Chinese Language Learning Sciences

Hongyin Tao
Howard Hao-Jan Chen Editors

Chinese for Specific

and Professional
Purposes
Theory, Pedagogical
Applications, and Practices
Chinese Language Learning Sciences

Series Editors
Chin-Chuan Cheng, Department of Linguistics, University of Illinois, Illinois, USA
Kuo-En Chang, Graduate Institute of Information and Computer Education,
National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei, Taiwan
Yao-Ting Sung, Department of Educational Psychology and Counseling, National
Taiwan Normal University, Taipei, Taiwan
Ping Li, Department of Psychology and Program in Linguistics, Pennsylvania State
University, Pennsylvania, USA
This book series investigates several critical issues embedded in fundamental,
technical, and applied research in the field of Chinese as second language
(CSL) learning and teaching, including learning mechanism in the brain,
technology application for teaching, learning and assessment. The book series
discusses these issues from the perspectives of science (evidence-based approach)
and technology. The studies in the book series use the methods from the fields of
linguistics (such as corpus linguistics and computational linguistics), psychological
and behavioural sciences (such as experimental design and statistical analyses),
informational technology (such as information retrieval and natural language
processing) and brain sciences (such as neuroimaging and neurolinguistics). The
book series generally covers three main interdisciplinary themes: (1) fundamental
investigation of Chinese as a first or second language acquisition, (2) development
in Chinese language learning technology, and (3) applied research on Chinese
language education.

More specifically, the book series involves seven research topics:

– language transfer mechanism in Chinese as a second language

– factors of Chinese as a second language acquisition in childhood
– cultural influence on Chinese acquisition
– information technology, corpus
– teaching material design
– teaching strategies and teacher training
– learning models
– assessment methods
Please contact Melody Zhang (e-mail: [email protected]) for
submitting book proposals for this series.

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/13176

Hongyin Tao Howard Hao-Jan Chen
•

Editors

Chinese for Specific

and Professional Purposes
Theory, Pedagogical Applications,
and Practices

123
Editors
Hongyin Tao Howard Hao-Jan Chen
Department of Asian Languages Department of English
and Cultures National Taiwan Normal University
University of California Taipei, Taiwan
Los Angeles, CA, USA

ISSN 2520-1719 ISSN 2520-1727 (electronic)

Chinese Language Learning Sciences
ISBN 978-981-13-9504-8 ISBN 978-981-13-9505-5 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-9505-5
© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2019
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
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recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
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Preface

Language for specific purposes (LSP) has drawn increasing attention in the field of
second language acquisition (SLA) for a number of important reasons, chief among
them are the profound theoretical questions it raises (e.g., nature of language and
nature of language learning) and the challenges and payoffs of LSP pedagogical
practice. Chinese for Specific/Professional Purposes (CSP), however, remains a
fairly new field of theoretical research and pedagogical practice in the Chinese
language. As such, there has been little research conducted, especially in Western
languages. In Chinese, CSP, or 专门用途汉语 / 專業華語, has been dominated by
interest in a few subject areas (or professions), especially business, science, and
technology, and Chinese medicine, although there are signs pointing to diversifi-
cation toward multiple content areas and across disciplines. This volume attempts to
fill the gap by bringing together practitioners from a wide international scholarly
community who share common interests yet diverse orientations. Seventeen papers
representing four broad thematic categories are included in the volume, with the
major themes covering (1) academic Chinese, (2) business Chinese, (3) Chinese for
medicine and health care, and (4) Chinese for other broadly defined services and
industries (diplomat, tourism, wine tasting, etc.). The scope of the papers varies,
yet all of them touch upon learning and pedagogical issues to some extent.
Although it is not the intent of this collection to provide a comprehensive coverage
of all major areas of the field, it is our hope that by presenting a diverse collection of
CSP studies and presenting them in a single place, we will be able to draw more
attention to CSP as a field and help build up the momentum in its rapid ascending
trajectory at the beginning of the twenty-first century.
We wish to take this opportunity to thank the co-editors of the Springer Book
Series on Chinese Language Learning Sciences, Prof. Yao-Ting Sung and Prof.
Ping Li, for the opportunity to publish the volume here. Support from the National
Taiwan Normal University, especially the office of VP Prof. Yao-Ting Sung, is also
acknowledged, while Hongyin Tao was appointed an honorary position at NTNU
during the 2017–18 academic year when the project was initiated.

v
vi Preface

Hongyin Tao also acknowledges the support of U.S. Department of Education

grant #P229A140026, to the Center for Advanced Language Proficiency Education
and Research (CALPER), the Pennsylvania State University, on academic Chinese.
However, the contents developed under the grant do not necessarily represent the
policy of the U.S. Department of Education, and you should not assume endorse-
ment by the Federal Government.
Howard Chen would like to acknowledge the partial support from the “Aim for
the Top University Project” of the National Taiwan Normal University, sponsored
by the Ministry of Education, Taiwan, R. O. C.
We thank the two anonymous reviewers for their careful reading of the manu-
script and the constructive suggestions for improvement. Last but certainly not the
least, the professional assistance from Mr. Lawrence Liu and Ms. Lay Peng Ang at
Springer is also gratefully acknowledged.

Los Angeles, USA Hongyin Tao

Taipei, Taiwan Howard Hao-Jan Chen
Chinese for Specific/Professional Purposes:
An Introduction

Abstract This introductory chapter first provides an overview of some of the major
issues in language for specific purposes (LSP) and its counterpart in Chinese:
Chinese for Specific/Professional Purposes (CSP). The major focus is placed on
theoretical issues that may constitute the current and future research agenda in
LSP/CSP. Then, a brief overview of the state of the art in CSP is provided. The
third and the final part of the chapter provides a brief sketch of the chapters included
in this volume, with concluding remarks at the end on the future directions of the
field of CSP.

Major Issues and a Theoretical Overview

Chinese for Specific/Professional Purposes (henceforth CSP) is the Chinese

counterpart of language for specific purposes (LSP). LSP is typically understood as
teaching of language to meet specified needs of the learner incorporating both
linguistic (e.g., vocabulary, syntax, discourse genres) and content area knowledge
(Strevens 1988: 1–2; Trace et al. 2015: 3). LSP emerges from the field of English
for Specific Purposes (ESP), as English has been the de facto international language
with a wide range of applied contexts—for example, English for academic purposes
and English for international business are among the most commonly and widely
practiced applied ESP fields.
However, LSP became an important field of language teaching and learning only
in recent decades. To wit, the First International Symposium on Language for
Specific Purposes did not take place until 2012 (Sánchez-López 2013), and the
Journal of Language for Specific Purposes was inaugurated only in 2014.
Still, LSP has drawn increasing attention in the field of second language
acquisition (SLA), and studies in LSP can raise profound theoretical questions as
well as important practical issues.
First, LSP raises questions about the nature of language. Traditionally, linguistic
research, be it in the form of structuralism (Bloomfield 1933) or the generative

vii
viii Chinese for Specific/Professional Purposes: An Introduction

tradition (Chomsky 1957, 1965), has been dominated by work that focuses on
language without context. While early work in the social–cultural linguistic tradi-
tion has pointed to the importance of looking at context (e.g., the SPEAKING
model of Hymes 1974), later work has argued specifically for an emergent and
multiplicity grammar model. In the word of Paul Hopper, “(grammar) must be
viewed as a real-time, social phenomenon, and therefore is temporal; its structure is
always deferred, always in a process but never arriving, and therefore emergent’
(1998: 156). With the conviction that grammar contracts as texts expand (Hopper
1998: 164) and the metaphor of a blueprint to describe the nature of grammar,
Hopper goes on to state that “learning a language is not a question of acquiring
grammatical structure but of expanding a repertoire of communicative context”
(1998: 170–71, emphasis original). LSP, with the focus on language in a specific
context and the emerging grammatical and discourse features associated with such
contexts, provides strong evidence for, and is best understood from, the point of
view of context-induced, Emergent Grammar.
Second, a related issue is the nature of language learning. Given that language
cannot be understood without reference to context, it follows that language learning
needs to proceed in a manner where context plays a paramount role. As the model
of SPEAKING of Hymes (1974) and subsequent models (e.g., Duranti and
Goodwin 1992) made clear, context involves circumstantial factors, participants
and their roles, interactional goals, as well as the sequential context in which
interlocutors dynamically recreate and reshape contexts through interaction.
Naturally, for language learning, a context-based model is also critical. We have
earlier (Tao 2005) argued that one of the major gaps between learning materials and
natural discourse is the lack of incorporation of contextual elements. The rise of
LSP as a field exposes one of the major flaws of prevailing teaching models, which
is aptly characterized as LNOP—Language for No Obvious Purposes (Trace et al.
2015: 3); or, in the case of English language teaching, TENOR—Teaching English
for No Obvious Reasons (Abbott 1978). In fact, we would like to take one step
further by suggesting that, by examining language use in specific and professional
contexts, LSP can inform language teaching far beyond itself—that is, even in
contexts such as ordinary conversation and literacy acquisition where less obvious
or no-special professional apparatuses are figured, the elements of context should
also be tightly integrated into SLA models and practices.
Third, LSP informs and is strongly informed by theories of genre and inter-
textuality. As is well known, Bakhtin argues that genre has important places in
understanding language structure and use. Bakhtin (1986: 60) defines genre as
relatively stable types of utterances in specific spheres of human activity. He further
justifies why genre research is so “immensely important”:
This is because any research whose material is concrete language-the history of a language,
normative grammar, the compilation of any kind of dictionary, the stylistics of language,
and so forth-inevitably deals with concrete utterances (written and oral) belonging to
various spheres of human activity and communication: chronicles, contracts, texts of laws,
clerical and other documents, various literary, scientific, and commentarial genres, official
and personal letters , rejoinders in everyday dialogue (in all of their diverse subcategories),
and so on. (Bakhtin 1986:62).
Chinese for Specific/Professional Purposes: An Introduction ix

Such an emphasis on genre has been echoed by functionally oriented linguists who
are concerned with concrete language use and its implications for language
teaching. As early as in the 1960s, for example, Halliday, McIntosh, and Strevens
call on linguists to engage in “detailed studies of restricted language and special
registers” and develop teaching materials based on such studies (Halliday et al.
1964: 189–190, cited in Swales 2000: 59). In the case of Chinese, Tao (1999)
contends that genre-/register-based methodology should be the primary basis of all
Chinese linguistic structural analysis.
LSP is, by definition, context- and genre-based. Although there is a vast array of
speech genres such that practitioners in linguistics and LSA must accept multiple ways
to categorize genres, and there is a clear need for the teaching of genre in a controlled
and selective fashion and based on learner needs, it is clear that genre research and
pedagogy remain some of the most important issues in the fields for today.
From the above sketches of a few theoretical issues, we hope that it is apparent that
there is strong demand for research on allied fields that can be brought to inform LSP
(or its extension in CSP). From this point of view, the strong research tradition in
English can trickle down to other language areas. Indeed, as Lourdes et al. (2017: 13)
point out, “a stronger LSP research agenda in the United States to strengthen the
non-English LSP has been a focal point of discussion in recent years.” For CSP, it is
clear that reconceptualization of the nature of language and its pedagogical impli-
cations in terms of both context and discourse genres is critically needed, and we must
consequently devote more energy and resources to such endeavors.

The State of the Art of Chinese for Specific Purposes

In Chinese, CSP is commonly referred to as Zhuanmen Yongtu Hanyu “Chinese for

Specific Purposes” (专门用途汉语, Zhang et al. 2016) or Zhuanye Huayu
“Professional Chinese” (專業華語, Peng et al. 2016). A number of studies have
surveyed the state of the art in LSP in Chinese. For example, Wang and Jiang
(2019) point out that “CSP has progressed from isolated instruction of Chinese for
business to a wider range of various specific purposes and interdisciplinary content
areas.” This, we note, is in interesting contrast with ESP where it is pointed out that
the dominant content area has been academic English rather than business English
(Swales 2000: 66), although a reversal new trend has been noted in recent years
(Swales 2000: 66; Lourdes et al. 2017).
Zhang et al. (2016, Chap. 2) devote an entire chapter on the development of CSP
in the mainland China context. They note again that Chinese for business purposes
has a long history dated back to the nineteenth century (in Japan). They also
describe the trend on Chinese for science and technology since the 1950s in China,
followed by other content areas such as diplomacy and (Chinese) medicine which
have ostensibly defined CSP over the past decades.
Elsewhere, in Taiwan, for example, effort has been made to introduce the
methods and pedagogy of CSP in a systematic fashion, which has resulted in the
x Chinese for Specific/Professional Purposes: An Introduction

introductory and general surveys done by Peng and her associates at Chung Yuan
Christian University (Peng et al. 2016).
Based on the existing literature and the survey of the field, a number of features
can be described of the state of the art of CSP. First, there is a lack of theoretical
research which may be considered on a par with ESP or LSP in general. In this
regard, we find Li (2011) to be notable. He especially discusses the connection
with, and the need for CSP to draw on insights from, theoretical linguistic research,
touching upon such linguistic areas as sociolinguistics, which focuses on language
variation and context, as well as genre theory.
Second, CSP as an SLA field has been dominated by a few subject areas (or
professions), chiefly business, science and technology, and Chinese medicine,
although, as Wang and Jiang (2019) point out, there are signs pointing to diver-
sification toward multiple content areas and across disciplines. Recent work on
academic Chinese (Chen and Tao 2019) and a large-scale international conference
taking place at the University of Hawaii, Manoa, in April 2018, the 6th Business
Chinese Workshop in Conjunction with the Second International Conference on
Business Chinese Education, with the theme of Beyond a Limited Scope: Chinese
for Specific, Academic, and Professional Purposes, is evidence of such a trend.
Third, just as LSP in general (Swales 2000), whether LSP/CSP is a profession or
a discipline is not well defined. At North America universities, for instance, most
CSP courses are subsumed under the general Chinese language programs and often
offered as an upper division language option (e.g., business Chinese, see Yang
2009); in some cases, however, attempts have been made to offer those courses at
lower division, elementary levels (Fu and Yeh, this volume; Lai, this volume; Yang
2009), or as superior level courses in such specialized programs as the US federally
sponsored Language Flagship Program (Spring 2012). There are usually no spe-
cialized academic positions or graduate fields focusing on LSP/CSP (Swales 2000).
While there are many other directions from which CSP can develop—for
example, the use of technology (including corpus data and tools, Zhang and Tao
2018, Chen and Tao 2019) can be very effective (Wang and Jiang 2019)—we
believe that Brown’s (1995) proposal of the six core steps in the development of a
LSP curriculum can serve as a useful starting point. Brown (1995) summarizes the
six steps as follows: (a) needs analysis; (b) goals and objectives; (c) assessment;
(d) materials selection and development; (e) teaching; and (f) program evaluation.
Each of these steps can constitute an important research agenda for CSP. (For some
specific illustrations of the issues implied in these steps, the reader is referred to
Zhang et al. 2016, especially Chaps. 5–7.).

The Articles

The current collection, likely the very first in a Western language, aims to address
some of the issues discussed above in a number of ways. The chapters are divided
into four broad thematic units, covering some of the major areas of CSP:
Chinese for Specific/Professional Purposes: An Introduction xi

(1) academic Chinese, (2) business Chinese, (3) Chinese for medicine and health
care, (4) Chinese for other services and industries (diplomat, tourism, wine tasting,
etc.). The scope of the papers varies, with some on broad, theoretical, and con-
ceptual issues, while others offer concrete pedagogical solutions. However, all
of the papers touch upon pedagogical issues to some extent. The arrangement of the
sections is first of all theme-based, and within each section, the papers show dif-
ferent levels of specificity in pedagogical concerns, with the more concrete ones
appearing later in each thematic unit, as appropriate.
The first set of papers, a total of five, addresses issues and linguistic features of
academic Chinese. Haidan Wang explores ways to connect reading and writing
with a genre- and task-based approach to academic Chinese. Vincent Li and
Miao-Hsia Chang’s paper discusses a common expression in jiushi, in academic
Chinese, identifying three major metadiscourse functions of it, namely intensifi-
cation, elaboration, and as a pause filler. Rui Liu and Shan Wang’s paper focuses on
reporting verbs (renwei “believe,” faxian “discover,” etc.) in Chinese academic
papers. Yue (Luna) Peng and Wei Yan, also on academic Chinese, question the role
of HSK in informing the curriculum of academic Chinese, with a proposal to
address learner needs in more direct ways. Finally, another paper on academic
Chinese is done by Yu Liu, where she examines the disfluent phenomenon in L2
Chinese academic oral presentations, with a proposal to develop learners’ knowl-
edge of formulaic language in improving academic presentation skills.
The second set of papers deals with Chinese in the business context. Zhongqi
Shi, Qiaosi Yuan, and Mengsu Kong conduct a comprehensive survey of studies on
business Chinese over the past two decades (1997–2017) in major publications
across various Chinese speaking communities (the US, China, Taiwan, etc.). Cindy
Lee and Li-Yu Chen investigate business professionals’ perspective on learning
culture in the business Chinese curriculum, aiming at reducing cross-cultural
misunderstandings in the Taiwan business environment. Qiaona Yu’s paper is on
designing a task-based and community-integrated business Chinese course, with
three types of tasks outlined (job search, work and social life, and international
business and entrepreneurship).
Five papers fall into the third category: medicine and health care. The paper by
Hui-Ling Lai and Yi-Chen Chen examines, from a cognitive-intercultural perspec-
tive, Chinese euphemistic expressions related to aging, illness, and death and ana-
lyze the metaphorical nature of the expressions. Wan-Hua Lin’s paper investigates
conditionals (ruguo, ruo “if”) in Chinese medical discourse, with a comparison of
spoken and written registers. The rest of the papers in this category is more directly
related to discourse structure and pedagogy. This includes one by Nan Wang, which
explores conversational structure of medical consultations in the Chinese pediatric
clinic setting, with an eight-component system ranging from opening, history-
taking, physical examination, to closing. The paper by Wei Lai is on needs analysis
of Mandarin courses for health care professionals at the elementary level. Finally,
from a conversational pragmatic perspective, Meng Yeh and Liang Fu present an
innovative curriculum of spoken Chinese for medical purposes, with a design to
develop students’ interactional competence in doctor–patient conversations.
xii Chinese for Specific/Professional Purposes: An Introduction

The fourth and last category of this collection covers papers on various, broadly
defined, other services and industries. On a rarely researched topic, Cornelius C.
Kuble provides a detailed study of teaching Chinese for diplomats in the USA,
covering a needs analysis, the trainers, a detailed curriculum, among others. Chiara
Romagboli explores a unique field, wine tasting, with a focus on vocabulary fea-
tures reflecting China’s viticulture, wine market, wine consumption, as well the
related industrial standards. Shan Wang and Huiting Luo describe findings, espe-
cially lexical features, from a Macao tourism corpus they constructed. The last
paper in the group, by Chan Shui Duen, presents CSP education in the Hong Kong
context, which is unique as CSP practices there often involve what is known as
“practical writing” or Professional Chinese, with a detailed description of the ways
in which such curricula are designed and implemented in Hong Kong for practical
purposes.
Thus, as can be seen from the brief summary given above, this volume covers a
wide range of subject matters and highly diverse perspectives. Although it is not the
intent of this collection to provide a comprehensive coverage of all major areas
of the field (in fact, some of the important areas such as Chinese for science and
technology and legal Chinese are unfortunately conspicuously absent), it is our
hope that by presenting a collection of CSP studies—both theoretical and practical
—in multiple theoretical flavors, more attention will be drawn to CSP as it evolves
into the next phase of important development in the twenty-first century.

Acknowledgements We wish to thank Jiajin Xu and Haidan Wang for critical references for our
writing of the introductory chapter.

Hongyin Tao
[email protected]
Howard Hao-Jan Chen
[email protected]

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