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Ergonomic Design of Human-CNC Machine Interface

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DOI: 10.5772/26411 · Source: InTech

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 6

Ergonomic Design
of Human-CNC Machine Interface
Imtiaz Ali Khan
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh,
India

1. Introduction
Ever since the industrial revolution opened the vistas of a new age, the process of
industrialization has been at the core of the economic development of all countries. In a
simple sense, industrialization means replacement of human labor by machinery to
manufacture goods. In this way it induces a shift from home (craft) to factory based
production. In a more rational sense, it is a process whereby the share of industry in general
and manufacturing in particular, in total economic activities increases.
Worldwide the machine tool industry is a small manufacturing sector, but widely regarded
as a strategic industry as it improves overall industrial productivity through supplying
embodied technology. The introduction of computer numerically controlled (CNC) has
rejuvenated the market. The production and trade have been mostly concentrated in
industrialized countries accounting for more than two-thirds of share. However, it is
gaining importance among developing countries. The production of high-end machines is
concentrated in the USA, Germany Switzerland and Japan. In the mid-range segment Japan
is the market leader. In the low-end segment Taiwan and Korea are predominant.
Ergonomics (Human Factors Engineering) is concerned with the ‘fit’ between people and
their technological tools and environments. It takes account of the user's capabilities and
limitations in seeking to ensure that tasks, equipment, information and the environment suit
each user. To assess the fit between a person and the used technology, ergonomists consider
the job (activity) being done and the demands on the user; the equipment used (its size,
shape, and how appropriate it is for the task), and the information used (how it is presented,
accessed, and changed). The term 'ergonomics' is generally used to refer to physical
ergonomics as it relates to the workplace (as in for example ergonomic chairs and
keyboards). Physical ergonomics is important in the medical field, particularly to those
diagnosed with physiological ailments or disorders such as arthritis (both chronic and
temporary) or carpal tunnel syndrome. Ergonomics in the workplace has to do largely with
the safety of employees, both long and short-term. Ergonomics can help reduce costs by
improving safety. This would decrease the money paid out in workers’ compensation. For
example, over five million workers sustain overextension injuries per year. Through
ergonomics, workplaces can be designed so that workers do not have to overextend
116 Human Machine Interaction – Getting Closer

themselves and the manufacturing industry could save billions in workers’ compensation.
Workplaces may either take the reactive or proactive approach when applying ergonomics
practices. Reactive ergonomics is when something needs to be fixed, and corrective action is
taken. Proactive ergonomics is the process of seeking areas that could be improved and
fixing the issues before they become a large problem. Problems may be fixed through
equipment design, task design, or environmental design. Equipment design changes the
actual, physical devices used by people. Task design changes what people do with the
equipment. Environmental design changes the environment in which people work, but not
the physical equipment they use.
Ergonomics literature provides ample evident of many successful ergonomic interventions
and their positive impact for both employees and employers of all sectors of the society. It is
generally accepted that the application of ergonomics is essential for improving working
conditions, system efficiency and promotion of the working-life quality. While ergonomics
has shown good potential for ensuring optimum technology utilization and proper
technological development in the industrialized world, interest and attention paid to the
subject is very low among organizations and industrial managers in the industrially
developing countries. Almost, two-thirds of the world population in these countries has
little or no access to the vast knowledge base that makes ergonomics such an important tool
for improving work environment and increase productivity (Shahnavaz et al. 2010). When
applying the appropriate type of ergonomics, there would be improvements in quality,
productivity, working conditions, occupational health and safety, reduction of rejects and
increases in profit (Yeow and Sen, 2002). Ergonomics intervention and its potential to
deliver benefits has been accepted and practiced worldwide. The term intervention refers to
efforts made to effect change and render such change stable and permanent (Westlander et
al. 1995). The objective of ergonomics intervention is to design jobs that are possible for
people to do, are worth doing and which give workers job satisfaction and a sense of
identity with the company and protect and promote workers’ health. Ergonomics
intervention should therefore result in improving both the employees’ wellbeing (health,
safety and satisfaction) as well as the company’s wellbeing (optimal performance,
productivity and high work quality) (Shahnavaz, 2009).
Companies once thought that there was a bottom-line tradeoff between safety and
efficiency. Now they embrace ergonomics because they have learned that designing a safe
work environment can also result in greater efficiency and productivity. Recently, U.S. laws
requiring a safe work environment have stimulated great interest in Ergonomics - from
ergonomic furniture to ergonomic training. But it is in the design of the workplace as a
whole where the greatest impact can be seen for both safety and efficiency. The easier it is to
do a job, the more likely it is to see gains in productivity due to greater efficiency.
Analogously, the safer it is to do a job, the more likely it is to see gains in productivity due
to reduced time off for injury. Ergonomics can address both of these issues concurrently by
maximizing the workspace and equipment needed to do a job.
Today, Ergonomics commonly refers to designing work environments for maximizing
safety and efficiency. Biometrics and Anthropometrics play a key role in this use of the word
Ergonomics. Anthropometry refers to the measurement of the human individual for the
purposes of understanding human physical variation. Today, anthropometry plays an
important role in industrial design, ergonomics and architecture where statistical data about
Ergonomic Design of Human-CNC Machine Interface 117

the distribution of body dimensions in the population are used to optimize products.
Changes in life styles, nutrition and ethnic composition of populations lead to changes in the
distribution of body dimensions and require regular updating of anthropometric data
collections. Engineering Psychology often has a specialty dealing with workplace or
occupational Ergonomics. While health and safety has always been a dynamic and
challenging field, individuals now are being asked to demonstrate cost savings with
resources that are more limited than ever. How do companies meet the expectations of
"doing more with less" in the health and safety field? One approach that has proven
effective in scores of manufacturing companies is to leverage the efforts of ongoing
improvement initiatives to accelerate ergonomics improvements.
Recent developments in the field of information and communication technologies and
specialized work requiring repetitive tasks have resulted in the need for a human factor
engineering approach. Through examining, designing, testing and evaluating the workplace
and how people interact in it, human factor engineering can create a productive, safe and
satisfying work environment. With the high technology applications getting more
widespread at the global level the problems associated with the introduction of this hi-tech
have also been generating more concern. Most part of such concern is reflected in
occupational stresses in the form of poor job performance, waste leisure time, low level of
job satisfaction, alcohol related problems and hence forth. One most notable component of
hi-tech era emerged in the shape of human-CNC machine interaction (HMI) that basically
comprises of a CNC workstation and an operator. The use of CNC systems is increasing
exponentially. This is accompanied with a proportionate increase in occupational stresses
too in human operators. Previous studies pertaining to HMI by different researchers in the
field revealed that all sorts of problems associated with the use of CNC machines could be
traced in terms of physical characteristics of the CNC workstation, visual factors,
psychological factors and postural factors. Present studies mainly associated to the last said
factor that relates to constrained postures of the CNC operators governed by the
characteristics of given workstation. It is well documented that the constrained posture is
always associated with static muscular efforts that might lead subsequently to muscular
fatigue in humans. If such a postural stress is allowed to persist on a prolonged basis it may
adversely affect not only the muscles, but also the joint systems, tendons and other tissues.
Factors such as work environment and the work performed are crucial from the ergonomic
design point of view. Preferred term for conditions that are subjectively or objectively
influenced or caused by the work is musculoskeletal disorder. Many occupations are
associated with a high risk of arm and neck pain. Some risk factors can be identified, but the
interaction between the factors is not much understood. It is important to recognize personal
characteristics and other environmental and socio-cultural factors which usually play a key
role in these disorders. Working with hands at or above the shoulder level may be one
determinant of rotator cuff tendinitis. Industrial workers exposed to the tasks that require
working over shoulder level include panel controlled CNC machine operators, shipyard
welders, car assemblers, house painters and so on. Disorder and pain in the arm have been
related to the gripping an instrument and awkward posture. Several factors which are
considered to influence the static activity of the shoulder muscles are horizontal distance
between the worker and the working place, position of the task, height of the working table,
shoulder joint flexion, abduction/adduction and the posture etc. (Westgaard et al. 1988).
Disorder and visual discomfort have been related to the visual display unit (VDU) position
118 Human Machine Interaction – Getting Closer

and awkward posture. Factors which are considered to influence the activity of the eye
muscles are horizontal distance between the worker and height of the VDU screen and the
posture etc. (Westgaard et al., 1988). Present work is taken to develop a better
understanding of the effect of angle of abduction and viewing angle in a HMI environment.
The CNC-EDM interaction system was targeted keeping in-view the exponential growth of
the automation nowadays and the use of CNC machines in manufacturing and design.
Therefore, the need of the moment is an efficient and effective ergonomic design of the
CNC-workstations. Unorganized CNC machine working environment which does not meet
the human capabilities is considered as a major source of stress and errors. Review of
literature suggests that the original sources of postural stresses may be traced in terms of
poor CNC workstation design. In recent years, the major emphasis is on preventing
musculoskeletal injuries in the workplace. These injuries create a significant cost for
industry.
Many of the injuries in manufacturing are musculoskeletal disorders caused by cumulative
trauma. We call these injuries that result from cumulative wear and tear, cumulative trauma
disorders (CTDs). Back injuries, tendinitis and carpal tunnel syndrome are examples of
common CTDs. Workplace risk factors for CTDs include repetitive motions, high forces,
awkward postures and vibration exposure. CTDs in manufacturing can be associated with
such activities as manual material handling, hand tool usage, awkward postures and
prolonged equipment operation. One effective way to reduce the risk of CTDs such as carpal
tunnel syndrome and back injuries is to establish an ergonomic process. Do not regard an
ergonomic processes as separate from those intended to address other workplace hazards.
Use the same approaches to address ergonomic processes issue—hazard identification, case
documentation, assessment of control options and healthcare management techniques that
you employ to address other safety problems. It is important to realize that you cannot
combat cumulative disorders effectively with a quick-fix program. Rather, a long-term
process, which relies on continuous improvement, is the preferred approach to reducing
CTDs. Successful programs not only result in reduction of injuries, but they achieve quality
and productivity gains, as well. For an ergonomic process to be successful, it is imperative
that management is committed to the process, participates in the process and provides the
necessary resources to ensure its success. Nowadays, efforts in health promotion programs
have increased. Notwithstanding, work related musculoskeletal disorders (WMSDs) remain
a widespread and growing issue of concern in the automated manufacturing industry. In
the coming years, WMSDs leading to absence and reduced employment ability along with
an aging work force with comparatively high wages will become an even greater challenge
to these automated manufacturing companies facing worldwide competition. The
prevention of WMSDs is achieved through improvements in the design of working
conditions and tasks as well as through influencing the health promoting behavior of
individuals. What is needed, nowadays, is a systematic approach, that enables automated
industries to identify and control physical stress at work that leads to WMSDs in a
comprehensive manner.
The most important considerations in the human-CNC machine interaction environment are
the angle of abduction and viewing angle, which plays a key role in system design. Hence,
their effect on human performance in a CNC-EDM environment has been explored in this
work.
Ergonomic Design of Human-CNC Machine Interface 119

2. Related works
The rapid growth of automation has led to the development of research on human- machine
interaction environment. The research aims at the design of human-machine interfaces
presenting ergonomic properties such as friendliness, usability, transparency and so on.
Recently public and private organizations have engaged themselves in the enterprise of
managing more and more complex and coupled systems by means of the automation.
Modern machines not only process information but also act on the dynamic situations as
humans have done in the past like managing manufacturing processes, industrial plants,
aircrafts etc. These dynamic situations are affected by uncertain human factors. The angle of
abduction and viewing angle are considered frequently in the design of the systems like
human-computer interaction, human-CNC machine interaction and so on. A review of the
literature finds a relatively large number of studies on the angle of abduction and viewing
angle. The influence of external factors such as arm posture, hand loading and dynamic
exertion on shoulder muscle activity is needed to provide insight into the relationship
between internal and external loading of the shoulder joint as explored by Antony et al.
(2010). The study collected surface electromyography from 8 upper extremity muscles on 16
participants who performed isometric and dynamic shoulder exertions in three shoulder
planes (flexion, mid-abduction and abduction) covering four shoulder elevation angles (300 ,
600 , 900 and 1200). Shoulder exertions were performed under three hand load conditions: no
load, holding a 0.5 kg load and 30% grip. It was found that adding a 0.5 kg load to the hand
increased shoulder muscle activity by 4% maximum voluntary excitation (MVE), across all
postures and velocities. Kuppuswamy et al. (2008) determined that the abduction of one arm
preferentially activates erector spinae muscles on the other side to stabilize the body. The
study hypothesizes that the corti cospinal drive to the arm abductors and the erector spinae
may originate from the same hemisphere. Terrier et al. (2008) explored that the shoulder is
one of the most complex joints of the human body, mainly because of its large range of
motion but also because of its active muscular stabilization. The study presented an
algorithm to solve the indeterminate problem by a feedback control of muscle activation,
allowing the natural humorous translation. In this study the abduction was considered in
the scapular plane, accounting for the three deltoid parts and the rotator cuff muscles.
Gutierrez et al. (2008) determined the effects of prosthetic design and surgical technique of
reverse shoulder implants on total abduction range of motion and impingement on the
inferior scapular neck. The study concluded that the neck-shaft angle had the largest effect
on inferior scapular impingement, followed by glen sphere position. Levasseur et al. (2007)
explored that a joint coordinate system allows coherence between the performed movement,
its mathematical representation and the clinical interpretation of the kinematics of joint
motion. The results obtained revealed a difference in the interpretation of the starting angles
between the International Society Biomechanics (ISB) joint coordinate system and the
aligned coordinate system. No difference was found in the interpretation of the angular
range of motion. Wickham et al. (2010) performed an experiment to obtain
electromyography (EMG) activity from a sample of healthy shoulders to allow a reference
database to be developed and used for comparison with pathological shoulders. In this
study temporal and intensity shoulder muscle activation characteristics during a coral plane
abduction/adduction movement were evaluated in the dominant healthy shoulder of 24
subjects. The study concluded that the most reproducible patterns of activation arose from
the more prime movers muscle sites in all EMG variables analyzed and although variability
120 Human Machine Interaction – Getting Closer

was present, there emerged invariant characteristics that were considered normal for this
group of non pathological shoulders. Gielo-Perczak et al. (2006) conducted a study to test
whether glen humeral geometry is co-related with upper arm strength. The isometric
shoulder strength of 12 subjects during one-handed arm abduction in the coronal plane in a
range from 50 to 300 , was correlated with the geometries of their glenoid fossas. The study
concluded that the new geometric parameter named as the area of glenoid asymmetry
(AGA) is a distinguished factor which influence shoulder strength when an arm is abducted
in a range from 50 to 300. Mukhopadhyay et al. (2007) explored that industrial jobs involving
upper arm abduction have a strong association with musculoskeletal disorders and injury.
Biomechanical risk factors across different mouse positions within a computer controlled
workstation were explored by Dennerlein et al. (2006). One of the two studies with 30
subjects (15 females and 15 males) examined the three mouse positions: a standard mouse
(SM) position with the mouse placed to the right of the keyboard, a central mouse (CM)
position with the mouse between the key board and the human body and a high mouse
(HM) position using a keyboard drawer with the mouse on the primary work surface. The
second study examined two mouse positions: the SM position and a more central position
using a different keyboard (NM). In this work the muscle activity of the wrist and upper
arm postures were recorded through the electromyography technique. The CM position was
found to produce the most neutral upper extremity posture across all measures. The HM
position has resulted the least neutral posture and highest level of muscle activity. The
study also indicated that the NM position reduces wrist extension slightly and promote a
more neutral shoulder posture as compared to the SM position. The study concluded
that the HM position was least desirable whereas the CM position result the minimum
awkward postures. Peter et al. (2006) determined the differences in biomechanical risk
factors during the computer tasks. The study was conducted with the 30 touch-typing adults
(15 females and 15 males). The subjects were asked to complete five different tasks: typing
text, filling of a html form with text fields, text editing within a document, sorting and
resizing objects in a graphics task and browsing and navigating a series of internet web
pages. The study reported that the task completion with the help of both the mouse and the
keyboard result the higher shoulder muscle activity, larger range of the motion and the
larger velocities and acceleration of the upper arm. Susan et al. (2006) reported large and
statistically significant reductions in muscle activity by modifying a workstation
arrangement of an ultrasound system’s control panel. In this study, the right suprascapular
fossa activity indicated a reduction of muscle activity by 46%, between a postural stance of
75 and 30 degrees abduction. Choudhry et al. (2005) in their study compared the
anthropometric dimensions of the farm youths of the north-eastern region of the India with
those of China, Japan, Taiwan, Korea, Germany, Britain and USA. The study concluded that
all the anthropometric dimensions of the Indian subjects were lower than those from the
other parts of the world. Human laterality is considered to be one of the most important
issues in human factors engineering. Hand anthropometric data have indicated differences
between right and left-handed individuals and between females and males. A study was
carried out by Yunis (2005) on the hand dimensions of the right and left-handed Jordanian
subjects. The results indicated that there were significant differences in the hand
anthropometric data between right and left-handed subjects as well as between the females
and males subjects. Alan et al. (2003) explored in their study that the constant intramuscular
(IMP) / EMG relationship with increased force may be extended to the dynamic
contractions and to the fatigued muscles. In this study IMP and EMG patterns were
Ergonomic Design of Human-CNC Machine Interface 121

recorded through shoulder muscles in the three sessions. It was found in the study that
during the brief static tasks the IMP and EMG patterns increased with the shoulder torque.
Jung-Yong et al. (2003) determined the upward lifting motion involved at the scapula at
various shoulder angles. In particular, 90 and 120 degrees of flexion, 30 degrees of
adduction, and 90 degrees of abduction were found to be the most vulnerable angles based
on the measured maximum voluntary contractions (MVCs). The average root mean square
value of the EMG increased most significantly at 90 to 150 degrees of flexion and at 30 and
60 degrees of abduction. The increasing demand of the anthropometric data for the design
of the machines and personal protective equipments to prevent the occupational injuries
has necessitated an understanding of the anthropometric differences among occupations.
Hongwei et al. (2002) identified the differences in various body measurements between
various occupational groups in the USA. The analysis of the data indicated that the body
size or the body segment measurements of some occupational groups differ significantly.
The optimum height of the table of the operating room for the laparoscopic surgery was
investigated by Smith et al. (2002). The study concluded that the optimum table height
should position the handles of the laparoscopic instrument close to the surgeon’s elbow
level to minimize discomfort. The study determined the optimum table height as 64 to 77
centimeters above the floor level. In the retail supermarket industry where the cashiers
perform repetitive light manual material-handling tasks during scanning and handling
products, the cases of the musculoskeletal disorders and the discomfort are high. Lehman et
al. (2001) conducted a research to determine the effect of working position (sitting
versus standing) and scanner type (bi-optic versus single window) on the muscle activity.
Ten cashiers from a Dutch retailer environment participated in the study. Cashiers exhibited
the lower muscle activity in the neck and shoulders when standing and using a bi-optic
scanner. The shoulder abduction was also less for the standing conditions. Yun et al. (2001)
investigated the relationship between the self-reported musculoskeletal symptoms and the
related factors among visual display terminals (VDT) operators working in the banks. The
subjects of the study were 950 female bank tellers. The study was carried out to specify the
prevalence of the WMSDs and to identify the demographic and task-related factors
associated with the WMSD symptoms. The study indicated the percentages of the subjects
reported the disorders of the shoulder, lower back, neck, upper back, wrist and the fingers
as 51.4, 38.3, 38.0, 31.2, 21.7 and 13.6 respectively. Another case study was conducted in an
automobile assembly plant by Fine et al. (2000). There were 79 subjects who reported
shoulder pain. More than one-half also had positive findings in a physical examination.
Subjects who were free of shoulder pain were randomly selected. Forty-one percent of the
subjects flexed or abducted the right arm "severely" (above 90 degrees) during the job cycle,
and 35% did so with the left arm. Disorders were associated with severe flexion or
abduction of the left (odds ratio (OR) 3.2) and the right (OR 2.3) shoulder. The risk increased
as the proportion of the work cycle exposure increased. The findings concluded that, the
shoulder flexion or abduction, especially for 10% or more of the work cycle, is predictive of
chronic or recurrent shoulder disorders. David et al. (1988) investigated the effect of the
anthropometric dimensions of the three major ethnic groups in the Singapore. The study
was carried out with the help of the 94 female visual display units (VDU) operators. Few
anthropometric differences were recorded among the Chinese, Malays and Indians. On
comparing the data with the Americans and Germans, the three Asian cohorts were found
smaller in the body size. Because of the smaller body build the Asian VDU operators
preferred a sitting height of about 46 centimeters and a working height of about 74
122 Human Machine Interaction – Getting Closer

centimeters while as the European operators preferred the sitting and working heights as 47
centimeters and 77 centimeters respectively. The position of the upper arm and head, as an
indicator of load on the shoulder and risk of shoulder injury for workers performing
electromechanical assembly work, was explored by Westgaard et al. (1988). In this study
postural angles, in terms of flexion/extension and abduction/adduction of the right upper
arm and the shoulder joint, as well as flexion/extension of head and back were measured
for a group of female workers. Adopting a posture with an arm flexion of less than 15
degrees, an arm abduction of less than 10 degree and using a light (0.35 kg) hand tool,
resulted in a 20% incidence of sick leaves due to shoulder injuries of workers employed
between 2-5 years, and 30% incidence for those employed more than 5 years. This was
significantly lower for other groups working with higher arm flexion. The study concluded
that the magnitude of the postural angles of the shoulder joint influenced the shoulder load.
Another study for standing, supported-standing, and sitting postures was carried out with
subjects simulating assembly work in places with poor leg space by Bendix et al. (1985). The
postures and the upper trapezius muscle load were examined using statometric and
electromyography methods, respectively. While supported-standing or sitting, the lumbar
spine moved toward kyphosis, even with no backward rotation of the pelvis. In adopting
the position for anteriorly placed work, the arms were raised 30 degrees forward or more,
the trunk was flexed as well. It was concluded in the study that, if leg space is poor,
variation between supported-standing and standing should be encouraged, and an ordinary
office chair should be avoided. Also, the working level should be arranged so that it is lower
than 5 centimetres above the elbow level if no arm/wrist support is possible.
The viewing angle is considered frequently in the design of the systems like human-computer
interaction, human-CNC machine interaction and so on. A review of the literature finds a
relatively large number of studies on the viewing angle. Smith et al. (2010) explored that the
attention mediates access of sensory events to higher cognitive systems and can be driven by
either top-down voluntary mechanisms or in a bottom-up, reflexive fashion by the sensory
properties of a stimulus. The study investigated the effect of an experimentally induced
opthalmoplegia on voluntary and reflexive attentional orienting during visual search. The
study observed that abducting the eye into the temporal hemi field elicited deficits of both
voluntary and reflexive attention for targets that appeared beyond the oculomotor range.
Kong-King et al., (2007) determined the viewing distance and screen angle for electronic paper
(E-Paper) displays under various light sources, ambient illuminations and character sizes.
Findings of this study indicate that mean viewing distance and screen angle should be 495
millimetres and 123.7 degrees (in terms of viewing angle, 29.5 degrees below the horizontal
eye level), respectively. Proper visualization of the background of surgical field is essential in
the laparoscopic surgery and it reduces the risk of iatrogenic injuries. One of the important
factors influencing visualization is the viewing distance between surgeon and the monitor.
Shallaly et al., (2006) performed an experiment with 14 surgeons. The experiment was
designed to determine two working distances from a standard 34 centimeters (14 inch)
diagonal cathode ray tube (CRT) monitor: one the maximum view distance permitting small
prints of a near vision chart to be identified clearly by sight and second the minimum view
distance (of a standard resolution chart) just short of flicker, image degradation or both. The
results indicated that the maximum view distance allowing identification averaged 221
centimeters (range 166-302 centimeters). The mean minimal viewing distance short of
flicker/image degradation was determined as 136 centimeters (range 102-168 centimeters). For
Ergonomic Design of Human-CNC Machine Interface 123

most surgeons the extrapolated monitor viewing distances for the laparoscopic surgery ranges
from 139 centimeters to 303 centimeters (57-121 inch) for the maximal distance viewing and
from 90 centimeters to 182 centimeters (36-73 inch) for close-up viewing (i.e. optimal working
range of 90 to 303 centimeters or 36-121 inch). It was concluded that the maximal and minimal
(close-up) viewing distances are variable, but the surgeon should never be farther than 3
meters (10 ft.) or closer than 0.9 meter (3 ft.) from the monitor. Another study for visual display
unit work environment was carried out by Svensson et al., (2001). In this study two viewing
angles, namely 3 degrees above the horizontal and 20 degrees below the horizontal, were
considered. The findings concluded that the load on the neck and shoulders was significantly
lower at 3 degrees as compared to 20 degrees. Jan et al., (2003) explored that low VDU screen
height increases the viewing angle and also affects the activity of the neck extensor muscles.
Ayako et al., (2002) determined the effects of the tilt angle of a notebook computer on posture
and muscle activities. It was concluded in the study that at 100 degree tilt angle, the subjects
had relatively less neck flexion. Visual display units are widely used in the industries. The
optimization of their orientation is a critical aspect of the human-machine interaction and
impacts on the worker health, satisfaction and performance. Due to increase in the visual and
musculoskeletal disorders related to VDU use, a number of ergonomic recommendations have
been proposed in order to combat this problem. Fraser et al., (1999) observed that, the monitor
position, 18 degree below eye level had no significant effect on the position of the neck
relative to the trunk while, the mean flexion of the head, relative to the neck increased 5
degrees. Burgess-Limerick et al., (2000) determined optimal location of the visual targets as 15
degrees below horizontal eye level. Adjustability effect of the touch screen displays in a food
service industry was investigated by Batten et al., (1998). To determine the optimal viewing
angle or range of a given touch-screen display, an anthropometric analysis was carried out.
The results recommended the adjustable range of the touch-screen display as 30 to 55 degrees
to the horizontal. Mon-Williams et al., (1998) in their study pointed out that as vertical gaze
angle is raised or lowered the ‘effort’ required to binocular system also changes. The results
indicated that the heterophoria varies with vertical gaze angle and stress on the vergence
system during the use of HMDs will depend, in part, on the vertical gaze angle. Another case
study was conducted by Koroemer et al., (1986). Sixteen male and sixteen female subjects were
used in the study. The findings concluded that the subject looks down steeply at an average of
29 degrees below the horizontal, when sitting with the trunk and head upright. Also this angle
is steeper when the visual target is at 0.50 meter distance (-33 ±11.3 degrees) and flatter when
the target is at 1.00 meter (-24 ±10.4 degrees).
The reviewed researches have clearly indicated that the musculoskeletal disorder is one of
the major factors as far as human injuries in the computer controlled working environment
are concerned. The above findings have been used to formulate the present studies of the
effect of the angle of abduction and viewing angle in a CNC-EDM interaction environment.

3. Methodology
3.1 Study I
3.1.1 Subjects
Experimental investigation was carried out with three groups of 18 subjects each. Groups
were divided according to the variation in height of the subjects; i.e. (Group1) – Subjects of
124 Human Machine Interaction – Getting Closer

height 5’ 9”, (Group2) – Subjects of height 5’ 6” and (Group3) – Subjects of height 5’ 4”. All
subjects were of same sex (i.e. male), age varied from 21-26 years with mean age of 23.72 yrs
(S.D = 1.592) and mean arm length of 28.5 inch, 28 inch and 27.5 inch for 5’ 9”, 5’6” and 5’4”
tall subjects, respectively.

3.1.2 Experimentation
In order to conduct the investigation, an experiment was designed in a controlled CNC-
EDM (Computer Numerically Controlled-Electro Discharge Machine) wire cutting
environment (Figure 1), at “The National Small Industries Corporation Ltd.” (NSIC)
Aligarh, India.
Three levels of Angle of Abduction, namely 45, 55 and 60 degrees (Figure 2), were
considered on the basis of the findings discussed in the related works and comprehensive
surveys conducted at various EDM centers. Before actual start of the experiment, each of the
subjects was asked to go through the instruction sheet served by the experimenter. Specific
time interval was allowed to perform the actual task of the data entry for one set of the
experimental condition. To start and stop the task, instruction was given through
prerecorded voice on a recorder. Data entry time taken by the user constituted the index of
the human performance. The performance of each subject at a pre-specified time was
recorded (Figure 3) through entering a specially designed coded computer program on
Electra, Maxi-cut-e CNC Wire-cut EDM for performing single pass cutting of alloy steel
(HCHCr) work piece. The entered (data entry) program had the following specifications:
 Work piece shape----------- rectangular
 Work piece height---------- 24 millimeters
 Wire material ---------------- brass alloy
 Wire diameter --------------- 0.25 millimeter
 Angle of cut ------------------ vertical
 Work piece hardness--------56 HRC
 Length of cut------------------ 10 millimeters

Fig. 1. Schematic representation of experimental setup: (1) Key-board (2) Visual display (3)
Subject (4) CNC-EDM Control panel.
Ergonomic Design of Human-CNC Machine Interface 125

Fig. 2. Showing the abduction angles (45, 55 and 60 degrees) for 5’9”, 5’6” and 5’4” tall
subjects, respectively.

Fig. 3. Picture showing subject performing the data entry task.

3.1.3 Statistical analysis

The experimental data collected, in terms of subject’s performance in a CNC-EDM
environment, was investigated using statistical analysis with repeated measures. A method
of comparison of the mean was used to determine the optimum level of Angle of Abduction.

3.1.4 Results I
The analysis of variance pertaining to the single factor repeated measure type of statistical
design was performed over the data collected. The result is shown in the analysis of
variance (ANOVA) Table-1;
126 Human Machine Interaction – Getting Closer

Type III
Sum of Mean
S df F-value P-value
Squares Square

AA 40.571 2 20.286 158.204 <0.0001

E 6.539 51 0.128
T 2121.011 54

Table 1. Summary of Analysis of Variance. S-Source, AA- Angle of Abduction, E-Error, T-

Total, df- degree of freedom.
F-ratio was used for testing the statistical hypothesis, and the level of significance for the test
was set to 0.01. It was concluded that;
(i) The null hypothesis, “Angle of Abduction does not significantly affect the operator’s
performance in a CNC-EDM environment”, was rejected, because of the aggregate’s mean
time difference (performance data in terms of time). (ii) Null hypothesis rejected because the
F-valueov = 158.204 (from Table-1) was greater than [F0.01 (2, 51)]cv = 5.0472 obtained from the
F-table using the values for degrees of freedom (2, 51). [Where ov = observed value and cv =
critical value]. (iii) Null hypothesis rejected because the P-value for F-value = 158.204 was
found to be less than 0.0001 i.e. (p<0.0001), which was less than the set significance level (α =
0.01).
Since the angle of abduction had statistically significant effect so far as the data entry task
was concerned, an attempt was made to develop a mathematical model to search for the
relationship between human performance and the abduction level. Then linear and non-
linear regression analyses were performed. For the case of non-linear, exponential,
hyperbolic and power function models were examined. The criterion fixed for selecting the
best model was the value of the co-efficient of determination, R2, i.e., the best one would
have the highest value of R2. Proceeding this way the exponential model was found to have
the maximum value (0.8852) of the R2. The best fit model had the following form:

Y = 0.4625 * X2 - 1.8295 * X + 7.2525

Where, Y = Human performance in a CNC-EDM environment and X = Angle of abduction
level.
For the above mathematical model, data were generated and a graph was drawn showing
relationship between the human performance and angle of abduction level (Figure 4).

3.1.5 Statistical conclusion

The null hypothesis stated above was rejected since Fov = 158.204 was greater than
Fcv = 5.0472. Furthermore, the computed probability value (p-value) i.e. [p<0.0001] meant
that the test was strongly significant at 1%; hence Ho (null hypothesis) must be
unequivocally rejected at the critical value of 1% because 0.0001 is << 0.01. Thus the above
result indicated that the null hypothesis was rejected and it was found that the angle of
abduction had a significant effect on human performance in a CNC-EDM environment.
Ergonomic Design of Human-CNC Machine Interface 127

Variation in performance under different levels of angles of abduction was shown

graphically in Figure 4. To establish which one out of the three considered angles of
abduction was optimal, the data was further analyzed by the method of mean comparison
proposed by Winer (1971).

Contrast
Mean
Contrast sum of df F-value P-value
square
square
2 vs3 8.1225 1 8.1225 63.46 <0.0001

1 vs (2,3) 32.4723 1 32.4723 253.69 <0.0001

Table 2. Summary of the analysis.

Where; 1: First treatment mean (at an angle of abduction of 45 degrees), 2: Second treatment
mean (at an angle of abduction of 55 degrees), 3: Third treatment mean (at an angle of
abduction of 60 degrees).
Analysis in Table-2 shows that all contrasts were significant, because; (i) F-valueov = 63.46 and
F-valueov = 253.69, were greater than [F0.01 (1, 51)]cv = 7.1595 (obtained from F-table). [Where ov
= observed value and cv = critical value]. (ii) P-values for both F-valueov were found to be less than
0.0001 i.e. (p<0.0001), which was less than the set significance level i.e. α = 0.01.
Furthermore, analysis showed that there was a significant difference between aggregates
and the contrast [2 vs 3] was marginally significant however, the F-value 253.69 for the
contrast [1 vs (2, 3)] was more significant, so the second contrast hypothesis was rejected.
This indicated that a 45 degree angle of abduction level results in optimal operator
performance (Figure 4).

7.5

7 2
y = 0.4625x - 1.8295x + 7.2525
2
Data entry time (min)

R = 0.8852
6.5

5.5

4.5

4
30 45 55 60
Angle of Abduction (Deg)

Fig. 4. Graph showing the performance in terms of data entry task time versus various levels
of angle of abduction.
128 Human Machine Interaction – Getting Closer

3.2 Study II
3.2.1 Subjects
Experimental investigation was carried out with three groups of 18 subjects each. Groups
were divided according to the variation in height of the subjects; i.e. (Group1) – Subjects of
height 5’ 9”, (Group2) – Subjects of height 5’ 6” and (Group3) – Subjects of height 5’ 4”. All
subjects were male, age varied from 21-26 years with mean age of 23.72 yrs (S.D = 1.592).

3.2.2 Experimentation
In order to conduct the investigation, an experiment was designed in a controlled CNC-
EDM (Computer Numerically Controlled-Electro Discharge Machine) wire cutting
environment, at “The National Small Industries Corporation Ltd.” (NSIC) Aligarh, India.
Three levels of Viewing Angle, namely 15, 21 and 28 degrees above horizontal (Figure 5)
were considered on the basis of findings discussed in the related works and comprehensive
surveys conducted at various EDM centers. Before actual start of the experiment, each of the
subjects was asked to go through the instruction sheet served by the experimenter. Specific
time interval was allowed to perform the actual error searching task for one set of the
experimental condition. To start and stop the task, instruction was given through
prerecorded voice on a recorder. Errors were incorporated in the specially designed coded
computer program (as used for study I on Electra, Maxi-cut-e Wire-cut EDM) for
performing single pass cutting of alloy steel (HCHCr) work piece. Error searching time
constituted the index of the human performance. The performance of each subject at a pre-
specified time was recorded through error searching task (Figure 6).

Fig. 5. Showing the EDM monitor and considered viewing angles for (a) 5’9”, (b) 5’6” and
c) 5’4” height subjects, respectively.
Ergonomic Design of Human-CNC Machine Interface 129

Fig. 6. Picture showing subject performing the error searching task.

3.2.3 Statistical analysis

The experimental data collected, in terms of subject’s performance in a CNC-EDM
environment, was investigated using statistical analysis with repeated measures. A method
of comparison of the mean was used to determine the optimum level of viewing angle.

3.2.4 Results II
The analysis of variance pertaining to the single factor repeated measure type of statistical
design was performed over the data collected. The result is shown in the analysis of
variance (ANOVA) Table 3;

Type III
Mean
S Sum of df F-value P-value
Square
Squares

VA 17.297 2 8.648 80.932 <0.0001

E 5.450 51 0.107

T 858.501 54

Table 3. Summary of Analysis of Variance, S-Source, VA- Viewing Angle, E-Error, T-Total,
df-degree of freedom.
F-ratio was used for testing the statistical hypothesis, and the level of significance for the test
was set to 0.01. It was concluded that; (i) The null hypothesis, “Viewing Angle does not
significantly affect the operator’s performance in a CNC-EDM environment “, was rejected
because of the aggregate’s mean time difference (performance data in terms of error
130 Human Machine Interaction – Getting Closer

searching time). (ii) Null hypothesis rejected because the F-valueov = 80.932 (see Table 3) was
greater than [F0.01 (2, 51)]cv = 5.0472 obtained from the F-table using the values for degrees of
freedom (2, 51). [Where ov = observed value and cv = critical value]. (iii) Null hypothesis rejected
because the P-value for F-value = 80.932 was found to be less than 0.0001 i.e. (p<0.0001),
which was less than the set significance level (α = 0.01).
Since the viewing angle had statistically significant effect so far as the error searching task
was concerned, an attempt was made to develop a mathematical model to search for the
relationship between human performance and the viewing level. Then linear and non-linear
regression analyses were performed. For the case of non-linear, exponential, hyperbolic and
power function models were examined. The criterion fixed for selecting the best model was
the value of the co-efficient of determination, R2, i.e., the best one would have the highest
value of R2. Proceeding this way the exponential model was found to have the maximum
value (0.774) of the R2. The best fit model had the following form:

Y = 0.025 * X2 - 1.0724 * X + 15.067

Where, Y = Human performance in a CNC-EDM environment and X = Viewing Angle
level.
For the above mathematical model, data were generated and a graph was drawn showing
relationship between the human performance and viewing angle level (see Figure 7).

3.2.5 Statistical conclusion

The null hypothesis stated above was rejected since Fov = 80.932 was greater than Fcv =
5.0472 (obtained from F-table). Furthermore, the computed probability value (p-value) i.e.
[p<0.0001] meant that the test was strongly significant at 1%; hence Ho (null hypothesis)
must be unequivocally rejected at the critical value of 1% because 0.0001 is << 0.01. Thus,
the above result indicated that the null hypothesis was rejected and it was found that the
viewing angle had a significant effect on human performance in a CNC-EDM
environment. Variation in performance under different levels of viewing angle was
shown graphically in Figure 7. To establish which one out of the three considered viewing
angles was optimal, the data was further analyzed by the method of mean comparison
proposed by Winer (1971).

Contrast
Mean
Contrast sum of df F-value P-value
square
square
2 vs 3 2.0736 1 2.0736 19.38 <0.0001

1 vs (2,3) 15.3228 1 15.3228 143.20 <0.0001

Table 4. Summary of the analysis.

Where; 1: First treatment mean (at a viewing angle of 15 degrees), 2: Second treatment mean
(at a viewing angle of 21 degrees), 3: Third treatment mean (at a viewing angle of 28
degrees).
Ergonomic Design of Human-CNC Machine Interface 131

Analysis in Table 4 shows that all contrast were significant, because; (i) F-valueov = 19.38 and
F-valueov = 143.20, were greater than [F0.01 (1, 51)]cv = 7.1595 (obtained from F-table). [Where
ov = observed value and cv = critical value]. (ii) P-values for both F-valueov were found to be
less than 0.0001 i.e. (p<0.0001), which was less than the set significance level i.e. α = 0.01.
Furthermore, analysis showed that there was a significant difference between aggregates
and the contrast [2 vs 3] was marginally significant however, the F-value 143.20 for the
contrast [1 vs (2, 3)] was more significant, so the second contrast hypothesis was rejected.
This indicated that a 21 degree viewing angle level results in optimal operator performance
(Figure 7).

Fig. 7. Graph showing the performance in terms of error searching time versus various
levels of viewing angle.

4. Discussion
World Health Organization (WHO) and Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA) consider the cause of work related musculoskeletal diseases as multi-factorial.
Management and workers in the recent scenario of automation are greatly concerned with
working environment, ergonomics, quality of work and occupational safety and health. The
development in information and communication technologies and specialized work
requiring repetitive task add up to a need for human-machine interface design. Ergonomists
are concerned with the complex physical relationships between peoples, machines, job
demands and work methods. Nowadays major emphasis is on preventing musculoskeletal
injuries in the work place. Prevention of these injuries is accomplished by understanding
biomechanics and physiology of work, through the use of biomechanical models, laboratory
simulations, field studies and job analysis.
Musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) is a health disorder caused by repetitive motion,
inadequate working posture, excessive exertion of strength, body contact with sharp
surface, vibration, temperature, etc. MSDs can be minimized by prevention and
132 Human Machine Interaction – Getting Closer

management. Benefits from the prevention and management of MSDs show improvement
of work environment, the relation between the labor and management, productivity and
decrease in lost work days. From a long-term viewpoint, it can reduce financial losses and
create the image of safe work place. MSDs are widespread and occur in all kind of jobs.
However, work related musculoskeletal disorders are not only health problems; they also
are a financial burden to society. The costs are related to medical costs, decreased
productivity, sick leave and chronic disability (Danuta, 2010). Many studies proved that
load sustained at very low levels can be a factor in MSDs development. Despite the fact that
there is widespread awareness of the problem and measures to limit development of MSDs
are being undertaken, according to an European survey up to 25% of workers report back
pain and 23% muscular pain.
Some amounts of optical radiation are beneficial for humans but excessive exposure can
cause many negative health effects to the skin and eyes and also can affect the immune
system. Biological effects can be induced only by absorbed radiation. We could distinguish
two types of reactions in biological tissues induced by optical radiation: photochemical and
thermal. Exposure limit values represent conditions under which it is expected that nearly
all individuals may be repeatedly exposed without acute adverse effects and based upon
best available evidence, without noticeable risk of delayed effects.
In recent years, human-machine interface system has become one of the most promising
areas for an ergonomist for designing, research and development. With the rapid
technological advancement across the world, various new industries are emerging in large
numbers day by day and the problems related with working environment are also
increasing. The operator’s posture, work place as well as machine and their interaction
environment indicate significant effect on the performance. The optimum working
environment can be designed if all the factors influencing the human performance are
considered together. Factors such as angle of abduction and viewing angle are crucial from
the ergonomic design point of view. Present work was taken to develop a better
understanding of the effect of angle of abduction and viewing angle in a HMI environment.
This work revealed that a 45 degree abduction angle and 21 degree viewing angle gives the
optimal performance as far as human-CNC machine interaction environment is concerned.
The above mentioned findings in some way or the other are similar to those obtained by
some earlier investigators also. Susan et al. (2006), for example, found significant
reductions in the muscle activity by modifying the workstation arrangement of an
ultrasound system’s control panel. Similarly, Dennerlein et al. (2006) based upon their
study revealed that designing for the optimal configuration of a computer controlled
workstation was necessary to eliminate the postural discomfort. Also, Smith et al. (2002)
found the optimum height of the table to position the handles of the laparoscopic
instrument to minimize the discomfort. Another study by Lehman et al. (2001) explored
that the modified workplace design of a retail supermarket industry minimizes the
postural stress, fatigue and discomfort. Present study was also supported by Hongwei et
al. (2002), which identified differences in various body measurements between
occupational groups in the USA. The researcher concluded that the body size or the body
segment measurements of some occupational groups differ significantly. The present
finding was supported by Peter et al. (2006). The study revealed that the task completion
in a computer controlled environment result the higher shoulder muscle activity, larger
Ergonomic Design of Human-CNC Machine Interface 133

range of the motion and the larger velocities and acceleration of the upper arm. The
finding was also supported by Fine et al. (2000). It was concluded in the referred study
that the shoulder flexion or abduction is predictive of chronic or recurrent shoulder
disorder. Therefore, based upon the research reviews, it can be significantly concluded
that the anthropometric factors play a key role in the effective and efficient ergonomic
design of the human-CNC machine interaction environment.
Furthermore, Kong-King et al., (2007), for example, found significant reductions in the eye
muscle activity by modifying the workstation arrangement of an electronic paper displays.
Dennerlein et al., (2006) based upon their study revealed that designing for the optimal
configuration of a computer controlled workstation was necessary to eliminate the postural
discomfort. In a VDU work environment, Svensson et al., (2001) found the optimum
viewing angle which resulted lower load on the neck and shoulders. Also, Jan et al., (2003)
explored that high viewing angle affects the activity of the neck extensor muscles. Results of
the present study are supported by those of Batten et al., (1998), who determined the
optimum viewing angle in a food service industry. The present findings also agree with the
observations of Mon-Williams et al., (1998). This study revealed that as vertical gaze angle is
raised or lowered, the effort required to binocular system also changes. Hence it can be
concluded that the visual factor play a key role in the effective and efficient ergonomic
design of the human-CNC machine interaction environment.
It is essential from the ergonomic point of view that the work place design of a CNC
machine environment be compatible with the biological and psychological characteristics of
the operators. The effectiveness of the human-CNC machine combination can be greatly
enhanced by treating the operator and the CNC machine as a unified system. When the
CNC operator is viewed as one component of a HMI system, the human characteristics
pertinent to the ergonomic design are physical dimensions, capability for the data sensing,
capability for the data processing, capability for the learning etc. Quantitative information
about these human characteristics must be co-ordinate with the data on CNC machine
characteristics, if maximum human-machine integration is to be achieved. The findings of
the present work revealed that the levels of the angle of abduction and viewing angle have a
statistically significant effect on the performance of the CNC-EDM operators. However, a 45
degree abduction angle and 21 degree viewing angle emerged to be the one which appears
to offer a high level of compatibility in a human-CNC machine interface environment.
Finally, it is observed that the application of ergonomics in the design of human-CNC
machine interface would help to increase machine performance and productivity, but
mostly help human operator to be comfortable and secure. Since nowadays, majority of the
companies acquired CNC machines in order to be competitive, ergonomic and safety
aspects must be considered.

5. Conclusion
In a human-machine interaction environment, machines are used to aid humans in the
execution of various tasks. Therefore, human-machine interaction system should be
designed to match the capabilities, limitations and characteristics of human beings. This
work demonstrated that the angle of abduction and viewing angle have a marked effect on
the operator’s performance.
134 Human Machine Interaction – Getting Closer

On the basis of the studies carried out, the following concluding remarks are drawn;
i. The level of angle of abduction has a significant effect on the performance of CNC-EDM
operators.
ii. Findings of this work indicate that CNC-EDM systems should be re-designed so as to
achieve a 45 degree angle of abduction for optimal performance.
iii. The level of viewing angle has a significant effect on the performance of CNC-EDM
operators.
iv. Findings of this work indicate that CNC-EDM systems should be re-designed so as to
achieve a 21 degree viewing angle for optimal performance.
The finding of this work can be directly applied to the practical field which will improve the
design of a CNC-EDM system. This work suggests that those responsible for the function
and operation of CNC-EDM workstations would have to redesign the system to reduce
injuries, as far as visual, musculoskeletal and other related problems are concerned.
The present results are very important for the system designers of tomorrow. It is expected
that more studies would be undertaken in this regard in near future and the new human-
CNC machine interaction systems would be designed accordingly.
Bring to a close, the application of ergonomic principles in the design of human-CNC
machine interface, would help to increase machine performance and productivity, but
mostly help human operator to be comfortable and secure. Since at present time the vast
majority of the companies acquired Automated Manufacturing Technology in order to be
competitive, ergonomic and safety aspects must be considered.

6. Acknowledgment
The author would like to acknowledge the support provided by the national small
industries corporation (NSIC), a government of India undertaking, Aligarh, India.

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