Economic Geology

BULLETIN OF THE SOCIETY OF ECONOMIC GEOLOGISTS

Vol. 115 June-July No. 4

Exploring the Green Rock Environment: An Introduction

Evan Orovan1,2,† and Pete Hollings3
1Australian Research Council (ARC) Industrial Transformation Research Hub for Transforming the Mining Value Chain,
University of Tasmania, Private Bag 79, Hobart, Tasmania 7001, Australia
2Centre for Ore Deposit and Earth Sciences (CODES), University of Tasmania, Private Bag 79, Hobart, Tasmania 7001, Australia
3Geology Department, Lakehead University, 955 Oliver Road, Thunder Bay, Ontario P7B 5E1, Canada

Introduction attributed to groundwater convection driven by heat that is re-

Exploration for porphyry deposits in the past few decades has lated to the crystallizing porphyry intrusive complex (Norton,
become increasingly expensive, with new discoveries often 1982; Seedorff et al., 2005; Sillitoe, 2010; Weiss, 2015; Rich-
occurring at considerable depths or obscured through exten- ards, 2018). However, it has been demonstrated that propylitic
sive postmineralization cover (Schodde, 2017; Cooke et al., alteration can form as magmatic-derived fluids cool and chemi-
2020a). Given these complexities, new exploration techniques cally equilibrate during outward migration from the composite
or novel applications of known techniques are needed to en- porphyry stock (Cooke et al., 2014; Orovan et al., 2018; Pacey
sure continued discoveries into the future. Mineral chemistry et al., 2020b). The proportions of fluid sources that contribute
has the potential to be a valuable tool in porphyry exploration to propylitic alteration likely vary between and within porphyry
and has been applied and refined over many decades to help systems. The green rock alteration domains may be subjacent
predict prospectivity and vector to a concealed mineralized to or overprinted by a lithocap, its feeder structures, or other
porphyry center (e.g., Williams and Cesbron, 1977; Ballard late-stage upward-flaring alteration features, which may include
et al., 2002; Chang et al., 2011; Cooke et al., 2014; Shen et advanced argillic, silicic, argillic, phyllic (sericitic), and interme-
al., 2015; Wilkinson et al., 2015; Uribe-Mogollon and Maher, diate argillic (sericite-clay-chlorite) alteration zones (Fig. 1).
2018; Xiao et al., 2018; Plouffe et al., 2019). Sodic-calcic alteration (albite-epidote-chlorite ± actinolite)
To date, research into porphyry vectoring and fertility tools may also be present in the green rock environment, in a deep or
has mostly focused on the chemical variations within and be- sometimes distal position with respect to the mineralizing por-
tween hydrothermal epidote and chlorite from the green rock phyry complex, where it overprints potassic and/or propylitic
environment of porphyry systems (e.g., Bowman et al., 1987; alteration (Fig. 1). Isotopic analyses (e.g., Sr, O-H) have shown
Norman et al., 1991; Cooke et al., 2014, 2017, 2020a; Wilkin- that saline external fluids, such as connate waters derived from
son et al., 2015, 2017; Baker et al., 2017; Xiao et al., 2018). evaporites (Runyon et al., 2019) or seawater (Orovan et al.,
The green rock environment is defined as the extensive and 2018), can contribute to the formation of this alteration. The
zoned propylitic alteration halo surrounding a potassic core external fluids are heated as they are drawn toward the crystal-
that is centered on a porphyritic intrusive complex (Cooke et lizing porphyry intrusion, leaching metals from the surrounding
al., 2014, 2020a). The innermost propylitic zone of the green country rocks.
rock environment is referred to as the inner propylitic subzone The approach of using mineral chemistry as a vectoring, fer-
(or actinolite subzone) and is defined by the occurrence of ac- tility, or fingerprinting tool has been successfully implemented
tinolite (Fig. 1). Other minerals in this assemblage may include in the skarn environment for decades (Meinert et al., 2005).
any combination of albite, epidote, chlorite, calcite, hematite, The composition of pyroxene, epidote, amphibole, and chlo-
magnetite, and pyrite. The medial propylitic zone is the epidote rite minerals, most of which are also found in the green rock
subzone; it has a similar mineral assemblage but lacks actinolite environment, have been particularly useful (e.g., Meinert,
(Fig. 1). Similarly, the outermost propylitic zone is the chlorite 1987; Nakano, 1998; Nakano et al., 1989, 1994). For example,
subzone, which lacks actinolite, epidote, and often magnetite Meinert (1987) correlated changes in mineral composition
(Fig. 1). This alteration zonation reflects the decreasing fluid with temperature and demonstrated gradients up to several
temperature outward from a central heat source, providing a kilometers from the center of the Groundhog skarn system in
distinctive and observable vector to potential mineralization. New Mexico—a concept that has been valuable in skarn ex-
The formation of propylitic alteration has conventionally been ploration ever since. Mineral chemistry had also been consid-
ered in exploration for porphyry deposits in the past (e.g., Bal-
lantyne, 1981); however, limitations in the cost and capability
†Corresponding author, e-mail: [email protected] of available analytical techniques (e.g., electron microprobe)
©2020 Society of Economic Geologists; Economic Geology, v. 115, no. 4, pp. 695–700
ISSN 0361-0128; doi:10.5382/econgeo.4751; 6 p. 695

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by Saul E. Romero
 696 OROVAN AND HOLLINGS

Lithocap: Pyrite-rich stratabound domains of residual silicic and advanced argillic alteration surrounded by argillic alteration
(chargeability high, magnetic low, silicic zone can define a resistivity high, alunite 1480 nm position that increases toward heat source)

The
TheLithocap
LithocapEnvironment
Environment
The Green Rock
Environment
High-sulfidation state
mineralization (fault-hosted
and/or stratabound Cu-Au-As,
potential electromagnetic
anomaly)

Pyrite halo (root zones of lithocap,

chargeability high, Zn-Pb-Mn geochemical halo)

Legend
Intermediate-
sulfidation Composite porphyry stock
state veins
(fault-hosted Lithocap and structural roots (silicic-, advanced argillic- and
qtz-cb-py-Au veins, argillic-altered rocks; phyllic and intermediate argillic roots)
Au-Ag-Zn-Pb-Te)
Sodic-calcic (ab–epi–chl ± act ± ttn ± di ± gt ± mag ± tur)

Propylitic – chlorite subzone (chl–ab–cb ± py)

Potassic core
(magnetic high or Propylitic – epidote subzone (epi–chl–ab–cb ± py)
low, Cu-Au-Mo
geochemical Propylitic – actinolite subzone (act–epi–chl–ab–cb ± py)
anomaly)
Potassic (bt–kfs–qtz–anh–bn–ccp–Au ± mag ± py)

Pyrite halo (outer limit of disseminated pyrite)

Fig. 1. Diagram of typical alteration zonation patterns and overprinting relationships in the porphyry-epithermal environ-
ment (modified after Cooke et al., 2020a). The green rock environment includes three subfacies of propylitic alteration that
are zoned about a central multiphase intrusive complex and proximal associated potassic alteration. The propylitic alteration
passes outward from an inner high-temperature subzone characterized by the presence of actinolite to an intermediate-
temperature subzone containing epidote without actinolite to an outer low-temperature subzone dominated by chlorite. Up-
ward-flaring zones of phyllic (sericitic) and/or intermediate argillic (sericite-clay-chlorite) alteration may overprint the upper
portions of the porphyry system and may transition into a lithocap (including silicic, advanced argillic, and argillic alteration)
at shallow levels. At deeper levels (or distal to the mineralizing intrusions) sodic-calcic alteration may overprint the potassic
core and/or propylitic halo. Where reactive host-rock horizons are present, skarn alteration assemblages and mineralization
may also develop (not shown). Abbreviations: ab = albite, act = actinolite, anh = anhydrite, bn = bornite, bt = biotite, cb =
carbonate, ccp = chalcopyrite, chl = chlorite, di = diopside, epi = epidote, gt = garnet, kfs = K-feldspar, mag = magnetite, py
= pyrite, qtz = quartz, ttn= titanite, tur = tourmaline.

restricted the scope and efficacy of early research efforts. The al., 2020), as well as the application of stable and radiogenic
emergence of new technologies, such as laser ablation-induc- isotopes to constrain the sources of the fluids responsible for
tively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS), hy- green rock alteration (e.g., Byrne et al., 2020b; Cao et al.,
perspectral techniques, machine learning, and 3-D visualiza- 2020; Pacey et al., 2020b), and explore the chemical differ-
tion software, has allowed for the development and testing of ences of white mica that can obscure green rock alteration
more robust porphyry vectoring and fertility tools. (e.g., Alva-Jimenez et al., 2020).
This Special Issue focuses on advances in mineral chem-
istry research associated with porphyry-related green rock Overview of the Special Issue
alteration from deposits across five countries (Canada, USA, The Late Ordovician to early Silurian Northparkes alkalic por-
Chile, Australia, and Philippines), three geologic eras (Ceno- phyry Cu-Au system (472 Mt at 0.56% Cu and 0.19 g/t Au),
zoic, Mesozoic, and Paleozoic; Fig. 2), and both continental located in the Macquarie arc, New South Wales, Australia, is
and island arcs, highlighting the ubiquity of the green rock the focus of two papers in this issue (Pacey et al., 2020a, b;
environment and its potential use as an exploration tool. The Fig. 1). Pacey et al. (2020a) investigated chlorite and epidote
papers provide examples of using in situ chemistry and hy- scanning electron microscopy-energy dispersive spectrometry
perspectral characteristics of propylitic minerals (e.g., chlo- (SEM-EDS) and LA-ICP-MS results from the Endeavour 26
rite and epidote) to help predict the distance and direction and Endeavour 48 deposits. Their paper documents the com-
to mineralized centers (e.g., Ahmed et al., 2020; Baker et al., position of these green rock minerals, interprets spatial trends
2020; Cooke et al., 2020b; Pacey et al., 2020a; Wilkinson et using their chemistry, and proposes physicochemical mecha-

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by Saul E. Romero
 EXPLORING THE GREEN ROCK ENVIRONMENT: INTRODUCTION 697

nisms that can explain the observed trends. Pacey et al. (2020b) footprint than can be defined using conventional whole-rock
present O, H, and Sr isotope data, which trace the fluid sources geochemical data alone. Both of these papers demonstrate that
that contributed to the green rock alteration at Northparkes. the chemical composition of green rock alteration minerals can
They propose that a magmatic-hydrothermal fluid derived be used to distinguish between distal propylitic and metamor-
from the quartz monzonite porphyry complex was the domi- phic origins.
nant source for the green rock alteration observed up to ~2.5 Two papers investigate the green rock mineral chemistry of
to 3.0 km from the deposit center and argue that convecting porphyry systems from southwest United States. Ahmed et
groundwater did not play a significant role (cf. mixed magmat- al. (2020) present SEM, X-ray fluorescence (XRF), and LA-
ic-hydrothermal and seawater source for green rock alteration ICP-MS data for epidote from the Yerington district, Nevada.
at Wainaulo Cu-Au porphyry deposit, Fiji; Orovan et al., 2018). The district hosts the Middle Jurassic Ann Mason porphyry Cu
The green rock mineral chemistry of two major Cenozoic (Mo-Au) deposit (1,400 Mt at 0.32% Cu, 0.006% Mo, 0.03 g/t
porphyry systems in Chile are evaluated in this Special Issue. Au; Ahmed, 2019), the smaller Casting Copper Cu skarn de-
Baker et al. (2020) examined epidote mineral chemistry of the posit, and several other skarn deposits and prospects. Ahmed et
Collahuasi district and determined that anomalous values of al. (2020) distinguish two types of epidote based on major and
trace elements in epidote can be detected up to 4 km from trace element chemistry and establish that compositional vari-
the Rosario (3.11 Gt at 0.82% Cu and 0.024% Mo; Masterman ability can arise due to crystallographic features such as sector
et al., 2004; Djouka-Fonkwé et al., 2012) and Ujina (636 Mt zoning and multigenerational crystal growth within composite
at 1.06% Cu; Camus, 2002) porphyry deposits, which is 1 to grains. The complex mineralogy highlights the importance for
2 km beyond any observable sulfide mineralization. Similarly, detailed sample characterization when using mineral chem-
Wilkinson et al. (2020) showed that chlorite and epidote chem- istry to vector toward a deposit center. Cooke et al. (2020b)
ical data from the late Miocene to Pliocene El Teniente Cu-Mo demonstrate that green rock mineral chemistry can be used to
deposit (20.731 Gt at 0.62% Cu and 0.019% Mo; Singer et al., detect concealed porphyry deposits, using the giant Paleocene
2008) have systematic zonation patterns that extend up to 5 Resolution porphyry Cu-Mo deposit (1,787 Mt at 1.53% Cu
km from the center of the deposit and provide a more robust and 0.039% Mo; Cooke et al., 2020b), Superior mining district,

60˚N

40˚N

20˚N

0˚

20˚S

PCD ages
40˚S

90˚E 120˚E 150˚E 180˚ 150˚W 120˚W 90˚W 60˚W 30˚W

Fig. 2. Map of the Pacific Rim showing the location of porphyry deposits colored by deposit age. Study site locations for this
Special Issue are indicated by black outlined circles: Black Mountain, Philippines (Cao et al., 2020); Northparkes, Australia
(Pacey et al., 2020a, b); El Teniente, Chile (Wilkinson et al., 2020); Collahuasi, Chile (Baker et al., 2020); Resolution, United
States (Cooke et al., 2020b); Yerington, United States (Ahmed et al., 2020); Highland Valley, Canada (Alva-Jimenez et al.,
2020; Byrne et al., 2020a, b). The topographic and bathymetric base map for this figure was produced using GeoMapApp
(geomapapp.org). Deposit location and age data are from Sinclair (2007).

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by Saul E. Romero
 698 OROVAN AND HOLLINGS

Arizona, as a case study. They show the value of combining well as their patience and understanding during preparation.
multiple data sets (e.g., petrographic, whole-rock geochemi- A big thank you to David Cooke for his suggestion that we
cal, short-wave infrared, LA-ICP-MS) in aiding interpretations put this together, as well as to Larry Meinert for the editorial
that may lead to the discovery of deposits under cover. advice and support throughout the entire process.
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 EXPLORING THE GREEN ROCK ENVIRONMENT: INTRODUCTION 699

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by Saul E. Romero
 700 OROVAN AND HOLLINGS

Evan Orovan is currently a research fellow in Pete Hollings completed his Ph.D. degree in 1998 at
ore deposit footprints at the Australian Research the University of Saskatchewan, where he investigated
Council’s Industrial Transformation Research Hub the geochemistry of the 3.0 to 2.7 Ga Uchi subprov-
for Transforming the Mining Value Chain (TMVC) ince. During a two-year postdoctoral fellowship at
and Centre for Ore Deposit and Earth Sciences CODES, funded by the Natural Sciences and Engi-
(CODES), University of Tasmania. In 2016 he neering Research Council of Canada, he participated
completed a Ph.D. degree at CODES studying in a multidisciplinary research project investigating the
porphyry deposits in the Namosi district, Fiji, supervised by Professor David genesis of giant copper-porphyry deposits in Chile. As a faculty member at
Cooke and Dr. Anthony Harris. Previously he worked in greenfields explora- Lakehead University, Canada, since 2001, he is continuing his research into
tion in British Columbia for Xstrata Copper Canada and conducted regional the relationship between igneous petrogenesis and mineralization in Archean
mapping for the British Columbia Geological Survey. greenstone belts, porphyry systems, and the Midcontinent rift. He is cur-
rently the chair of the Department of Geology and director of the Centre of
Excellence for Sustainable Mining and Exploration.

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by Saul E. Romero