Beauty

Beauty is commonly described as a feature of objects that

makes these objects pleasurable to perceive. Such objects
include landscapes, sunsets, humans and works of art.
Beauty, together with art and taste, is the main subject of
aesthetics, one of the major branches of philosophy. As a
positive aesthetic value, it is contrasted with ugliness as its
negative counterpart. Along with truth and goodness it is
one of the transcendentals, which are often considered the
three fundamental concepts of human understanding.

One difficulty for understanding beauty is due to the fact

that it has both objective and subjective aspects: it is seen as
a property of things but also as depending on the emotional
response of observers. Because of its subjective side, beauty
is said to be "in the eye of the beholder".[2] It has been
Rayonnant rose window in Notre Dame de
argued that the ability on the side of the subject needed to
Paris. In Gothic architecture, light was
perceive and judge beauty, sometimes referred to as the
considered the most beautiful revelation of
"sense of taste", can be trained and that the verdicts of
God, which was heralded in its design.[1]
experts coincide in the long run. This would suggest that the
standards of validity of judgments of beauty are
intersubjective, i.e. dependent on a group of judges, rather than fully subjective or fully objective.

Conceptions of beauty aim to capture what is essential to all beautiful things. Classical conceptions define
beauty in terms of the relation between the beautiful object as a whole and its parts: the parts should stand
in the right proportion to each other and thus compose an integrated harmonious whole. Hedonist
conceptions see a necessary connection between pleasure and beauty, e.g. that for an object to be beautiful
is for it to cause disinterested pleasure. Other conceptions include defining beautiful objects in terms of their
value, of a loving attitude towards them or of their function.

Contents
Overview
Objectivism and subjectivism
Conceptions
Classical
Hedonism
Others
Beauty in philosophy
Greco-Roman tradition
Pre-Socratic
Classical period
Roman
 Western Middle Ages
Renaissance
Age of Reason
Western 19th and 20th century
Chinese philosophy
Human beauty
Western concept of beauty
Effects on society
See also
References
External links

Overview
Beauty, together with art and taste, is the main subject of aesthetics, one of the major branches of
philosophy.[3][4] Beauty is usually categorized as an aesthetic property besides other properties, like grace,
elegance or the sublime.[5][6][7] As a positive aesthetic value, beauty is contrasted with ugliness as its
negative counterpart. Beauty is often listed as one of the three fundamental concepts of human
understanding besides truth and goodness.[5][8][6]

Objectivists or realists see beauty as an objective or mind-independent feature of beautiful things, which is
denied by subjectivists.[3][9] The source of this debate is that judgments of beauty seem to be based on
subjective grounds, namely our feelings, while claiming universal correctness at the same time.[10] This
tension is sometimes referred to as the "antinomy of taste".[4] Adherents of both sides have suggested that a
certain faculty, commonly called a sense of taste, is necessary for making reliable judgments about
beauty.[3][10] David Hume, for example, suggests that this faculty can be trained and that the verdicts of
experts coincide in the long run.[3][9]

Beauty is mainly discussed in relation to concrete objects accessible to sensory perception. It is often
suggested that the beauty of a thing supervenes on the sensory features of this thing.[10] But it has also been
proposed that abstract objects like stories or mathematical proofs can be beautiful.[11] Beauty plays a central
role in works of art but there is also beauty outside the field of art, especially concerning the beauty of
nature.[12][10] An influential distinction among beautiful things, due to Immanuel Kant, is that between
dependent and free beauty. A thing has dependent beauty if its beauty depends on the conception or
function of this thing, unlike free or absolute beauty.[10] Examples of dependent beauty include an ox that
is beautiful as an ox but not as a horse[3] or a photograph that is beautiful because it depicts a beautiful
building but that lacks beauty generally speaking because of its low quality.[9]

Objectivism and subjectivism

Judgments of beauty seem to occupy an intermediary position between objective judgments, e.g.
concerning the mass and shape of a grapefruit, and subjective likes, e.g. concerning whether the grapefruit
tastes good.[13][10][9] Judgments of beauty differ from the former because they are based on subjective
feelings rather than objective perception. But they also differ from the latter because they lay claim on
universal correctness.[10] This tension is also reflected in common language. On the one hand, we talk
about beauty as an objective feature of the world that is ascribed, for example, to landscapes, paintings or
humans.[14] The subjective side, on the other hand, is expressed in sayings like "beauty is in the eye of the
beholder".[3]

These two positions are often referred to as objectivism or realism and subjectivism.[3] Objectivism is the
traditional view while subjectivism developed more recently in western philosophy. Objectivists hold that
beauty is a mind-independent feature of things. On this account, the beauty of a landscape is independent of
who perceives it or whether it is perceived at all.[3][9] Disagreements may be explained by an inability to
perceive this feature, sometimes referred to as a "lack of taste".[15] Subjectivism, on the other hand, denies
the mind-independent existence of beauty.[5][3][9] Influential for the development of this position was John
Locke's distinction between primary qualities, which the object has independent of the observer, and
secondary qualities, which constitute powers in the object to produce certain ideas in the observer.[3][16][5]
When applied to beauty, there is still a sense in which it depends on the object and its powers.[9] But this
account makes the possibility of genuine disagreements about claims of beauty implausible since the same
object may produce very different ideas in distinct observers. The notion of "taste" can still be used to
explain why different people disagree about what is beautiful. But there is no objectively right or wrong
taste, there are just different tastes.[3]

The problem with both the objectivist and the subjectivist position in their extreme form is that each has to
deny some intuitions about beauty. This issue is sometimes discussed under the label "antinomy of
taste".[3][4] It has prompted various philosophers to seek a unified theory that can take all these intuitions
into account. One promising route to solve this problem is to move from subjective to intersubjective
theories, which hold that the standards of validity of judgments of taste are intersubjective or dependent on
a group of judges rather than objective. This approach tries to explain how genuine disagreement about
beauty is possible despite the fact that beauty is a mind-dependent property, dependent not on an individual
but a group.[3][4] A closely related theory sees beauty as a secondary or response-dependent property.[9]
On one such account, an object is beautiful "if it causes pleasure by virtue of its aesthetic properties".[5]
The problem that different people respond differently can be addressed by combining response-dependence
theories with so-called ideal-observer theories: it only matters how an ideal observer would respond.[10]
There is no general agreement on how "ideal observers" are to be defined, but it is usually assumed that
they are experienced judges of beauty with a fully developed sense of taste. This suggests an indirect way
of solving the antinomy of taste: instead of looking for necessary and sufficient conditions of beauty itself,
we may learn to identify the qualities of good critics and rely on their judgments.[3] This approach only
works if unanimity among experts was ensured. But even experienced judges may disagree in their
judgments, which threatens to undermine ideal-observer theories.[3][9]

Conceptions
Various conceptions of the essential features of beautiful things have been proposed but there is no
consensus as to which is the right one.

Classical

The classical conception defines beauty in terms of the relation between the beautiful object as a whole
and its parts: the parts should stand in the right proportion to each other and thus compose an integrated
harmonious whole.[3][5][9] On this account, which found its most explicit articulation in the Italian
Renaissance, the beauty of a human body, for example, depends, among other things, on the right
proportion of the different parts of the body and on the overall symmetry.[3] One problem with this
conception is that it is difficult to give a general and detailed description of what is meant by "harmony
between parts".[3] This raises the suspicion that defining beauty through harmony only results in
exchanging one unclear term for another one. Some attempts have been made to dissolve this suspicion by
searching for laws of beauty, like the golden ratio. Alexander Baumgarten, for example, saw laws of beauty
in analogy with laws of nature and believed that they could be discovered through empirical research.[5]
But these attempts have failed so far to find a general definition of beauty. Several authors even take the
opposite claim, that such laws cannot be formulated, as part of their definition of beauty.[10]

Hedonism

A very common element in many conceptions of beauty is its relation to pleasure.[11][5] Hedonism makes
this relation part of the definition of beauty by holding that there is a necessary connection between
pleasure and beauty, e.g. that for an object to be beautiful is for it to cause pleasure or that the experience of
beauty is always accompanied by pleasure.[12] This account is sometimes labeled as "aesthetic hedonism"
in order to distinguish it from other forms of hedonism.[17][18] An influential articulation of this position
comes from Thomas Aquinas, who treats beauty as "that which pleases in the very apprehension of it".[19]
Immanuel Kant explains this pleasure through a harmonious interplay between the faculties of
understanding and imagination.[11] A further question for hedonists is how to explain the relation between
beauty and pleasure. This problem is akin to the Euthyphro dilemma: is something beautiful because we
enjoy it or do we enjoy it because it is beautiful?[5] Identity theorists solve this problem by denying that
there is a difference between beauty and pleasure: they identify beauty, or the appearance of it, with the
experience of aesthetic pleasure.[11]

Hedonists usually restrict and specify the notion of pleasure in various ways in order to avoid obvious
counterexamples. One important distinction in this context is the difference between pure and mixed
pleasure.[11] Pure pleasure excludes any form of pain or unpleasant feeling while the experience of mixed
pleasure can include unpleasant elements.[20] But beauty can involve mixed pleasure, for example, in the
case of a beautifully tragic story, which is why mixed pleasure is usually allowed in hedonist conceptions of
beauty.[11]

Another problem faced by hedonist theories is that we take pleasure from many things that are not
beautiful. One way to address this issue is to associate beauty with a special type of pleasure: aesthetic or
disinterested pleasure.[3][4][7] A pleasure is disinterested if it is indifferent to the existence of the beautiful
object or if it did not arise due to an antecedent desire through means-end reasoning.[21][11] For example,
the joy of looking at a beautiful landscape would still be valuable if it turned out that this experience was an
illusion, which would not be true if this joy was due to seeing the landscape as a valuable real estate
opportunity.[3] Opponents of hedonism usually concede that many experiences of beauty are pleasurable
but deny that this is true for all cases.[12] For example, a cold jaded critic may still be a good judge of
beauty due to her years of experience but lack the joy that initially accompanied her work.[11] One way to
avoid this objection is to allow responses to beautiful things to lack pleasure while insisting that all beautiful
things merit pleasure, that aesthetic pleasure is the only appropriate response to them.[12]

Others

Various other conceptions of beauty have been proposed. G. E. Moore explains beauty in regard to intrinsic
value as "that of which the admiring contemplation is good in itself".[21][5] This definition connects beauty
to experience while managing to avoid some of the problems usually associated with subjectivist positions
since it allows that things may be beautiful even if they are never experienced.[21] Another subjectivist
theory of beauty comes from George Santayana, who suggests that we project pleasure onto the things we
call "beautiful". So in a process akin to a category mistake, we treat our subjective pleasure as an objective
property of the beautiful thing.[11][3][5] Other conceptions include defining beauty in terms of a loving or
longing attitude towards the beautiful object or in terms of its usefulness or function.[3][22] Functionalists
can follow Charles Darwin, for example, in explaining beauty according to its role in sexual selection.[5]

Beauty in philosophy

Greco-Roman tradition

The classical Greek noun that best translates to the English-language words "beauty" or "beautiful" was
κάλλος, kallos, and the adjective was καλός, kalos. However, kalos may and is also translated as ″good″ or
″of fine quality″ and thus has a broader meaning than mere physical or material beauty. Similarly, kallos
was used differently from the English word beauty in that it first and foremost applied to humans and bears
an erotic connotation.[23] The Koine Greek word for beautiful was ὡραῖος, hōraios,[24] an adjective
etymologically coming from the word ὥρα, hōra, meaning "hour". In Koine Greek, beauty was thus
associated with "being of one's hour".[25] Thus, a ripe fruit (of its time) was considered beautiful, whereas a
young woman trying to appear older or an older woman trying to appear younger would not be considered
beautiful. In Attic Greek, hōraios had many meanings, including "youthful" and "ripe old age".[25]
Another classical term in use to describe beauty was pulchrum (Latin).[26]

Beauty for ancient thinkers existed both in form, which is the material world as it is, and as embodied in the
spirit, which is the world of mental formations.[27] Greek mythology mentions Helen of Troy as the most
beautiful woman.[28][29][30][31][32] Ancient Greek architecture is based on this view of symmetry and
proportion.

Pre-Socratic

In one fragment of Heraclitus's writings (Fragment 106) he mentions beauty, this reads : To God all things
are beautiful, good, right... [33] The earliest Western theory of beauty can be found in the works of early
Greek philosophers from the pre-Socratic period, such as Pythagoras, who conceived of beauty as useful
for a moral education of the soul.[34] He wrote of how people experience pleasure when aware of a certain
type of formal situation present in reality, perceivable by sight or through the ear[35] and discovered the
underlying mathematical ratios in the harmonic scales in music.[34] The Pythagoreans conceived of the
presence of beauty in universal terms, which is, as existing in a cosmological state, they observed beauty in
the heavens.[27] They saw a strong connection between mathematics and beauty. In particular, they noted
that objects proportioned according to the golden ratio seemed more attractive.[36]

Classical period

The classical concept of beauty is one that exhibits perfect proportion (Wolfflin).[37] In this context, the
concept belonged often within the discipline of mathematics.[26] An idea of spiritual beauty emerged during
the classical period,[27] beauty was something embodying divine goodness, while the demonstration of
behaviour which might be classified as beautiful, from an inner state of morality which is aligned to the
good.[38]

The writing of Xenophon shows a conversation between Socrates and Aristippus. Socrates discerned
differences in the conception of the beautiful, for example, in inanimate objects, the effectiveness of
execution of design was a deciding factor on the perception of beauty in something.[27] By the account of
Xenophon, Socrates found beauty congruent with that to which was defined as the morally good, in short,
he thought beauty coincident with the good.[39]
Beauty is a subject of Plato in his work Symposium.[34] In the work, the high priestess Diotima describes
how beauty moves out from a core singular appreciation of the body to outer appreciations via loved ones,
to the world in its state of culture and society (Wright).[35] In other words, Diotoma gives to Socrates an
explanation of how love should begin with erotic attachment, and end with the transcending of the physical
to an appreciation of beauty as a thing in itself. The ascent of love begins with one's own body, then
secondarily, in appreciating beauty in another's body, thirdly beauty in the soul, which cognates to beauty in
the mind in the modern sense, fourthly beauty in institutions, laws and activities, fifthly beauty in
knowledge, the sciences, and finally to lastly love beauty itself, which translates to the original Greek
language term as auto to kalon.[40] In the final state, auto to kalon and truth are united as one.[41] There is
the sense in the text, concerning love and beauty they both co-exist but are still independent or, in other
words, mutually exclusive, since love does not have beauty since it seeks beauty.[42] The work toward the
end provides a description of beauty in a negative sense.[42]

Plato also discusses beauty in his work Phaedrus,[41] and identifies Alcibiades as beautiful in
Parmenides.[43] He considered beauty to be the Idea (Form) above all other Ideas.[44] Platonic thought
synthesized beauty with the divine.[35] Scruton (cited: Konstan) states Plato states of the idea of beauty, of
it (the idea), being something inviting desirousness (c.f seducing), and, promotes an intellectual
renunciation (c.f. denouncing) of desire.[45] For Alexander Nehamas, it is only the locating of desire to
which the sense of beauty exists, in the considerations of Plato.[46]

Aristotle defines beauty in Metaphysics as having order, symmetry and definiteness which the
mathematical sciences exhibit to a special degree.[37] He saw a relationship between the beautiful (to
kalon) and virtue, arguing that "Virtue aims at the beautiful."[47]

Roman

In De Natura Deorum Cicero wrote: the splendour and beauty of creation, in respect to this, and all the
facets of reality resulting from creation, he postulated these to be a reason to see the existence of a God as
creator.[48]

Western Middle Ages

In the Middle Ages, Catholic philosophers like Thomas Aquinas included beauty among the transcendental
attributes of being.[49] In his Summa Theologica, Aquinas described the three conditions of beauty as:
integritas (wholeness), consonantia (harmony and proportion), and claritas (a radiance and clarity that
makes the form of a thing apparent to the mind).[50]

In the Gothic Architecture of the High and Late Middle Ages, light was considered the most beautiful
revelation of God, which was heralded in design.[1] Examples are the stained glass of Gothic Cathedrals
including Notre-Dame de Paris and Chartes Cathedral.[51]

St. Augustine said of beauty "Beauty is indeed a good gift of God; but that the good may not think it a
great good, God dispenses it even to the wicked."[52]

Renaissance

Classical philosophy and sculptures of men and women produced according to the Greek philosophers'
tenets of ideal human beauty were rediscovered in Renaissance Europe, leading to a re-adoption of what
became known as a "classical ideal". In terms of female human beauty, a woman whose appearance
conforms to these tenets is still called a "classical beauty" or said to possess a "classical beauty", whilst the
foundations laid by Greek and Roman artists have also supplied the standard for male beauty and female
beauty in western civilization as seen, for example, in the Winged Victory of Samothrace. During the
Gothic era, the classical aesthetical canon of beauty was rejected as sinful. Later, Renaissance and
Humanist thinkers rejected this view, and considered beauty to be the product of rational order and
harmonious proportions. Renaissance artists and architects (such as Giorgio Vasari in his "Lives of Artists")
criticised the Gothic period as irrational and barbarian. This point of view of Gothic art lasted until
Romanticism, in the 19th century. Vasari aligned himself to the classical notion and thought of beauty as
defined as arising from proportion and order.[38]

Age of Reason

The Age of Reason saw a rise in an interest in beauty as a

philosophical subject. For example, Scottish philosopher
Francis Hutcheson argued that beauty is "unity in variety
and variety in unity".[53] He wrote that beauty was neither
purely subjective nor purely objective—it could be
understood not as "any Quality suppos'd to be in the Object,
which should of itself be beautiful, without relation to any
Mind which perceives it: For Beauty, like other Names of
The Birth of Venus, by Sandro Botticelli.
sensible Ideas, properly denotes the Perception of some
The goddess Venus is the classical
mind; ... however we generally imagine that there is
personification of beauty. something in the Object just like our Perception."[54]

Immanuel Kant believed that there could be no "universal

criterion of the beautiful" and that the experience of beauty is subjective, but that an object is judged to be
beautiful when it seems to display "purposiveness"; that is, when its form is perceived to have the character
of a thing designed according to some principle and fitted for a purpose.[55] He distinguished "free beauty"
from "merely dependent beauty", explaining that "the first presupposes no concept of what the object ought
to be; the second does presuppose such a concept and the perfection of the object in accordance
therewith."[56] By this definition, free beauty is found in seashells and wordless music; dependent beauty in
buildings and the human body.[56]

The Romantic poets, too, became highly concerned with the nature of beauty, with John Keats arguing in
Ode on a Grecian Urn that:

Beauty is truth, truth beauty, —that is all

Ye know on earth, and all ye need to know.

Western 19th and 20th century

In the Romantic period, Edmund Burke postulated a difference between beauty in its classical meaning and
the sublime.[57] The concept of the sublime, as explicated by Burke and Kant, suggested viewing Gothic
art and architecture, though not in accordance with the classical standard of beauty, as sublime.[58]

The 20th century saw an increasing rejection of beauty by artists and philosophers alike, culminating in
postmodernism's anti-aesthetics.[59] This is despite beauty being a central concern of one of
postmodernism's main influences, Friedrich Nietzsche, who argued that the Will to Power was the Will to
Beauty.[60]
In the aftermath of postmodernism's rejection of beauty, thinkers have returned to beauty as an important
value. American analytic philosopher Guy Sircello proposed his New Theory of Beauty as an effort to
reaffirm the status of beauty as an important philosophical concept.[61][62] He rejected the subjectivism of
Kant and sought to identify the properties inherent in an object that make it beautiful. He called qualities
such as vividness, boldness, and subtlety "properties of qualitative degree" (PQDs) and stated that a PQD
makes an object beautiful if it is not—and does not create the appearance of—"a property of deficiency,
lack, or defect"; and if the PQD is strongly present in the object.[63]

Elaine Scarry argues that beauty is related to justice.[64]

Beauty is also studied by psychologists and neuroscientists in the field of experimental aesthetics and
neuroesthetics respectively. Psychological theories see beauty as a form of pleasure.[65][66] Correlational
findings support the view that more beautiful objects are also more pleasing.[67][68][69] Some studies
suggest that higher experienced beauty is associated with activity in the medial orbitofrontal cortex.[70][71]
This approach of localizing the processing of beauty in one brain region has received criticism within the
field.[72]

Philosopher and novelist Umberto Eco wrote On Beauty: A History of a Western Idea (2004)[73] and On
Ugliness (2007).[74] The narrator of his novel The Name of the Rose follows Aquinas in declaring: "three
things concur in creating beauty: first of all integrity or perfection, and for this reason, we consider ugly all
incomplete things; then proper proportion or consonance; and finally clarity and light", before going on to
say "the sight of the beautiful implies peace".[75][76]

Chinese philosophy

Chinese philosophy has traditionally not made a separate discipline of the philosophy of beauty.[77]
Confucius identified beauty with goodness, and considered a virtuous personality to be the greatest of
beauties: In his philosophy, "a neighborhood with a ren man in it is a beautiful neighborhood."[78]
Confucius's student Zeng Shen expressed a similar idea: "few men could see the beauty in some one whom
they dislike."[78] Mencius considered "complete truthfulness" to be beauty.[79] Zhu Xi said: "When one has
strenuously implemented goodness until it is filled to completion and has accumulated truth, then the beauty
will reside within it and will not depend on externals."[79]

Human beauty
The word "beauty" is often used as a countable noun to describe a beautiful woman.[80][81]

The characterization of a person as “beautiful”, whether on an individual basis or by community consensus,

is often based on some combination of inner beauty, which includes psychological factors such as
personality, intelligence, grace, politeness, charisma, integrity, congruence and elegance, and outer beauty
(i.e. physical attractiveness) which includes physical attributes which are valued on an aesthetic basis.

Standards of beauty have changed over time, based on changing cultural values. Historically, paintings
show a wide range of different standards for beauty.[82][83] However, humans who are relatively young,
with smooth skin, well-proportioned bodies, and regular features, have traditionally been considered the
most beautiful throughout history.

A strong indicator of physical beauty is "averageness".[84][85][86][87][88] When images of human faces are
averaged together to form a composite image, they become progressively closer to the "ideal" image and
are perceived as more attractive. This was first noticed in 1883, when Francis Galton overlaid photographic
composite images of the faces of vegetarians and criminals to see if there was a typical facial appearance for
 each. When doing this, he noticed that the composite images were more
attractive compared to any of the individual images.[89] Researchers have
replicated the result under more controlled conditions and found that the
computer-generated, mathematical average of a series of faces is rated
more favorably than individual faces.[90] It is argued that it is
evolutionarily advantageous that sexual creatures are attracted to mates
who possess predominantly common or average features, because it
suggests the absence of genetic or acquired defects.[84][91][92][93] There is
also evidence that a preference for beautiful faces emerges early in infancy,
and is probably innate,[94][95][85][96][97] and that the rules by which
attractiveness is established are similar across different genders and
cultures.[98][99]

A feature of beautiful women that

The bust of Nefertiti, 14th has been explored by researchers
century BC is a waist–hip ratio of
approximately 0.70. Physiologists
have shown that women with
hourglass figures are more fertile than other women due to higher
levels of certain female hormones, a fact that may subconsciously
condition males choosing mates.[100][101] However, other
commentators have suggested that this preference may not be
universal. For instance, in some non-Western cultures in which
women have to do work such as finding food, men tend to have
preferences for higher waist-hip ratios.[102][103][104]

Beauty standards are rooted in cultural norms crafted by societies

An Indian woman in her traditional
and media over centuries. Globally, it is argued that the
attire
predominance of white women featured in movies and advertising
leads to a Eurocentric concept of beauty, breeding cultures that
assign inferiority to women of color.[105] Thus, societies and
cultures across the globe struggle to diminish the longstanding internalized racism.[106] The black is
beautiful cultural movement sought to dispel this notion in the 1960s.[107]

Exposure to the thin ideal in mass media, such as fashion magazines, directly correlates with body
dissatisfaction, low self-esteem, and the development of eating disorders among female viewers.[108][109]
Further, the widening gap between individual body sizes and societal ideals continues to breed anxiety
among young girls as they grow, highlighting the dangerous nature of beauty standards in society.[110]

The concept of beauty in men is known as 'bishōnen' in Japan. Bishōnen refers to males with distinctly
feminine features, physical characteristics establishing the standard of beauty in Japan and typically
exhibited in their pop culture idols. A multibillion-dollar industry of Japanese Aesthetic Salons exists for
this reason. However, different nations have varying male beauty ideals; Eurocentric standards for men
include tallness, leanness, and muscularity; thus, these features are idolized through American media, such
as in Hollywood films and magazine covers.[111]

Western concept of beauty

The prevailing Eurocentric concept of beauty has varying effects on different cultures. Primarily, adherence
to this standard among African American women has bred a lack of positive reification of African beauty,
and philosopher Cornel West elaborates that, "much of black self-hatred and self-contempt has to do with
the refusal of many black Americans to love their own black bodies-especially their black noses, hips, lips,
and hair."[112] These insecurities can be traced back to global idealization of women with light skin, green
or blue eyes, and long straight or wavy hair in magazines and media that starkly contrast with the natural
features of African women.[113]

In East Asian cultures, familial pressures and cultural norms shape beauty ideals; professor and scholar
Stephanie Wong's experimental study concluded that expecting that men in Asian culture didn't like women
who look “fragile” impacted the lifestyle, eating, and appearance choices made by Asian American
women.[114][115] In addition to the male gaze, media portrayals of Asian women as petite and the portrayal
of beautiful women in American media as fair complexioned and slim-figured induce anxiety and
depressive symptoms among Asian American women who don't fit either of these beauty ideals.[114][115]
Further, the high status associated with fairer skin can be attributed to Asian societal history; upper-class
people hired workers to perform outdoor, manual labor, cultivating a visual divide over time between lighter
complexioned, wealthier families and sun tanned, darker laborers.[115] This along with the Eurocentric
beauty ideals embedded in Asian culture has made skin lightening creams, rhinoplasty, and blepharoplasty
(an eyelid surgery meant to give Asians a more European, "double-eyelid" appearance) commonplace
among Asian women, illuminating the insecurity that results from cultural beauty standards.[115]

Much criticism has been directed at models of beauty which depend solely upon Western ideals of beauty
as seen for example in the Barbie model franchise. Criticisms of Barbie are often centered around concerns
that children consider Barbie a role model of beauty and will attempt to emulate her. One of the most
common criticisms of Barbie is that she promotes an unrealistic idea of body image for a young woman,
leading to a risk that girls who attempt to emulate her will become anorexic.[116]

These criticisms have led to a constructive dialogue to enhance the presence of non-exclusive models of
Western ideals in body type and beauty. Complaints also point to a lack of diversity in such franchises as
the Barbie model of beauty in Western culture.[117] Mattel responded to these criticisms. Starting in 1980, it
produced Hispanic dolls, and later came models from across the globe. For example, in 2007, it introduced
"Cinco de Mayo Barbie" wearing a ruffled red, white, and green dress (echoing the Mexican flag).
Hispanic magazine reports that:

[O]ne of the most dramatic developments in Barbie's history came when she embraced multi-
culturalism and was released in a wide variety of native costumes, hair colors and skin tones to
more closely resemble the girls who idolized her. Among these were Cinco De Mayo Barbie,
Spanish Barbie, Peruvian Barbie, Mexican Barbie and Puerto Rican Barbie. She also has had
close Hispanic friends, such as Teresa.[118]

Effects on society
Researchers have found that good-looking students get higher grades from their teachers than students with
an ordinary appearance.[119] Some studies using mock criminal trials have shown that physically attractive
"defendants" are less likely to be convicted—and if convicted are likely to receive lighter sentences—than
less attractive ones (although the opposite effect was observed when the alleged crime was swindling,
perhaps because jurors perceived the defendant's attractiveness as facilitating the crime).[120] Studies
among teens and young adults, such as those of psychiatrist and self-help author Eva Ritvo show that skin
conditions have a profound effect on social behavior and opportunity.[121]

How much money a person earns may also be influenced by physical beauty. One study found that people
low in physical attractiveness earn 5 to 10 percent less than ordinary-looking people, who in turn earn 3 to
8 percent less than those who are considered good-looking.[122] In the market for loans, the least attractive
people are less likely to get approvals, although they are less likely to default. In the marriage market,
women's looks are at a premium, but men's looks do not matter much.[123] The impact of physical
attractiveness on earnings varies across races, with the largest beauty wage gap among black women and
black men.[124]

Conversely, being very unattractive increases the individual's propensity for criminal activity for a number
of crimes ranging from burglary to theft to selling illicit drugs.[125]

Discrimination against others based on their appearance is known as lookism.[126]

See also
Adornment
Aesthetics
Beauty pageant
Body modification
Feminine beauty ideal
Glamour (presentation)
Mathematical beauty
Processing fluency theory of aesthetic pleasure
Unattractiveness

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External links
Sartwell, Crispin. "Beauty" (https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/beauty/). In Zalta, Edward N.
(ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Beauty (https://www.inphoproject.org/idea/1998) at the Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project
BBC Radio 4's In Our Time programme on Beauty (http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/inourt
ime/inourtime_20050519.shtml) (requires RealAudio)
Dictionary of the History of Ideas: (https://web.archive.org/web/20050305091132/http://etext.l
ib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-28) Theories of Beauty to the Mid-Nineteenth
Century
beautycheck.de/english (http://www.uni-regensburg.de/Fakultaeten/phil_Fak_II/Psychologie/
Psy_II/beautycheck/english/prototypen/prototypen.htm) Regensburg University –
Characteristics of beautiful faces
Eli Siegel's "Is Beauty the Making One of Opposites?" (http://www.terraingallery.org/IsBeaut
y.html)
Art and love in Renaissance Italy (http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/ref/collection/p1532
4coll10/id/53033), Issued in connection with an exhibition held Nov. 11, 2008-Feb. 16, 2009,
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York (see Belle: Picturing Beautiful Women; pages 246–
254).
Plato - Symposium (https://books.google.com/books?id=pFEII68kmVsC&pg=PA356&lpg=P
A356&dq=Thales+philosophy+on++beauty&source=bl&ots=PfLEWyTZaY&sig=JBYDU28A
usFqRkXfTq2HFqQSTy0&hl=en&sa=X&ei=O1dRVcPMKczSUdTVgegM&ved=0CE4Q6AE
wBw#v=onepage&q=Thales%20philosophy%20on%20%20beauty&f=false) in S. Marc
Cohen, Patricia Curd, C. D. C. Reeve (ed.)

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