes resulting in a sharp change from wine red to
blue which indicates end-point of the titration.
.

7
3.4 Materials Required

3.4.1 Apparatus required

1. Burette
2. Pipette
3. Conical flask
4. Measuring cylinder
5. Funnel

2.4.2 REAGENTS

1. EBT (Erichrome Black T) indicator

2. Ammonia buffer solution
Figure 3.19: Apparatus required for Total hardness
3. EDTA(Ethylenediaminetetraacetic
experiment
acid)

3.5 PROCEDURE

1. Pipette 20mL of water sample and transfer it to a clean 250mL conical flask.
2. Add 2mL of Ammonia buffer solution to the water sample so that the pH will be
maintained between (9 and 10).
3. Add few drops of EBT indicator to the
conical flask and the sample turns to wine
red in color.
4. Before starting the titration rinse the
burette with few mL of EDTA. Fill the
burette with 0.02M EDTA solution and
adjust to zero then fix it in burette stand.
5. Titrate the sample against the EDTA
solution in the burette till all calcium and
magnesium ions present in the sample
reacts with the EDTA. The appearance of
blue color indicates that all Ca & Mg ions
are complexes with EDTA and forms a
metal EDTA complex i.e., the end point of
the titration.
6. Note down the burette reading Figure 3.20: Procedure of Total hardness experiment
*End point: Changing color from wine red
to blue

8
2.6 DATA SHEET

DETERMINATION OF Total Hardness DATA SHEET

Date Tested: August 30, 2010

Tested By: CEM Class, Group A

Project Name: CEM, NITTTR Lab

Sample Number: BH1

Sample Location: Perungudi (Lat 12’ 57’’ 31.74 & Long 80’14’’ 8.82)

Sample Description: Surface water

9
 EXPERIMENT #4: DETERMINATION OF CALCIUM HARDNESS

4.1 AIM

To determine the calcium hardness of the given sample by EDTA Titrimetric method

4.2 INTRODUCTION

Water hardness is an expression for the sum of the calcium and magnesium cations
concentration in a water sample. Calcium hardness is the estimation of hardness due to calcium
in water.

The presence of calcium in water results from deposits of lime stone, gypsum etc.

Calcium is one of the principal cations involved in water hardness. These cations form
insoluble salts with soap and decrease the cleaning effectiveness of soap.

4.3 PRINCIPLE

The quantity of calcium in water will be determined by titrating the water sample with a
standard Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (abbreviated EDTA) of known volume and conc.

An indicator, ammonium purpurate which combines only with calcium is used. The
indicator imparts a pink color to the solution while there are calcium and magnesium ions that
have not complexes with EDTA. Once the endpoint has been reached and there is no more
uncomplexed Ca or Mg, the solution will turn to purple color.

4.4 Materials Required

4.4.1 Apparatus required

1. Burette
2. Pipette
3. Conical flask
4. Measuring cylinder
5. Funnel

4.4.2 REAGENTS

1. Ammonium Purpurate indicator

2. Sodium hydroxide
3. EDTA (Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid) Figure 4.21: Apparatus required for calcium
hardness experiment

10
4.5 PROCEDURE

1. Pipette 20mL of water sample and transfer it to a clean 250mL conical flask.
2. Add 2mL of Sodium hydroxide solution to the water sample so that the pH will be
maintained between 12 and 13.
3. Add few drops of Ammonium Purpurate indicator to the conical flask and the sample
turns into pink color. This color change is due to the calcium and magnesium contents
present in water.
4. Before starting the titration rinse the burette with few mL of EDTA. Fill the burette
with 0.02M EDTA solution and adjust to zero then fix it in burette stand.
5. Titrate the water sample against the EDTA solution in the burette till all calcium and
magnesium ions present in the sample reacts with the EDTA to form a metal EDTA
complex by changing the color of the sample to purple. i.e., the end point.
6. Note down the burette reading

*End point: Changing color from pink red to purple

Figure 4.22: Procedure of calcium hardness experiment

11
4.6 DATA SHEET

DETERMINATION OF Calcium Hardness DATA SHEET

Date Tested: August 30, 2010

Tested By: CEM Class, Group A

Project Name: CEM, NITTTR Lab

Sample Number: BH1

Sample Location: Perungudi (Lat 12’ 57’’ 31.74 & Long 80’14’’ 8.82)

Sample Description: Surface water

12
 EXPERIMENTS #5: DETERMINATION OF ALKALINITY

5.1 AIM:

To determine phenolphthalein alkalinity and total alkalinity of given water sample.

5.2 INTRODUCTION:

Alkalinity is a measure of the capability of water to absorb H+ ions or to neutralized acid

(ANC) without significant change of pH. In other words, alkalinity is a measure of the acid
buffering capacity of water.

The ability of natural water to act as a buffer is controlled in part by the amount of
calcium and carbonate ions in solution. water that comes in contact with limestone will contain
high levels of both Ca+2 and CO32– ions and have elevated hardness and alkalinity, so they are
expressed as mg/l as CaCO3.

Alkalinity of a sample of water is due to the presence of OH– (hydroxide ion), HCO3–
(bicarbonate ion) and CO32– (carbonate ion) or the mixture of two ions present in water. The
possibility of OH– and HCO3– ions together is not possible since they combine together to form
CO32– ions. They are behaving as a basis so determined by titration with strong acid. Need two
steps to find Total alkalinity (T alkalinity), the first end point determine (P alkalinity) and (T
alkalinity) can be founded after the second end point Table 5.1 represent the 5-Combination of P
and T alkalinity.

Table 5.1: Combination of P and T alkalinity

The determination of alkalinity of water is necessary for controlling the corrosion and it’s
important for fish and aquatic life because it protects or buffers against rapid pH changes. Higher
alkalinity levels in surface waters will buffer acid rain and other acid wastes and prevent pH
changes that are harmful to aquatic life.

13
5.3 PRINCIPLE

The alkalinity of water can be determined by titrating the water sample with Sulphuric
acid of known values of pH, volume and concentrations. Based on stoichiometry of the reaction
and number of moles of Sulphuric acid needed to reach the end point, the concentration of
alkalinity in water is calculated.

For the pH more than 8.3 need two step of titration firstly lowering pH to 8.3 using
phenolphthalein indicator the color changes to pink color, This pink color is due to presence of
hydroxyl ions. Titrate with sulphuric acid until pink color disappears (i.e. OH- ions are
neutralized). This is the 1st end point (P alkalinity). Then Lowering pH to 4.5 using mixed
indicator, the presence of CO32- and HCO3- ions in the solution changes the color to blue. While
adding sulphuric acid, the color changes to red, this color change indicates that all the of CO32-
and HCO3- ions has been neutralized. This is the 2ndend point.

The following reactions are occurring during titration;

pH range above 8.3:

OH- + H+ → H2O

CO32- + H+ → HCO3-

pH range between 8.3 and 4.5:

HCO3- + H+ → H2CO3

5.4 Materials Required

5.4.1 Apparatus required

1. Burette
2. Pipette
3. Conical flask
4. Measuring cylinder

5.4.2 REAGENTS

1. Standard sulphuric acid

2. Phenolphthalein
3. Mixed Indicator Figure 5.23: Apparatus required for Alkalinity experiment

14
5.5 PROCEDURE

1. Rinse the burette with 0.02N Sulphuric acid H2SO4 and discard the solution.
2. Fill the burette with 0.02N sulphuric acid and adjust it to zero.
3. Using a measuring cylinder exactly measure 100 mL of sample and pour it into a 250
mL of conical flask. Pipette 100mL of water sample and transfer it to a clean 250mL
conical flask.
4. Add few drops of phenolphthalein indicator to the contents of conical flask. The color
of the solution will turn to pink. This color change is due to alkalinity of hydroxyl
ions in the water sample.
5. Titrate it against 0.02N sulphuric acid till the pink color disappears. This indicates
that all the hydroxyl ions are removed from the water sample. Note down the titter
value (V1). The value of titration is 0.5mL .This value is used in calculating the
phenolphthalein alkalinity.
6. To the same solution in the conical flask add few drops of mixed indicator. The color
of the solution turns to blue. This color change is due to CO32- & HCO3- ions in water
sample.
7. Continue the titration from the point where stopped for the phenolphthalein alkalinity.
Titrate till the solution becomes red. The entire volume (V2) of sulphuric acid is
noted down and it is accountable in calculating the total alkalinity.

*First End point: Disappear of pink color

*Second End point: Changing color from Blue to Red

Figure 5.24: Procedure of Alkalinity experiment

15
4.6 DATA SHEET

DETERMINATION OF Calcium Hardness DATA SHEET

Date Tested: August 30, 2010

Tested By: CEM Class, Group A

Project Name: CEM, NITTTR Lab

Sample Number: BH1

Sample Location: Perungudi (Lat 12’ 57’’ 31.74 & Long 80’14’’ 8.82)

Sample Description: Surface water

16
17
 EXPERIMENT #6: DETERMINATION OF ACIDITY

6.1 AIM

To determine mineral and total acidity of given water sample.

6.2 INTRODUCTION

Acidity is a measure of the capacity of water to neutralize bases. Acidity of water is its
quantitative capacity to react with a strong base to a designated pH. Acidity may be caused by
mineral acids such as sulfuric acid or hydrochloric acid or by dissolved carbon dioxide

Usually dissolved carbon dioxide (CO2) is the major acidic component present in the
unpolluted surface waters, so the water sample should be collected within a few hours of the time
of analysis.

Mineral acidity: It is measured by titration to a pH of about 3.5, the methyl orange end
point (also known as methyl orange acidity).

Total acidity: Titration of a sample to the phenolphthalein end point of pH 8.3 measures
mineral acidity plus acidity due to weak acids, thus this is called as total acidity (or
phenolphthalein acidity).

Aquatic life is affected by high water acidity. The organisms present are prone to death
with low pH of water. High acidity water is not used for construction purposes, especially in
reinforced concrete construction due to the corrosive nature of high acidity water. Water
containing mineral acidity is not fit for drinking purposes.

6.3 PRINCIPLE

The acidity of water can be determined by titration of the water sample with Sodium
hydroxide of known values of pH, volume and concentrations. Based on stoichiometry of the
reaction and number of moles of Sulphuric acid needed to reach the end point, the concentration
of alkalinity in water is calculated.

The color change of phenolphthalein indicator is close to pH 8.3 at 25ºC corresponds to

stoichiometric neutralization of carbonic acid to bicarbonate.

18
6.4 Materials Required

6.4.1 Apparatus required

1. Burette
2. Pipette
3. Conical flask
4. Measuring cylinder

6.4.2 REAGENTS

1. Sodium hydroxide
2. Phenolphthalein indicator
3. Methyl orange indicator Figure 6.25: Apparatus required for Acidity experiment
6.5 PROCEDURE

1. Rinse the burette with 0.02N sodium

hydroxide and then discard the solution.
2. Fill the burette with 0.02N sodium
hydroxide and adjust the burette.
3. A sample size does not exceed 20mL of
the titrant. For highly concentrated
samples, dilute the sample. Usually, take
100 mL of a given sample in a conical
flask using pipette.
4. Add few drops of methyl orange
indicator in the conical flask.
5. The color changes to orange. Now titrate
the sample against the 0.02N sodium
hydroxide solution until the orange color
faints.
Figure 6.26: Procedure of Acidity experiment
6. Note down the volume (V1) consumed
for titration 0.4mL. This volume is used for calculating the mineral acidity.
7. To the same solution in the conical flask add few drops of phenolphthalein indicator.
8. Continue the titration, until the color changes to faint pink color.
9. Note down the total volume (V2) consumed for titration. This volume is used for
calculating the total acidity.

*First End point: Changing color from Orange to yellow

*Second End point: Changing color to Pink

19
6.6 DATA SHEET

DETERMINATION OF Calcium Hardness DATA SHEET

Date Tested: August 30, 2010 Tested By: CEM Class, Group A

Project Name: CEM, NITTTR Lab Sample Number: BH1 Sample Location: Perungudi
(Lat 12’ 57’’ 31.74 & Long 80’14’’ 8.82) Sample Description: Surface water

20
 EXPERIMENT #7: DETERMINATION OF CONDUCTIVITY

7.1 AIM

To determine the conductivity of given water sample.

7.2 INTRODUCTION

Conductivity of a substance is the ability or power to conduct or transmit heat, electricity

or sound’. When an electrical potential difference is placed across a conductor, its movable
charges flow, giving rise to an electric current. This property is called conductivity.

The electrical conductivity (G) can be expressed as mhos (Reciprocal of ohms) or as

Siemens (S). The inverse of resistivity (R) is determined from to Ohm’s law. I.e. R=V/I then,
G=1/R=I/V.

In most water, the conductivity is very low, so mS or μS are used as units for water
conductivity. The water Suitable for irrigation has conductivity of 2 mS/cm. The conductivity of
a solution is proportional to its ion concentration such as chloride, sodium and ammonium.

In coastal regions, conductivity data can be used to decide the extent of intrusion of sea
water into ground water. is useful in determining the suitability of water and wastewater for
disposal on land. Suitable for irrigation have 2 mS/cm. The total dissolved solids are about 70%
of the conductivity

7.3 PRINCIPLE

Conductivity is measured with a probe and a meter. A voltage is applied between the two
electrodes in the probe immersed in the sample water. Resistance of the water causes drop in
voltage. The meter converts the probe measurement to micro mhos per centimeter and displays
the result for the user.

7.4 Materials Required

7.4.1 Apparatus required

1. Conductivity Meter with probe

2. Measuring cylinder
3. Beaker
Figure 12.1: Apparatus for Conductivity experiment
7.4.2 REAGENTS
Figure 7.1: Apparatus of Conductivity experiment
1. Potassium Chloride
2. Distilled Water

21
7.5 PROCEDURE

1. Calibration of Conductivity Meter by takes 0.1N Potassium Chloride in a beaker. Switch

on the magnetic stirrer and place the beaker on the stirrer. Insert the magnetic bead in the
beaker. Place the electrode inside the solution. Select the calibration button and using up
and down key adjusts the conductivity of the 0.1N potassium chloride solution to 14.12
mS/cm at 30oC. Now the meter is ready for the measurement of samples.
2. Rinse the electrode totally with deionized water and wipe with a tissue paper carefully.
3. Measure 200mL of water sample and transfer it to a beaker and place it on the magnetic
stirrer.
4. Dip the electrode into the sample solution taken in a beaker and wait for a steady reading.
Make sure that the instrument is giving stable reading.
5. Note down the reading in the display directly, which is expressed in millisiemens.

Figure 7.2: Procedure of Conductivity experiment

22
 EXPERIMENT #8: DETERMINATION OF TURBIDITY

8.1 AIM

To determine the turbidity of the given water sample.

8.2 INTRODUCTION

Turbidity is the cloudiness of a solution and it is a qualitative. Turbidity often indicates

the presence of dispersed and suspended solids like clay, organic matter, silt, algae and other
microorganisms.

Turbidity is caused by suspended materials which absorb and scatter light. These
colloidal and finely dispersed turbidity-causing materials do not settle and are difficult to remove
by sedimentation.

Measurement of turbidity in settled water prior to filtration is useful in checking on faulty

filter operation, useful to determine the optimum dosage of coagulants to treat domestic and
industrial wastewaters and it is used to evaluate the performance of water treatment plants.

8.3 PRINCIPLE

The turbidity of the sample is thus measured from the amount of light scattered by the
sample. The turbidity of the sample is measured using the Turbidity meter which is a
nephelometric instrument that senses the quantity of light-reflecting particles in water.

A beam of light is focused and passed through the sample solution (suspended particles)
directly and the amount of scattered radiation is measured generally at 90° angle and displays the
results in NTU (Nephelometric Turbidity Units). The higher the intensity of scattered light the
higher is the turbidity.

Figure 8.1: Schematic view of a Nephelometric instrument.

23
8.4 Materials Required

8.4.1 Apparatus required

1. Turbidity Meter
2. Sample cells
3. Wash Bottle
4. Tissue Papers

8.4.2 REAGENTS Figure 8.2: Apparatus for Turbidity experiment

1. Distilled Water
2. Samples with known conductivity value 0.0, 20, 100, 400 NTU

8.5 PROCEDURE

8.5.1 Calibration:

1. Press “POWER” to turn on the meter, and the display will show “STBY”
2. Gently and slowly invert the calibration solution bottles five times but do not shake the
bottles as air bubbles can affect the readings. If there is suspended material in the
solution, please shake the bottles for 10seconds, and wait for 5minutes before calibration.
3. Press and hold “CAL” to enter calibration mode.
4. After entering calibration mode, the display will show “0.00 NTU” and “CAL 1”. Place
the CAL 1 standard solution into the sample well, and:
a. press “READ” for calibration, and the “CAL” icon will be flashing, or
b. Press “DOWN ARROW/STO” to skip CAL 1calibration.
c. After The display will then show “20.0 NTU” and “CAL 2”.
5. Repeat the above steps to calibrate (or skip) CAL 2 ~ CAL 4.
6. After CAL 4, the display will show “SA” and “END”, and then the meter will return to
measurement mode.
7. Check corresponding numbers at the lower left of the display (calibration status indicator)
to see which calibrations are done correctly.
8. If any of the calibration fails, the corresponding number icons will be flashing. For
example, “1” icon will be flashing if CAL 1 is not completed correctly or the standard
solution is out of range.

8.5.2 Measurement:
1. Fill the sample solution into the glass bottle.
2. Place the bottle into the sample well.
3. Press “READ” and wait for around 10 seconds to get the reading.

24
Figure 8.3: Procedure of Conductivity experiment

25
 EXPERIMENT #9: DETERMINATION OF TOTAL SOLID

9.1 AIM

To determine the total solids in the given water sample.

9.2 INTRODUCTION

Total Solids is the term applied to the material residue left in the vessel after evaporation
of a sample, TS measured the combination of total dissolved solids and total suspended solids.

The term “solids” is generally used when referring to any material suspended or
dissolved in water or wastewater that can be physically isolated either through filtration or
through evaporation. Measurement of Solids can be made in different water samples (industrial,
domestic and drinking water) and it is defined as residue upon evaporation of free water.

Total solids measurements come from runoff from construction, agricultural practices,
logging activities, sewage treatment plant discharges, and other sources.

High levels of total solids will reduce the clarity of

the water. This decreases the amount of sunlight able to
penetrate the water, thereby decreasing the photosynthetic
rate. Reduced clarity also makes the water less aesthetically
pleasing. When the water is cloudy, sunlight will warm it
more efficiently because the suspended particles in the
water absorb the sunlight which, in turn, warms the
surrounding water. This leads to other problems associated
with increased temperature levels.

9.3 PRINCIPLE

The sample is evaporated in a weighed dish on a steam bath and is dried to a constant mass in an
oven either at 103-105°C or 179-181°C. Total solids/residue is calculated from increase in mass.

9.4 Materials Required

9.4.1 Apparatus required

1. Evaporating Dish
2. Drying Oven
3. Desiccators
4. Analytical Balance
5. Dish Tongs

26
Figure 9.1: Apparatus for Turbidity experiment
9.5 PROCEDURE

1. Take a clean porcelain dish which has been washed and dried in a hot air oven at
105°C for one hour.
2. Weigh the empty evaporating dish in analytical balance. Let’s denote as (W1)
3. Using pipette transfer 75mL of unfiltered sample in the porcelain dish.
4. Switch on the oven and allowed to reach 105°C.
5. Place the evaporating dish in the hot air oven for 1 to 2 hours to eliminate
necessity of checking for constant mass.
6. Cool the container in a desiccator to the room temperature. A dessicator will keep
the samples from absorbing any water from the air that would increase their mass.
7. Weigh the dish as soon as it has cooled to avoid absorption of moisture. Let’s
denote as (W1)

Figure 9.2: Procedure of Conductivity experiment 27

9.6 DATA SHEET

DETERMINATION OF Calcium Hardness DATA SHEET

Date Tested: August 30, 2010

Tested By: CEM Class, Group A

Project Name: CEM, NITTTR Lab

Sample Number: BH1

Sample Location: Perungudi (Lat 12’ 57’’ 31.74 & Long 80’14’’ 8.82)

Sample Description: Surface water

28
 EXPERIMENT #10: JAR TEST EXPERIMENT

10.1 AIM

To determine the optimum dosage of coagulant to remove small or charged particles present
inside water.

10.2 INTRODUCTION

The two basic terms which can exactly explain the happenings of this experiment are
“Coagulation” and “Flocculation“.

1. Coagulation: It is the process of addition of a chemical to de-stabilize a stabilized charged

particle.

2. Flocculation: It is a slow mixing technique which promotes agglomeration and helps the
particles to settle down. So the “slow mixing” step is needed in the present experiment.

Generally we encounter very fine and charged clay like particles in water treatment
which should be removed before we continue for further processes. These impurities do not
settle by gravity when the water is passed through a sedimentation tank. The reason being that
these are charged particles, they repel each other and just stay.

10.3 PRINCIPLE

When Coagulant like alum solution is added to water, the molecules dissociate to yield
positive and negative charges like SO42- and Al3+ in alum. These charged species combine with
the charged colloidal particles to neutralize the charge of the component producing turbidity, and
then these components are conglomerated and settled out fig (7.1).

Figure 10.1: Coagulation-Sedimentation Diagram

29
10.4 Materials Required

10.4.1 Apparatus required

1. Jar testing apparatus

2. Turbidity meter
3. 6-Beaker (1L)

10.4.2 REAGENTS

1. Alum solution (1L

containing 10g of alum)
2. Distilled Water Figure 7.2: Apparatus for Jar test experiment

10.5 PROCEDURE

1. Take 1000 ml of given sample in a 6-beakers.

2. Add 1 ml, 2 ml, 4 ml, 8 ml, 10 ml, 12 ml of alum respectively in each one of the
beakers.
3. Now insert the paddle of the jar testing apparatus inside the beakers and start it.
4. Initially maintain a speed such that the paddles rotate at an angular velocity of 100
rpm for a time of 1 minute.
5. Now adjust the speed such that the paddles rotate at 40 rpm/min for a time of 10
minutes.
6. Now allow the beakers to settle down for 10 minutes.
7. Make an observation as of which of the 6 beakers is most clearer.
8. Measure the turbidity of each beaker using a turbidity meter and tabulate your results.
9. Plot a graph “Turbidity” Vs. “Coagulant dosage”.

10.6 RSULT AND GRAPH:

30
 EXPERIMENT #11: CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (COD)

11.1 AIM

To determine chemical oxygen demand in the given water sample

11.2 INTRODUCTION

Chemical oxygen demand (COD) test is commonly used to indirectly measure the
amount of organic compounds in water, making COD a useful measure of water quality. It is
expressed in (mg/L), which indicates the mass of oxygen consumed per liter of solution.

COD determines the quantity of oxygen required to oxidize the organic matter in water or
waste water sample, under specific conditions of oxidizing agent (K2Cr2O7), temperature (150º
C), and time (2hr). This method covers the determination of COD in ground and surface waters,
domestic and industrial wastewaters. The applicable range is (3-900) mg/L.

The ratio of BOD to COD is useful to assess the amenability of waste for biological
treatment. Ratio of BOD to COD greater than or equal to 0.8 indicates that wastewater highly
polluted and amenable to the biological treatment.

BOD value is always lower than COD value. For domestic and some industrial
wastewater, COD value is about 2.5 times BOD value

11.3 PRINCIPLE

The organic matter present in sample oxidized completely by potassium dichromate

(K2Cr2O7) in the presence of sulphuric acid (H2SO4), silver sulphate (AgSO4) and mercury
sulphate (HgSO4) to produce CO2 and H2O. The excess potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) is
determined by titration against ferrous ammonium sulphate abbreviation (FAS), using ferroin as
an indicator. The dichromate consumed by the sample is equivalent to the amount of O2 required
to oxidize the organic matter.

11.4 Materials Required

11.4.1 Apparatus required

4. COD Digester
5. COD vials with stand
6. Pipette
7. Burette
8. Conical flask
9. Funnel

Figure 11.1: Apparatus required for COD 31

11.4.2 REAGENTS

1. Potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7)

2. Sulfuric acid (H2SO4)
3. Ferrous ammonium sulphate
4. Ferroin indicator
5. Organic free distilled water

11.5 PROCEDURE

1. Take three COD vials with stopper (two for the sample and one for the blank).
2. Add 2.5 mL of the sample to each of the two COD vials and the remaining COD vial
is for blank; to this COD vial add distilled water.
3. Add 1.5 mL of potassium dichromate reagent to each of the three COD vials.
4. Add 3.5 mL of sulphuric acid reagent to each of the three COD vials.
*CAUTION: COD vials are hot now.
5. Cap tubes tightly. Switch on the COD Digester and fix the temperature at 150º C and
set the time at 2 hours.
6. Place the COD vials into a block digester at 150°C and heat for two hours.
7. The digester automatically switches off. Then remove the vials and allow it to cool to
the room temperature.
8. Fill the burette with the ferrous ammonium sulphate (FAS) solution.
9. Transfer the contents of the blank vial to conical flask.
10. Add few drops of ferroin indicator. The solution becomes bluish green in color.
11. Titrate it with the FAS until reddish brown color appearance
12. Note down the volume of FAS solution added for the blank (A) is 14.1mL.
13. Transfer the contents of the sample vial to conical flask.
14. Add few drops of ferroin indicator. The solution becomes green in color.
15. Titrate it with the FAS until reddish brown color appearance
16. Note down the volume of FAS solution added for the sample (B) is 13.2mL.

12.*End point: appearance of the reddish brown color

32
Figure 11.2: Procedure for COD experiment 33
11.6 DATA SHEET

DETERMINATION OF RESIDUAL CHLORINE DATA SHEET

Date Tested: August 30, 2010

Tested By: CEM Class, Group A

Project Name: CEM, NITTTR Lab

Sample Number: BH1

Sample Location: Perungudi (Lat 12’ 57’’ 31.74 & Long 80’14’’ 8.82)

Sample Description: Surface water

TABULATION

34
 EXPERIMENT #12: DETERMINATION OF DISSOLVED OXYGEN (DO)

12.1 AIM

To determine the dissolved oxygen (DO) in the given water sample.

12.2 INTRODUCTION

Dissolved Oxygen is used to describe the amount of oxygen dissolved in a unit volume of
water and it’s measure of the ability of water to maintain aquatic life.

The dissolved oxygen content of water is influenced by the source, raw water
temperature, treatment and chemical or biological processes taking place for samples.

The presence of oxygen in water is a good sign. Depletion of dissolved oxygen in water
supplies can encourage the microbial reduction of nitrate to nitrite and sulfate to sulfide. It can
also cause an increase in the concentration of ferrous iron in solution, with subsequent
discoloration at the tap when the water is aerated.

Dissolved oxygen comes from the atmosphere and from photosynthesis by aquatic plants,
and its removed from water by respiration and decomposition of organic matter. The solubility of
oxygen decreases as water temperature increases. Its solubility is about 14.6 mg/l for pure water
at 0°C under normal atmospheric pressure and it drops to 7 mg/l at 35°C.

The wastes serve as the food for certain aerobic bacteria so the concentration of bacteria
increases and their population increase causes a decline in the amount of DO.

In a healthy body of water such as a lake, river, or stream, the dissolved oxygen is about
8 ppm. The minimum DO level of 4 to 5 ppm is desirable for survival of aquatic life.

12.3 PRINCIPLE

Dissolved Oxygen can be measured either by titrimetric or electrometric method.

(1) Titrimetric Method

Titrimetric method is based on the oxidizing property of DO while the electrometric

method (using membrane electrodes) is based on the rate of diffusion of molecular oxygen across
a membrane. There are different titrimetric methods based on the type of sample to be tested.

a) Winkler Method : Explained below in this experiment

b) Azide Modification: The interference caused by nitrate is removed effectively.
c) Alum Flocculation Modification: For sample contains suspended solids.
d) Permanganate Modification: For sample contains iron (Fe2+) ions

35
 The Winkler Method for DO Determination:

Oxygen in the water sample oxidizes iodide ion (I-) to iodine (I2) quantitatively. The
amount of iodine generated is then determined by titration with a standard thiosulfate (S2O3-2)
solution. The endpoint is determined by using starch as a visual indicator. The amount of oxygen
can then be computed from the titration 1mole of O2 reacts with 4moles of thiosulfate.

(2) Electrometric Method

Dissolved oxygen can be measured by a special sensor kept in

an electrochemical cell, the cell consists of a sensing
electrode, a reference electrode and a supporting electrolyte, a
semi-permeable membrane, which served dual function, It
separates the water sample from the electrolyte, and at the
same time, permits only the DO to diffuse from the water
sample through the membrane into the supporting electrolyte.

Simply place the probe in the sample and allow the meter time
Figure 12.1: Dissolved Oxygen meter
to settle the final measurement value. The diffusion current
created by migration of oxygen through a permeable membrane
is linearly proportional to the concentration of molecular oxygen in the sample.

36
12.4 Materials Required

12.4.1 Apparatus required

1. Burette
2. Pipette
3. Conical flask
4. Measuring cylinder
5. Funnel

12.4.2 REAGENTS

1. Manganese sulfate
2. alkali-iodide-azide
3. concentrated sulfuric acid
Figure 12.27: Apparatus required for DO
4. starch solution
5. Sodium thiosulfate

12.5 PROCEDURE

1. Take two 300-mL glass stoppered BOD bottle and fill it with sample to be tested.
Avoid any kind of bubbling and trapping of air bubbles. Remember – no bubbles!
2. Add 2mL of manganese sulfate to the BOD bottle by inserting the calibrated pipette
just below the surface of the liquid.
3. Add 2 mL of alkali-iodide-azide reagent in the same manner.
4. Squeeze the pipette slowly so no bubbles are introduced via the pipette (The pipette
should be dipped inside the sample while adding the above two reagents. If the
reagent is added above the sample surface, you will introduce oxygen into the
sample).
5. If oxygen is present, a brownish-orange cloud of precipitate or floc will appear.
6. Allow it to settle for sufficient time in order to react completely with oxygen.
7. Add 2 mL of concentrated sulfuric acid just above the surface of the sample.
8. Carefully stopper and invert several times to dissolve the floc.
9. Stored the Sample for up to 8 hours if kept in a cool, dark place.
10. Rinse the burette with sodium thiosulphate and then fill it with sodium thiosulphate.
Measure out 203 mL of the solution from the bottle and transfer to an conical flask.
Titration needs to be started immediately after the transfer to conical flask.
11. Titrate it against sodium thiosulphate using starch as indicator. (Add 3 - 4 drops of
starch indicator solution) until disappearance of the blue color.
12. Note down the volume of sodium thiosulphate solution added which gives the
dissolved oxygen in 7.9 mL
13. Repeat the titration for concordant values.
*End point: Disappearance of the blue color to colorless

37
Figure 12.28: Procedure of DO experiment

38
12.6 DATA SHEET

DETERMINATION OF Calcium Hardness DATA SHEET

Date Tested: August 30, 2010

Tested By: CEM Class, Group A

Project Name: CEM, NITTTR Lab

Sample Number: BH1

Sample Location: Perungudi (Lat 12’ 57’’ 31.74 & Long 80’14’’ 8.82)

Sample Description: Surface water

39
 EXPERIMENT #13: DETERMINATION OF BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN
DEMAND (BOD)

13.1 AIM

To determine biochemical oxygen demand in the given water sample.

13.2 INTRODUCTION

The biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) is the amount of dissolved oxygen needed by
aerobic organisms to break the organic materials present in the given water sample at certain
temperature (20°C) over a specific period of time (5 days), then determining the change in
dissolved oxygen content. Usually the BOD test is used to measure the strength of organic
pollution and it is the only parameter that give an idea of the biodegradability of any sample and
self-purification capacity of rivers and streams.

Ordinary domestic sewage may have a BOD of 200 mg/L. Any effluent to be disposal of
water should have BOD less than 30 mg/L. Drinking water usually has a BOD of less than 1
mg/L. But, when BOD value reaches 5 mg/L, the water is doubtful in purity.

13.3 PRINCIPLE

The sample is filled in BOD bottle and diluted with a known amount of dilution water
and the dissolved oxygen of the sample is determined before and after five days of incubation at
20°C and the BOD is calculated from the difference between initial and final DO.

13.4 Materials Required

13.4.1 Apparatus required

1. BOD Incubator
2. 300mL BOD
bottles
3. Burette
4. Pipette
5. Conical flask
6. Measuring cylinder
7. Funnel Figure 12.1: Apparatus required for BOD experiment

40
13.4.2 REAGENTS

For diluted water preparation: For DO determination:

1. Manganese sulfate (MgSO4) 1. Manganese sulfate
2. Calcium Chloride solution 2. alkali-iodide-azide
3. Magnesium Sulphate solution 3. concentrated sulfuric acid
4. Phosphate buffer solution 4. Sodium thiosulphate solution
5. Ferric chloride solution 5. Starch indicator
6. Distilled water

13.5 PROCEDURE

1. Aerated 5L of distilled water by bubbling compressed air through water.

2. Prepare dilution water by adding 5ml of phosphate buffer, 5ml of magnesium
sulphate solution, 5ml of calcium chloride solution and 5ml of ferric chloride
solution into aerated distilled water.
3. Take 4-glass BOD bottles 300mL (two for the sample and two for the blank).
4. Dilute the sample with the distilled water and mix the contents well.
5. Take 10 mL of the sample into 2-BOD bottles and the fill the remaining quantity
with the dilution water.
6. The remaining 2-BOD bottles are for blank, to these bottles add dilution water
alone.
7. Now preserve one blank solution bottle and one sample solution bottle in a BOD
incubator at 20ºC for five days.
8. The other 2-bottles (one blank and one sample) needs to be analyzed immediately.
9. Prevent any air entry into the bottles.
10. Add 2mL of manganese sulfate into BOD bottle by inserting the pipette below the
surface of the liquid, and then add 2 mL of alkali-iodide-azide reagent in the same
manner.
11. Allow it to settle for sufficient time in order to react completely with oxygen.
12. When this floc has settled to the bottom, shake the contents thoroughly
13. Add 2 mL of concentrated sulfuric acid above the surface of the sample.
14. Carefully stopper and invert several times to dissolve the floc.
15. Rinse the burette with sodium thiosulphate and then fill it with sodium
thiosulphate. Measure out 203 mL of the solution from the bottle and transfer to a
conical flask.
16. Titration needs to be started immediately after the transfer to conical flask.
17. Titrate the solution with standard sodium thiosulphate solution until the yellow
color of liberated Iodine is almost faded out. (Pale yellow color)
18. Add 1 mL of starch solution, and titrate until the blue color disappears to
colorless.

41
 19. Note down the volume of sodium thiosulphate solution added , which gives the
D.O
20. After five days, take out the bottles from the BOD incubator and repeat procedure
from 10 to 20 to the sample and the blank to find DO after 5-days.
*End point: Disappearance of the blue color to colorless

42
Figure 12.2: Procedure of BOD experiment

43
13.6 DATA SHEET

DETERMINATION OF Calcium Hardness DATA SHEET

Date Tested: August 30, 2010

Tested By: CEM Class, Group A

Project Name: CEM, NITTTR Lab

Sample Number: BH1

Sample Location: Perungudi (Lat 12’ 57’’ 31.74 & Long 80’14’’ 8.82)

Sample Description: Surface water

44