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Defense Mechanisms of Plants to Insect Pests: From Morphological to

Biochemical Approach

Article · June 2018

DOI: 10.19080/TTSR.2018.02.555584

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 Trends in
Technical & Scientific Research
Mini Review Trends Tech Sci Res
Volume 2 Issue 2 - June 2018 Copyright © All rights are reserved by Tibebu Belete

Defense Mechanisms of Plants to Insect Pests: From

Morphological to Biochemical Approach
Tibebu Belete*
Department of Plant Protection, Selcuk University, Turkey
Submission: May 17, 2018; Published: June 20, 2018
*Corresponding author: Tibebu Belete, Department of Plant protection, Faculty of Agriculture, Selcuk University, Campus/Konya, Turkey, Tel:
; Email:

Abstract

The plants defend themselves against insect herbivores through utilizing the combination of direct defense traits and indirect defense
approaches. Direct defense is involved both physical and chemical barriers which synergistically obstruct insect herbivore’s growth, development,
reproduction, etc. The indirect defense approach has no direct impact on insect herbivores but suppress pests by releasing volatile compounds
that attract natural enemies of the herbivores. Plant defense against insect herbivores is just one of multiple layers of interactions. Together with
plants, these players are involved in complex interaction networks. To elucidate these fascinating interactions biochemical, ecological as well as
molecular studies, and combinations thereof, are required.

Keywords: Insects; Defense mechanisms; Biochemical defense; Secondary metabolites; Induced defense mechanisms

Abbrevations: PIs: Proteinase Inhibitors; BXs: Benzoxazinoids; HIPVs: Herbivore Induced Plant Volatiles; CDPK: Calcium-Dependent Protein
Kinases

Introduction
same family. The generalists tolerate a wide array of defenses
Insects are one of the dominant forms of life in terms
present in most plants, while they cannot feed on certain
of the number of species and of individuals. Plants can
plants that have evolved more unique defense mechanisms.
have different types of interactions with insects, such as
Specialists, on the other hand, use a specific range of host
antagonistic interactions with herbivores and mutualistic
plants releasing defense compounds that at the same time may
interactions with carnivorous and pollinating insects. Plants
function as feeding stimulants and provide ovipositioning cues
can defend themselves against insects by employing a ‘do-it-
[3].
yourself’ strategy and/or by enlisting ‘bodyguards’ that attack
herbivores. These plant strategies can be present constitutively Pegadaraju et al [4] stated that, the defensive mechanisms
or they can be induced by herbivory. Inducible defenses result in plants operate at different levels. They vary from external
in variable plant phenotypes and consequently in variable defenses like thorns to complicated chemical responses
types of interactions with insects [1]. leading to poisoning of the attacker. To overcome the insect
attack, plants produce specialized morphological structures or
Plants respond to herbivore through various morphological,
secondary metabolites and proteins that have toxic, repellent,
biochemical, and molecular mechanisms to counter/offset the
and/or anti nutritional effects on the insect pests. In addition,
effects of herbivore attack. According to Oerke [2], each year
plants also release volatile organic compounds that attract the
there is a huge crop yield loss by different insect pests around
natural enemies of the herbivores [5].
the world. Therefore, understanding the defensive systems or
mechanisms of plants enables development of resistant crops Resistance factors for direct plant defense against
or pest management systems reducing the need of hazardous herbivorous insects comprise plant traits that negatively
pesticides and supporting safer crop production. Another affect insect preference (host plant selection, oviposition,
positive effect would be a reduction of the development of feeding behavior) or performance (growth rate, development,
pesticide resistant pest strains. reproductive success) resulting in increased plant fitness
in a hostile environment. Such traits include morphological
Insect herbivores have traditionally been divided into
features for physical defense, like thorns, spines, and
generalists (polyphagous) that feed on several hosts from
trichomes, epicuticular wax films and wax crystals, tissue
different plant families, or specialists (monophagous and
toughness, as well as secretory structures and conduits for
oligophagous), which feed on one or a few plant types from the

Trends Tech Sci Res 2(2): [Link].555584 (2018) 001

 Trends in Technical & Scientific Research

latices or resins. They also include compounds for chemical tobacco (Nicotiana attenuate), trypsin proteinase inhibitors
defense, like secondary metabolites, digestibility reducing and nicotine expression, contributed synergistically to the
proteins, and anti nutritive enzymes. All these traits may be defensive response against beet armyworm (Spodoptera
expressed constitutively as preformed resistance factors, or exigua) [7].
they may be inducible and deployed only after attack by insect
Morphological features for physical defense
herbivores. The induction of defensive traits is not restricted
to the site of attack but extends to non-infested healthy parts of Insect herbivores from all feeding guilds must make
the plants. The systemic nature of plant responses to herbivore contact with the plant surface in order to establish themselves
attack necessitates a long-distance signaling system capable on the host plant. It is therefore not surprising that physical
of generating, transporting, and interpreting alarm signals and chemical features of the plant surface are important
produced at the plant–herbivore interface. Much of the research determinants of resistance. All plant parts offer some sort of
on the signaling events triggered by herbivore has focused on resistance against herbivory. They range from tissue hardness
tomato and other solanaceous plants. In this model system, the to highly complex glandular trichomes and spines. Epicuticular
peptide system in acts at or near the wound site to amplify the wax films and crystals cover the cuticle of most vascular plants.
production of jasmonic acid. Jasmonic acid or its metabolites In addition to their important role in desiccation tolerance,
serve as phloem-mobile long-distance signals, and induce the they also increase slipperiness, which impedes the ability of
expression of defense genes in distal parts of the plant [6]. many non-specialized insects to populate leaf surfaces. The
physical properties of the wax layer as well as its chemical
Host Plant Defenses against Insects composition are important factors of preformed resistance [6].
Plants respond to insect attack through an intricate and
Based on different findings, plant structures are the first
dynamic defense system that includes structural barriers,
line of defense against insect pests, and play an important role
toxic chemicals, and attraction of natural enemies of the target
in host plant resistance to insects. The first line of plant defense
pests. Both defense mechanisms (direct and indirect) may be
against insect pests is the erection of a physical barrier either
present constitutively or induced after damage by the insects.
through the formation of a waxy cuticle, and/or the development
Induced response in plants is one of the important components
of spines, setae, and trichomes. Structural defenses includes
of insect pest control in agriculture, and has been exploited for
morphological and anatomical traits that confer a fitness
regulation of insect herbivore population.
advantage to the plant by directly deterring the herbivores/
Induced defenses make the plants phenotypically plastic, insects from feeding, and range from prominent protrubances
and thereby, decrease the chances of the attacking insects on a plant to microscopic changes in cell wall thickness as a
to adapt to the induced chemicals. Changes in defensive result of lignification and suberization. Structural traits such
constituents of a plant on account of insect attack develop as spines and thorns (spinescence), trichomes (pubescence),
unpredictability in the plant environment for insect herbivores, toughened or hardened leaves (sclerophylly), incorporation
which in turn, affects the fitness and behavior of the insects. of granular minerals into plant tissues, and divaricated
If induced response occurs very early, it is of great benefit to branching (shoots with wiry stems produced at wide axillary
the plant, and reduces the subsequent herbivore and pathogen angles) play a leading role in plant protection against insect
attack, besides improving overall fitness of the plant. Plants pests. Sclerophylly refers to the hardened leaves, and plays an
with high variability in defensive chemicals exhibit a better active role in plant defense against herbivores by reducing the
defense compared with those with moderate variability [7]. palatability and digestibility of the tissues, thereby, reducing
the herbivore damage.
Direct defenses
Spinescence includes plant structures such as spines,
Plant structural traits such as leaf surface wax, thorns
thorns and prickles. It has been reported to defend the plants
or trichomes, and cell wall thickness/and lignification form
against many insects. Pubescence consists of the layer of hairs
the first physical barrier to feeding by the insects, and the
(trichomes) extending from the epidermis of the above ground
secondary metabolites such act as toxins and also affect
plant parts including stem, leaves, and even fruits, and occur
growth, development, and digestibility reducers form the
in several forms such as straight, spiral, stellate, hooked, and
next barriers that defend the plant from subsequent attack.
glandular. Chamarthi et al. [8] reported that leaf glossiness,
Moreover, synergistic effect among different defensive
plumule and leaf sheath pigmentation were responsible for
components enhances the defensive system of plants against
shoot fly (Atherigona soccata resistance in sorghum Sorghum
the insects’ invaders. For example, in tomato, alkaloids,
bicolor (L. Moench).
phenolics, Proteinase Inhibitors (PIs), and the oxidative
enzymes when ingested separately result in a reduced Trichomes
affect, but act together in a synergistic manner, affecting the
The plant epidermis is often covered by outgrowths called
insect during ingestion, digestion and metabolism. In a wild
trichomes. They are found in all major groups of terrestrial

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2018; 2(2): 555584.
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plants. They originate from epidermal tissue and then develop in the process of photosynthesis, respiration, solute transport,
and differentiate to produce hair-like structures [9]. Trichomes translocation, nutrient assimilation and differentiation. These
play an imperative role in plant defense against many insect compounds or chemicals play a significant role in direct
pests and involve both toxic and deterrent effects. Trichomes defense impair herbivore performance by one of two general
density negatively affects the ovipositional behavior, feeding mechanisms: these chemicals may reduce the nutritional value
and larval nutrition of insect pests. In addition, dense of plant food, or they may act as feeding deterrents or toxins.
trichomes affect the insect mechanically, and interfere with There has been considerable debate as to which of these two
the movement of insects and other arthropods on the plant strategies is more important for host plant selection and
surface, thereby, reducing their access to leaf epidermis. These insect resistance. An important part of this debate concerns
can be, straight, spiral, hooked, branched, or un-branched and the extent to which variation in the levels of primary and
can be glandular or non-glandular. Glandular trichomes secrete secondary metabolites has evolved as a plant defense [12].
secondary metabolites including flavonoids, terpenoids, and Plant primary metabolism, which is shared with insects and
alkaloids that can be poisonous, repellent, or trap insects and other living organisms, provides carbohydrates, amino acids,
other organisms, thus forming a combination of structural and and lipids as essential nutrients for the insect.
chemical defense.
Secondary metabolites are the compounds that do not
Induction of trichomes in response to insect damage has affect the normal growth and development of a plant, but
been reported in many plants [10]. This increase in trichomes reduce the palatability of the plant tissues in which they are
density in response to damage can only be observed in leaves produced. The defensive (secondary) metabolites can be either
developing during or subsequent to insect attack, since the constitutive stored as inactive forms or induced in response
density of trichomes of existing leaves does not change. A to the insect or microbe attack. The former are known as
given authors reported that damage by adult leaf beetles phytoanticipins and the latter as phytoalexins (antimicrobial
(Phratora vulgatissima) in Salix cinerea plant induced higher compounds synthesized by plants that accumulate rapidly at
trichome density in the new leaves developing thereafter. areas of pathogen infection). The phytoanticipins are mainly
Likewise, increase in trichome density in S. cinera in response activated by β-glucosidase during herbivory, which in turn
to coleopteran damage has also been reported. Increase in mediate the release of various biocidal aglycone metabolites.
trichome density after insect damage has also been reported in The classic examples of phytoanticipins are glucosinolates
Lepidium virginicum L. and Raphanus raphanistrum L. In black that are hydrolyzed by myrosinases (endogenous
mustard, trichomes density and glucosinolate levels were β-thioglucoside glucohydrolases) during tissue disruption.
elevated after feeding by small white butterfly (Pieris rapae). Other phytoanticipins include Benzoxazinoids (BXs), which
Furthermore, change in relative proportion of glandular and are widely distributed among Gramineae. Hydrolyzation of
non-glandular trichomes is also induced by insect. BX-glucosides by plastid-targeted β-glucosidases during tissue
damage leads to the production of biocidal aglycone BXs,
Leaf and root toughness and quantity
which play an important role in plant defense against insects.
Leaf toughness interferes with the penetration of plant Phytoalexins include isoflavonoids, terpenoids, alkaloids, etc.,
tissues by mouthparts of piercing-sucking insects and increase that influence the performance and survival of the insects.
mandibular wear in biting-chewing herbivores [11]. The cell The secondary metabolites not only defend the plants from
walls of leaves are also reinforced during feeding through different stresses, but also increase the fitness of the plants.
the use of different macromolecules, such as lignin, cellulose, It has been reported that maize to corn earworm, Helicoverpa
suberin and callose, together with small organic molecules, zea is mainly due to the presence of the secondary metabolites
such as phenolics, and even inorganic silica particles. Roots C-glycosyl flavone maysin and the phenylpropanoid product,
eaten by insect herbivores exhibit extensive regrowth, both chlorogenic acid. Compound, 4, 4- dimethyl cyclooctene
in density, as seen in Trifolium repens eaten by Sitona lepidus has been found to be responsible for shoot fly resistance in
(clover root weevil), and in quantity, as observed in Medicago sorghum [8].
sativa (alfalfa) attacked by clover weevil (Sitona hispidulus). The
former might be caused by additional lignification that could Study on secondary metabolites could lead to the
increase the toughness of the roots. In addition, genotypes identification of new signaling molecules involved in plant
with long fine roots suffered less from herbivory compared to resistance against insect pests. Ultimately genes and enzymes
genotypes with short and thick roots. involved in the biosynthesis of these metabolites could be
identified. Some of the secondary metabolites in plant defense
Secondary metabolites for chemical defense of plants will be the following.
Plants produce a large and diverse array of organic
Plant phenolic compounds
compounds that appear to have no direct functions in growth
and development i.e. they have no generally recognized roles Among the secondary metabolites, plant phenols constitute
one of the most common and widespread group of defensive

How to cite this article: Tibebu B. Defense Mechanisms of Plants to Insect Pests: From Morphological to Biochemical Approach. Trends Tech Sci Res.
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2018; 2(2): 555584.
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compounds, which play a major role in host plant resistance the gut wall into the hemolymph. An alteration in the protein’s
against insects. Phenols act as a defensive mechanism not amino acid content or sequence influences the function of
only against insects, but also against microorganisms and that protein. Likewise, anti-insect activity of a proteolysis-
competing plants. susceptible toxic protein can be improved by administration
of protease inhibitors (PIs), which prevent degradation of
Lignin, a phenolic heteropolymer plays a central role in
the toxic proteins, and allows them to exert their defensive
plant defense against insects and pathogens. It limits the
function. Better understanding of protein structure and post-
entry of pathogens by blocking physically or increasing the
translational modifications contributing to stability in the
leaf toughness that reduces the feeding by insects, and also
insect gut would assist in predicting toxicity and mechanism of
decreases the nutritional content of the leaf. Lignin synthesis
plant resistance proteins. Recent advances in microarray and
has been found to be induced by insect or pathogen attack and
proteomic approaches have revealed that a wide spectrum of
its rapid deposition reduce further growth of the pathogen or
plant resistance protiens is involved in plant defense against
insect fecundity.
insects.
Plant defensive proteins
Plant lectins
Ecologically, in insect-plant interaction, interrelationship
Lectins are carbohydrate-binding (glyco) proteins, have
between two is important for the survival of the both. Insects
protective function against a range of pests. The insecticidal
always look for a true and healthy host plant that can provide
activities of different plant lectins have been utilized as
them proper food and could be suitable for mating, oviposition
naturally occurring insecticides against insect pests. One
and also provides food for the offspring’s. The nutritional
of the most important properties of lectins is their survival
requirements of insects are similar to other animals, and
in the digestive system of insects that gives them a strong
any imbalance in digestion and utilization of plant proteins
insecticidal potential. They act as antinutritive and/or toxic
by the insects’ results in drastic effects on insect physiology.
substances by binding to membrane glycosyl groups lining
Alteration of gene expression under stress including insect
the digestive tract, leading to an array of harmful systemic
attack leads to qualitative and quantitative changes in proteins,
reactions. Lectins are stable over a large range of pH and
which in turn play an important role in signal transduction, and
damage the luminal epithelial membranes, thereby interfere
oxidative defense. Many plant proteins ingested by insects are
with the nutrient digestion and absorption (Table 1).
stable, and remain intact in the mid gut, and also move across

Table 1: Plant defensive proteins against insect pests.

Putative Defense Protein Plant Species Insect Species

Schizaphis graminum
Sorghum bicolor
Manduca sexta
Tomato
Helicoverpa armigera
PIs Gossypium hirsutum
Manduca sexta
Solanum nigrum
Spodoptera littoralis
Nicotiana attenuata
Spodoptera exigua
Cucumis sativus Spodoptera littoralis
Nicotiana attenuata Bemisia tabaci
Alnus glutinosa Agelastica alni
LOXs
Wheat Sitobion avenae
Tomato Macrosiphium euphorbiae Myzus persicae
Nicotiana attenuata Myzus nicotianae
Alnus glutinosa Agelastica alni
Arabidopsis Bemisia tabaci (whitefly)
Buffalo grass Blissus oxiduus
Peroxidases Poplar Lymantria dispar
Medicago sativa Aphis medicaginis
Corn Spodoptera littoralis
Rice Spodoptera frugiperda
Manduca sexta
Tomato
Blissus oxiduus
PPOs Buffalo grass
Spodoptera frugiperda,
Tomato
Helicoverpa armigera

How to cite this article: Tibebu B. Defense Mechanisms of Plants to Insect Pests: From Morphological to Biochemical Approach. Trends Tech Sci Res.
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2018; 2(2): 555584.
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Chitinases Sorghum bicolor Schizaphis graminum

Hevein-like protein Arabidopsis Bemisia tabaci
Catalase Bufallo grassses Blissus oxiduus
SOD Medicago sativa Aphis medicaginis

Flavonoids plant defense against various stresses and their induction in

response to insect damage has been studied in many plants.
Flavonoids are cytotoxic and interact with different
enzymes through complexation. Both flavonoids and Proteinase inhibitors
isoflavonoids protect the plant against insect pests by
Proteinase inhibitors (PIs) cover one of the most abundant
influencing the behavior, and growth and development of
defensive classes of proteins in plants. Higher concentration
insects.
of PIs occurs in storage organs such as seeds and tubers, and
Tannins 1 to 10% of their total proteins comprise of PIs, which inhibit
different types of enzymes and play an important role in plant
Tannins have a strong deleterious effect on phytophagous
defense against insect. PIs bind to the digestive enzymes in
insects and affect the insect growth and development by
the insect gut and inhibit their activity, thereby reduce protein
binding to the proteins, reduce nutrient absorption efficiency,
digestion, resulting in the shortage of amino acids, and slow
and cause mid gut lesions. Tannins are astringent (mouth
development and/or starvation of the insects. The defensive
puckering) bitter polyphenols and act as feeding deterrents to
function of many PIs against insect pests, directly or by
many insect pests. They precipitate proteins nonspecifically
expression in transgenic plants to improve plant resistance
(including the digestive enzymes of insects), by hydrogen
against insects has been studied against many lepidopteran
bonding or covalent bonding of protein NH2 groups. In addition,
and hemipteran insects. The success of transgenic crops in
tannins also chelate the metal ions, thereby reducing their
expressing PIs against insect pests has accentuated the need to
bioavailability to insects. When ingested, tannins reduce the
understand the mechanisms, and interactions of multiple PIs
digestibility of the proteins thereby decrease the nutritive
with other defenses, and the adaptive responses of the insects
value of plants and plant parts to insects. Role of tannins in
(Table 2).

Table 2: Plant defensive lectins and lectin like proteins and target insect pests.

Lectin Plant Insect

Tobacco Aphids
Allium sativum leaf lectin
Chickpea Aphis craccivora

Mayetiola destructor
Jacalin-like lectins Wheat Anagasta kuehniella
Bauhinia monandra leaf lectin Tobacco Zabrotes subfasciatus Callosobruchus
maculates

Aphids
Rice
Nilaparvata lugens
Snowdrop lectin Wheat
Aphids
Arabidopsi
Pieris rapae, Spodoptera littoralis
Spodoptera littoralis, Manduca sexta,
Nictaba-related lectins NICTABA, PP2 Tobacco
Acyrthosiphon pisum

Arum maculatum lectin Lipaphis erysimi, Aphis craccivora

Enzymes Indirect Defenses Methods

Enzymes also one of the important aspects of host plant The defensive response in plants to attract natural enemies
resistance against insects is the disruption of insect’s nutrition. of insects plays a pivotal role in protecting the plants against
The enzymes that impair the nutrient uptake by insects through insect attack. Indirect defenses can be constitutive or induced
formation of electrophiles includes peroxidases, polyphenol as a result of combined action of mechanical damage and
oxidases, ascorbate peroxidases, and other peroxidases by elicitors from the attacking herbivore. Production of volatiles
oxidizing mono or dihydroxyphenols. and the secretion of extra floral nectar mediate interactions of
plants with natural enemies of the insect pests (i.e., parasitoids

How to cite this article: Tibebu B. Defense Mechanisms of Plants to Insect Pests: From Morphological to Biochemical Approach. Trends Tech Sci Res.
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2018; 2(2): 555584.
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or predators), which actively reduce the numbers of feeding according to the plant and insect species, the developmental
herbivores. Induced indirect defenses have received increasing stage and condition of the plants and the insects. An optimum
attention recently and have been studied on the genetic, quantity of volatile compounds is normally released by the
biochemical, physiological, and ecological levels. plants into the atmosphere, whereas a different blend of
volatiles is produced in response to insect. The volatile blend
Herbivore induced plant volatiles (HIPVs)
released by plants in response to insect attack is specific for a
In this case plants indirectly defend themselves from particular insect-plant system, including natural enemies and
insect feeding by emitting a blend of volatiles and non-volatile the neighboring plants. The HIPVs mediate the interactions
compounds. Insect induced plant volatiles (HIPVs) play an between plants and arthropods, microorganisms, undamaged
important role in plant defense by either attracting the natural neighboring plants, or intraplant signaling that warns
enemies of the insects or by acting as feeding and/or oviposition undamaged sites within the plant (Figure 1). Depending
deterrent. HIPVs are the lipophilic compounds with higher upon the modes of feeding of insect pests, different defense
vapor pressure which are released from the leaves, flowers, signaling pathways are activated, which induce the production
and fruits into the atmosphere, and into the soil from the roots of specific volatile compounds [13].
by plants in response insect attack. The HIPV’s produced vary

Figure 1: Mechanism of induced resistance in plants.

Defense elicitors (insect oral secretion) The defenses generated by various elicitors differ based on
the type of the elicitor and the biological processes involved.
Plants undergo a dynamic change in transcriptomes,
A potential elicitor of herbivore-induced plant volatiles from
proteomes, and metabolomes in response to herbivore-
the regurgitate of Pieris brassicae L. larvae has been identified
induced physical and chemical cues such as insect oral
as β-glucosidase which results in emission of a volatile blend
secretions and compounds in the oviposition fluids. It is
from mechanically wounded cabbage leaves that attract the
generally believed that insect-induced plant responses are
parasitic wasp, Cotesia glomerata (L.) [14].
mediated by oral secretions and regurgitates of the herbivore.

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Role of phytohormones in induced resistance in plant communication in plants damaged by insects. Most of the
plants plant defense responses against insects are activated by signal-
transduction pathways mediated by jasmonic acid, salicylic
Plant defense against insect attack involves many signal
acid, and ethylene. Specific sets of defense related genes are
transduction pathways that are mediated by a network of
activated by these pathways upon wounding or by insect
phytohormones. Plant hormones play a critical role in regulating
feeding. These hormones may act individually, synergistically
plant growth, development, and defense mechanisms. A number
or antagonistically, depending upon the attacker (Figure 2).
of plant hormones have been implicated in intra- and inter-

Figure 2: Major components and pathways involved in indirect plant defense. Indirect plant defense.

Jasmonic acid is the most important phytohormone linked against insect pests through the induction of various defensive
to plant defense against insects and activates the expression of compounds, its role in indirect resistance has also been well
both direct and indirect defenses. Jasmonic acid is derived from established.
linolenic acid through octadecanoid pathway and accumulates
Ethylene is an important phytohormone, which plays an
upon wounding and herbivory in plant tissues. Chewing of
active role in plant defense against many insects. Ethylene
plant parts by insects causes the dioxygenation of linoleic acid
signaling pathway plays an important role in induced
and linolenic acid.
plant defense against insects and pathogens both directly
Jasmonic acid has also been reported to affect Calcium- and indirectly. Ethylene signaling pathway works either
Dependent Protein Kinases (CDPK) transcript, and activity synergistically or antagonistically, with jasmonic acid in
in potato plants. CDPKs comprise of a large family of serine/ expression of plant defense responses against pathogens and
threonine kinases in plants (34 members in Arabidopsis) and herbivorous insects. It has been reported that Ethylene and
play an important role in plant defense against a variety of jasmonic acid work together in tomato in proteinase inhibitors
biotic and abiotic stresses through signal transduction [15]. In expression.
addition to the role played by jasmonic acid in direct resistance

How to cite this article: Tibebu B. Defense Mechanisms of Plants to Insect Pests: From Morphological to Biochemical Approach. Trends Tech Sci Res.
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2018; 2(2): 555584.
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Generally, different plant elicitors induced in plants upon resistance against one certain insect herbivore might result
herbivory undergo different signal transduction pathways. For in susceptibility towards another. Furthermore, some defense
example, Calcium ions (Ca 2+), reactive oxygen species, etc. responses might have negative effects on the environment
and humanity as well, as they involve toxic bioactive natural
Conclusion and Future Perspective
products and proteins reducing digestibility of plant
In all natural habitats, plants are surrounded by an material. Still, reducing the need for synthetic insecticides, by
enormous number of potential enemies (biotic) and various developing crop plants resistant to insect herbivores, would be
kinds of a biotic environmental stress. Nearly all ecosystems of significant gain for the food and production industry, both at
contain a wide variety of bacteria, viruses, fungi, nematodes, an economical and environmental level.
mites, insects, mammals and other herbivorous animals,
greatly responsible for heavy reduction in crop productivity. By References
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How to cite this article: Tibebu B. Defense Mechanisms of Plants to Insect Pests: From Morphological to Biochemical Approach. Trends Tech Sci Res.
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2018; 2(2): 555584.
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How to cite this article: Tibebu B. Defense Mechanisms of Plants to Insect Pests: From Morphological to Biochemical Approach. Trends Tech Sci Res.
009
2018; 2(2): 555584.

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