BARAGA CLIFFS SLOPE

STABILITY ASSESMENT
Final Report
Table of Contents
Abstract ......................................................................................................................................................... 1
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 1
Literature Review ...................................................................................................................................... 2
Objective ....................................................................................................................................................... 3
Background ................................................................................................................................................... 4
Geological History ..................................................................................................................................... 4
History of the Site ..................................................................................................................................... 5
Current State of the Site ........................................................................................................................... 5
Methodology................................................................................................................................................. 6
Field Observations .................................................................................................................................... 6
Sample Preparation .................................................................................................................................. 7
Uniaxial Compression Testing ................................................................................................................... 7
Results ........................................................................................................................................................... 8
Field Results .............................................................................................................................................. 8
Laboratory Results .................................................................................................................................. 10
Discussion.................................................................................................................................................... 13
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................................... 14
References .................................................................................................................................................. 16

i
Abstract
The Baraga cliffs of the Upper Peninsula of Michigan have been seen to be recessing at a rate of
0.15 to 1.5 inches per year with areas of increased localized erosion (Vitton & Williams, 2008).
This recession is undermining the safety and stability of US Highway 41 which runs along the
shore at the top of the cliff. Field observations and laboratory tests were used along with Vitton
and Williams 2008 to provide engineering recommendations for this slope. In the field, Schmidt
hammer readings were taken and samples were retrieved for uniaxial compression testing in the
laboratory. After analysis, the recommended engineering solution for this slope stability issue is
the relocation of the highway to an alignment outside the expected zone of talus slope formation.

Introduction
Throughout human history, our lives have been affected by the geological features that surround
us. Though beautiful, mountains, hills, and cliffs are not always benign features in our
environment. Unstable slopes have killed people and have damaged property in the past and
continue to this day. In the United States alone, slope stability issues cause 25 to 50 deaths per
year and upwards of 1 billion US Dollars in property damage (USGS, 2014). The definition of a
slope in this context is a feature made of soil or rock inclined at a degree greater than zero from
the horizontal. They can be natural or manmade, and their failures can be natural or caused by
human activity. A slope stability analysis at its most basic level compares the available strength of
a slope to the forces acting upon it, typically gravity. This report addresses the past and ongoing
slope stability issues of the Baraga cliffs.

The Baraga cliffs are located along the shore of Lake Superior, north of Baraga, Michigan on US
Highway 41 (US-41). US-41 runs along the shore in this area at the top of the cliffs. The area of
interest in this study is approximately 7 miles north of Baraga, MI. Cliffs are receding and
undercutting the highway guardrail, threatening the safety of the highway (Vitton & Williams,
2008). Vitton and Williams have completed a study to find the recession rate of the cliffs and
whether or not the highway should be moved.

As with most engineering problems, social and environmental aspects must be considered when
coming to a technical solution. The Baraga cliffs are a popular sightseeing stop for tourists in the
upper peninsula of Michigan. Their natural beauty along with the health of Lake Superior should
be considered when forming solutions to this slope stability issue.
1
Literature Review
There may be multiple viable methods to stabilize the Baraga cliffs. However, not all will be
acceptable solutions based on social and environmental factors. For example, shotcrete and rock
bolts may be used to stabilize the cliff face, but this solution would drastically alter the appearance
of the landscape. The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) published Context Sensitive Rock
Slope Design Solutions in 2011 to help engineers and designers create transportation facilities in a
manner that preserves the “scenic, aesthetic, historic, and environmental resources while
maintaining safety and mobility” (Andrew, Bartingale, & Hume, 2011). This report was published
through the Central Federal Lands Highway Division (CFLHD) of the FHWA. CFLHD constructs
and maintains many roadways through steep, mountainous, and environmentally sensitive terrain
on federal land. Often these roadways pass through national forests and national parks, thus
creating the need for this report. The report states that traditionally, rock excavation has taken
queues from mining techniques which are not always appropriate methods to create a natural
looking landscapes (Andrew, Bartingale, & Hume, 2011).

The report identifies 5 key steps in the design process of a rock slope: assessing slope stability,
selecting the most appropriate excavation techniques, designing safe and aesthetically pleasing
rock cuts, determining visual prioritization, and developing stabilization or rock fall protection
methods. The three design steps most applicable to our topic are the slope stability analysis,
determining appropriate excavation techniques, and designing safe and natural looking rock cuts.
The first step, assessing slope stability is necessary whether or not the end result needs to look
natural. If the slope needs to be modified to attain safe conditions, then aesthetics come into play.

Two main features the publication aims to avoid are large benches or shear faces in the rock, and
scarring from excavation. Scarring can consist of “half casts” – the half circle shaped indents left
on the face of the rock from drilling for explosives placement, or mechanical scars from chipping
the rock with hydraulic hammers. Other protective features should also be avoided if possible
including rock fall draperies and rock bolts. The report also goes on to mention that a cost analysis
should be performed comparing the costs of stability/protection measures versus avoidance
measures. Avoidance measures being moving the roadway to a different location. Their
recommendations on avoiding these unnatural features will be considered when determining an
appropriate solution for the Baraga cliffs.

2
Vitton and Williams study of the Baraga cliffs assessed the cliff recession rate, the factors
contributing to recession, and final recommendations on how to address the cliff’s recession on
US-41. Data used in the report came from two boreholes taken at the site, historical aerial
photography, water level data from Lake Superior, bathymetric data offshore from the cliffs,
LiDAR surveys, inclinometer data from one borehole, and recession estimates from residents of
the Baraga cliffs.

Rock samples taken from the boreholes were used to determine the stratigraphy of the site and to
develop rock strength and quality parameters. Evolution of the site through recent history was
determined using aerial photographs and a current map of the site was created using LiDAR data
and bathymetric data of the lake bottom. By combining data from the installed inclinometer and
estimates of recession from nearby residents, it was found that the average cliff recession rate is
0.15 to 1.5 inches per year. The issue the highway is currently facing is accelerated local recession
due to other factors including seasonal streams and variations in the permeability of the rock.

The Baraga cliff site was compared to other cliffs south of the site. It was seen through survey data
that these cliffs develop stable talus slopes between 30° and 33°. It was determined that the cliff
site in question will eventually develop a stable talus slope similar to these slopes assuming lake
levels do not vary from the long term average. The recommended course of action was moving the
highway away from the cliff to a point beyond where the stable talus slope is expected to develop.
This option is avoidance, as discussed in the literature review for the FHWA publication.

Historically, the Baraga cliff site was used as an area to dump stamp sands, or mine tailings from
nearby copper mines. These sands created protective beaches that prevented longshore currents
from eroding the protective talus slopes. After the dumping of stamp sands ceased, the remaining
sands were moved farther down the shore by longshore currents. Once the protective talus slope
was removed by water, cliff recession began again eventually threatening the highway.

Objective
The objective of this report is to build upon the Vitton and Williams study of the Baraga cliffs with
data collected through field investigation, laboratory testing of rocks from the site, and a slope
stability analysis. The goal of this work is to develop engineering recommendations for the
protection of US Highway 41.

3
Background
The Baraga cliffs site is located approximately 7 miles north of Baraga, Michigan on US-41. See
Figure 1 Geographical Location of the Baraga cliffs below. At this location the highway runs along
the shoreline at the top of a sandstone cliff. This cliff is receding and undermining the highway
guardrail system and is threatening the base of the highway.

Figure 1 Geographical Location of the Baraga cliffs (Google, 2015)

Geological History
The Baraga cliffs are composed of sandstone from the Jacobsville formation. They are the
youngest rocks in the area to be deposited in the continental rift that contributed to the formation
of Lake Superior. They are known by their variations in red and white banding and have been used
extensively in the architecture of the region (Rose, 2015). This formation extends throughout the
Keweenaw Peninsula of Upper Michigan to the east of the Keweenaw fault.

4
History of the Site
The Baraga cliff site was in the vicinity of an area used for the disposal of stamp sands, tailings
produced from copper mines. These stamp sands were pumped as a slurry to Lake Superior and
dumped over a period of time approximately 80 to 100 years ago. These stamp sands initially
created a beach in front of the cliffs under question. Over time, longshore currents moved the
stamp sand deposits farther down the beach (Vitton & Williams, 2008). The site is now host to a
few residential structures, US-41, and the Baraga Cliffs roadside park.

Current State of the Site

After visiting the site, it was seen that the cliffs are
approximately 20 to 30 meters tall offset from the
water by a 2 to 3 meter wide beach composed of talus
material. The talus material is composed of the
eroded sandstone in various states of weathering.
Some particles have been rounded by the water and
others are fresh and angular. Some areas exhibit Crack
deeper talus than others sometimes reaching heights
of 3 meters from the water level. It was also seen that
some particles were elongated with an approximate Moisture

ratio of 3 to 1, length to width. Water was noted

seeping through cracks in the rock. In particular, a
large crack was seen extending from the top of the Weathered
Material
cliff to two thirds of the way to the bottom. Moisture
was seen at the bottom of the crack. A one meter tall
section of material just above the talus had the
consistency of soft soil. A geological hammer easily
penetrated 10 cm. For our analysis, a 10 – 15 meter
section of cliff was analyzed. See Figure 2 Baraga
Cliffs, section of study the right for a photograph of the
study section. Talus Beach

Figure 2 Baraga Cliffs, section of study

5
Methodology
Our analysis of the cliff site consisted of three parts: field observations and tests, rock sample
preparation, and uniaxial compression testing of samples. Data and observations from each of these
steps were shared amongst the eight members of our group. Typically, we worked in groups of
two for each step.

Field Observations
A trip was made to the study site of Vitton and Williams, 2008. A section of cliff, 10 – 15 meters
wide was chosen for a section of study. At this site, the geology of the outcrop was recorded, as
mentioned in the previous current state of the site section. Estimates of unconfined compressive
strength (UCS) were recorded at various locations using a Schmidt hammer. A Schmidt hammer
is a device mainly used to estimate the compressive strength of concrete. In this case, values were
taken from the sandstone. The hammer consists of a spring-loaded metal rod and an indicator for
the rebound value. The spring is loaded and the rod hits the rock and rebounds. When it rebounds
a value is recorded to the indicator. This is a measurement of the energy lost to the rock. Using a
supplied chart, the rebound value, R, can be converted to UCS in units of kg/cm2.

UCS was also estimated visually. In our group of two, a sample of rock was chosen from the talus
and struck with a geological hammer until fracture. The number of blows was recorded and a grade
was chosen from a supplied field estimates of UCS chart. The chart lists various tests of strength
such as reaction to blows of a geological hammer, scraping from a pocket knife, and indentation
from a thumbnail. These results are to be used as a qualitative indicator of rock strength and
quality.

A rock mass rating (RMR) was also found for our study section. A chart from Bieniawski, 1989
was used. In this chart, five classification parameters are assessed and ratings are chosen. Ratings
from the chart are then summed to give an RMR. For our group of two, chart inputs for UCS were
taken from the visual classification and the Schmidt hammer readings. Because we did not take
any rock cores, we could not calculate the drill core quality (RQD). RQD was taken from Vitton
and Williams, 2008. Other inputs in the chart include spacing of rating, condition of
discontinuities, and groundwater conditions. A rating adjustment for discontinuity orientations was
taken to be zero, as in Vitton and Williams, 2008.

6
After performing these field classifications, rock samples were collected for testing in the lab. Six
samples were taken from a 0.5 km long area in the vicinity of our study section of outcrop. All
samples were taken from the talus. Some were fresh with little weathering, and some were
weathered by wave action (smooth). Both the red colored rocks and tan colored rocks were
sampled. Rock samples were approximately 50 cm long by 20 cm wide by 20 cm tall. This allowed
for multiple cores to be taken from each sample. Specimens were selected to be free from fractures
and to be representative of the outcrop.

Sample Preparation
Rock cores were taken from the samples retrieved in the field. These cores were prepared for later
uniaxial compression testing. Specimens were cored from each sample in multiple orientations -
perpendicular to bedding and parallel to bedding. Areas with fractures were avoided. A drill press
with a diamond core bit was used. The drill produced 1 inch (2.54 cm) diameter cores. A length to
diameter ratio of 2-2.5:1 was required for UCS testing. Cores were cut to length using a diamond
bladed wet saw. Lengths ranged from 2 inches (5.08 cm) to 2.5 inches (6.35 cm). To avoid
concentrating areas of stress during testing, the ends of each core sample were ground smooth and
to 90° angles from the sides using a lapping wheel and grit. Two to five cores were made from
each sample.

Uniaxial Compression Testing

Rock cores were tested uniaxially (no confining pressure) to find the unconfined compressive
strength at failure. ASTM D7012-07 Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength and Elastic
Moduli of Intact Core Specimens under Varying States of Stress and Temperatures was followed
with some variations. Temperature and states of stress were not varied. No confining pressure was
applied. Axial strain was not measured during testing.

The load frame used was a type commonly used in the field. It consists of two steel posts holding
a top beam in place. The top beam holds the top platen stationary. The bottom platen is pushed up
by a hydraulic cylinder to apply the load. Both top and bottom platens are cupped on the back side
to apply loads perpendicular to the faces of the sample if the sample is slightly irregular. The source
of load comes from hydraulic pressure generated in a hand powered pump. The hydraulic oil
pushes on the hydraulic cylinder under the bottom platen. Hydraulic pressure is measured during
testing using a digital pressure gauge. The maximum pressure in megapascals (MPa) for each test

7
is recorded and can be converted to a maximum load
using the known hydraulic cylinder cross sectional
area. The area of the hydraulic cylinder is 8 cm2. See
Figure 3 Uniaxial

Load Framebelow for a photograph of the load frame

used.

According to ASTM D7012-07 section 5.1, load

should be applied at a constant rate throughout the test
and at a rate to produce failure within 2 to 15 minutes.
These requirements are stated to avoid the effects of
rapid loading or shock to the sample. Because we were
using a hand powered pump, strain rate could not be
measured. We worked to maintain as constant a rate as
possible. Most, if not all tests failed in under 2 minutes.

In some cases, samples failed progressively with chips

of rock spalling off near the ends and then holding
more load to complete failure. In these cases, pressure was recorded at both times.
Figure 3 Uniaxial Load Frame

Results
Results from field and laboratory studies have been compiled from all group members for this
report. It is important to note in the following field results section that sample numbers for various
methods do not necessarily correspond to the same rock or sampling location. Therefore, results
from one method cannot be directly compared to one another. Only the overall rock quality at the
site can be inferred.

Field Results
Each group took approximately ten Schmidt hammer readings at each sample location and the
results below in Table 1 Schmidt Hammer Estimates of UCS reflect the average values from these
readings. Most readings were taken with the Schmidt hammer held horizontal.

8
Table 1 Schmidt Hammer Estimates of UCS

Sample Mean UCS

MPa
1 20
2 29
3 11
4 10
5 9
6 14

It can be seen from the results that the value of UCS ranges from 9 to 29 MPa. The results from
the Schmidt hammer estimates can vary greatly based on the conditions of the rock tested. For
instance, when our group was testing, low values were observed due to spaces behind the test zone
from spalling. The rock being tested in this case moved when struck giving artificially low rebound
values. These results are an indicator of the rock quality at the site but should not be taken as
numbers to design with.

While in the field, visual estimates of UCS were also performed. A table was provided as
mentioned in the methods section for use in this exercise. The results from each group can be seen
below in Table 2 Visual Classification of UCS

Table 2 Visual Classification of UCS

Sample UCS Visual Classification

UCS
Grade Term
(MPa)
1 R4 50 -100 Strong
2 R4 50 - 100 Strong
3 R2 - R3 5 - 50 Weak to Medium Strong
4 R3 25 - 50 Medium Strong

Visual estimates of UCS tended to be higher than the Schmidt hammer readings. This could be
due to differences in sampling locations or in the methods themselves. Again, this is just an
indicator of rock quality at the site.

9
From our field observations and tests along with information from Vitton and Williams, 2008 the
rock mass was classified using both the Rock Mass Rating System (RMR) and the Geological
Strength Index (GSI) system. Results of RMR can be seen below in Table 3 Rock Mass Rating Results
along with results of GSI in Table 4 Results of Geological Strength Index

Table 3 Rock Mass Rating Results Table 4 Results of Geological Strength Index

Sample RMR Sample GSI

1 63 1 25-35
2 64 2 35-55
3 65 3 35-60
4 54 4 35-55

RMR varied little between each group. Results indicate fair to good quality rock (Bieniawsi, 1989).
Average RMR from the Vitton and Williams study was found to be 68. This is in line with our
results. Results of GSI are an indicator of surface quality and the structure of the rock itself. Our
findings show rock with fair to poor surface quality and structure ranging from very blocky to
disintegrated.

While in the field, dip of the bedding planes was recorded for different locations. Our group
measured dip ranging from 0° - 1° perpendicular to the cliff face. For practical purposes, the
bedding planes are horizontal. Dip was only measured for layers within reach of a person at the
bottom of the cliff. The above layers are assumed to be close to horizontal as well.

After compilation of field observations and results, it can be seen that the outcrop of the Baraga
cliffs is actively eroding, but the quality of rock present is of fair to good quality. These qualitative
results are followed up by quantitative results in the following section.

Laboratory Results
Unconfined compression tests were performed on the samples taken from the field. As mentioned
in the methods section, when samples failed progressively, i.e. failed and regained strength, both
numbers were recorded. These results display only the lowest result of each test to be conservative.
Values of load at failure along with UCS were calculated from the hydraulic pressure and are given
in Table 5 Results of Uniaxial Compression Testing The letter designation for each core represent the
sample they were cored from. Average values of UCS range from 12 to 63 MPa from each sample.

10
It is important to note that not all rock samples came from our outcrop study area. A histogram
was created to compare UCS between all rock cores. The figure shows the frequency of results in
10 MPa increments. For example, a bar shown at the 20 MPa tick mark represents the number of
results in the 10 to 20 MPa range. Figure 4 is shown below.

Table 5 Results of Uniaxial Compression Testing

Hydraulic
Load at Mean
Core Height Pressure at UCS
Failure UCS
Failure
cm MPa N MPa MPa
A1 5.40 16.84 13472 26.6
A2 5.72 15.1 12080 23.8
A3 6.02 15.1 12080 23.8 25.8
A4 6.25 16.38 13104 25.9
A5 5.89 18.44 14752 29.1
B - 31.9 25520 50.4
B1 5.51 33.6 26880 53.0 63.1
B2 6.38 54.34 43472 85.8
C1 5.41 9.02 7216 14.2
C2 5.99 28.34 22672 44.7
23.9
C3 5.11 12.1 9680 19.1
C4 6.27 11.18 8944 17.7
D1 5.59 22.38 17904 35.3
D2 5.92 29.66 23728 46.8
37.9
D3 5.99 27.8 22240 43.9
D4 5.44 16.14 12912 25.5
E1 5.33 5.82 4656 9.2
E2 5.59 7.24 5792 11.4 12.9
E3 6.10 11.42 9136 18.0
F1 5.08 37.1 29680 58.6
F2 5.59 20.52 16416 32.4
53.9
F3 5.84 58.64 46912 92.6
F4 5.64 20.18 16144 31.9

11
 6

4
Frequency

0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
UCS (Mpa)

Figure 4 Frequency Distribution of Unconfined Compressive Strength

We can see in Figure 4 that most samples display a UCS of 10 to 30 MPa. Variations can be
attributed to weathering of rock, cracks, orientation of bedding in rock core, and human error.
Human error in this case could be loading the rock too quickly which could give a falsely high
reading. Though there are sources for error in laboratory tests, these indicators of rock strength
should be weighed more heavily than field results when making engineering considerations.

Vitton and Williams also measured uniaxial compressive strength in their report. Their samples
came from two boreholes and were prepared in the same manner as ours with a 2:1 height to
diameter ratio. They used an Instron compression testing machine and were able to measure
displacement as well as control the strain rate. The average UCS from borehole 1 and 2,
respectively, is 30 MPa and 35 MPa. These values are comparable to our values which are most
commonly in the 10 to 30 MPa range. This further reinforces that our laboratory values should be
considered closer to reality than the field values.

12
Discussion
The fact that samples taken for UCS testing in the lab came from talus material could pose
questions as to whether or not their strength is representative of the cliff and rock in the interior of
the cliff. Because our values of UCS align with those of Vitton and Williams whose samples were
taken in-situ, our results can be taken to be representative of the cliff. However, UCS testing was
not performed on weathered rock in either case. From field observations, it is evident that rock is
spalling from the cliff face to form the talus slope. The particles of talus may be intact, but the cliff
itself is subject to discontinuities on a larger scale. Rock samples tested were for the most part dry.
More samples should be tested in saturated conditions to evaluate the effects of groundwater on
the rock strength.

Values of UCS found using the Schmidt hammer exhibited results lower than those found through
laboratory testing. This could be due to the nature of the field test or the fact that Schmidt hammer
readings could only be taken as high up the cliff as a person could reach. In this zone, water from
Lake Superior may contribute to more weathering than areas higher up the cliff. Highly weathered
areas were noted just above the talus slope. Samples used in uniaxial compression testing could
have come from higher points on the cliff but their location cannot be determined because they
were taken from the talus. Uniaxial tests were not performed on fractured rock. Schmidt values
may be a better indicator of fractured rock strength.

Rock Mass Ratings from Vitton and Williams and our studies indicate fair to good quality rock.
Again, these results are more of an indicator of intact rock strength than the weathered fractured
rock.

From these results we can conclude the following: the Baraga cliff site is composed of moderately
strong rock but its global strength is controlled by bedding planes, cracks, and weathering. These
were quantitatively assessed to be a rock mass with fair to poor surface quality jointing ranging
from blocky to disintegrated in the GSI analysis. Erosion is seen to be occurring as both spalling
of rock particles forming talus, and weathering of rock due to water near the lake level and in areas
of groundwater intrusion. These areas of weathering are producing weathered rock soil. It is
expected that the cliff will continue to recess due to ice jacking and spalling on the face of the cliff
from runoff and groundwater, and undercutting of weathered material at the lake level.

13
Because the cliff is composed of strong rock with horizontal bedding planes, a large circular type
failure is not expected to occur. Because bedding planes are horizontal, large translational slides
are also not expected. The failure mechanisms affecting the highway will be smaller and more
localized due to individual areas erosion. It does not seem that a large scale catastrophic failure is
likely in this location.

This does not mean that nothing should be done to protect the highway. These areas of localized
recession will continue to affect the serviceability and safety of the highway as long as water and
cold temperatures are present. It is recommended that a more focused study be taken into the areas
of the Baraga cliffs where stable talus slopes have been formed. Studies of the angle of repose of
talus material should be conducted and the highway should be moved outside the zone where the
slope is expected to form. Because longshore currents and variations in lake level will continue,
this talus slope will not be stable forever. However, moving the highway will be a sustainable
option for the future because the amount of time required to form the slope and consequently erode
the slope through longshore currents will be large. This solution will add many years to the
highways life.

Another reason to let nature take its course by the continued erosion of the cliff is aesthetics.
Because this solution involves no human modifications to the cliff, this would be the most natural
looking option. A natural looking slope may be constructed using methods in the aforementioned
Context Sensitive Rock Slope Design Solutions (Andrew, Bartingale, & Hume, 2011) such as
drilling and blasting to create benches. However, it is expected that this option would be more
costly than moving the highway. If blasting were used to create benches on the cliff, they would
then be subject to the same erosive mechanisms already affecting the cliff’s stability.

Conclusion
It was not determined that the recession of the Baraga cliffs posed a risk of catastrophic failure.
However, continued localized erosion will pose safety and serviceability concerns for the highway.
Field and laboratory studies produced similar strength results to those of Vitton and Williams,
2008. The outcrop is composed of fairly strong rock, but is controlled by discontinuities and the
presence of groundwater.

14
It is recommended that the highway be moved away from the cliff to a new alignment outside of
the expected talus slope zone. This zone could be expected to form similarly to talus slopes south
of the Baraga cliffs (Vitton & Williams, 2008). The alignment location could be calculated from
the height of the cliff and the expected angle of repose of talus material. If a more reliable solution
is required, the Baraga cliffs talus material should be compared to the stable talus of the cliffs south
of the site. If there are differences in angularity, elongation, or size of the talus material, a study
should be completed to estimate the angle of repose of the Baraga cliffs talus.

15
References
Andrew, R., Bartingale, R., & Hume, H. (2011). Context Sensitive Rock Slope Design Solutions.
Lakewood: FHWA.
ASTM International. (2007, July 1). D 7012-07. Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength
and Elastic Moduli of Intact Rock Core Specimens under Varying States of Stress and
Temperatures. Conshohocken, Pennsylvania, United States of America: ASTM
International.
Bieniawsi, Z. (1989). Engineering Rock Mass Classifications. Wiley-Interscience.
Google. (2015). Google Maps.
Rose, B. (2015). Jacobsville Sandsone. Retrieved from Keweenaw Geoheritage:
http://www.geo.mtu.edu/KeweenawGeoheritage/Sandstone/Welcome.html
USGS. (2014, September 15). Lanslides Hazard Program. Retrieved from Landslides 101:
http://landslides.usgs.gov/learn/ls101.php
Vitton, S., & Williams, A. (2008). Estimate of Cliff Recession Rates for the Baraga Cliffs.
Houghton: Michigan Technological University.

16