ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
Module
College of Engineering and Technology
Civil Engineering Program
2020
Module 6
Module Title: Polar Coordinates
Module Description: This module covers the polar coordinates system that is a two-
dimensional coordinate system in which each point on a plane is determined by a distance
from a reference point and an angle from a reference direction. The reference point is called
the pole, and the ray from the pole in the reference direction is the polar axis.
Purpose of the Module:
This module let the students learn how to use it in navigation as the destination or
direction of travel can be given as an angle and distance from the object being considered.
Module Guide:
Each lesson in the module begins with a pre-test to test the awareness of the students
either of the lesson itself or of the previous lesson/s needed to understand the current lesson.
It is then followed by a discussion, a set of exercises wherein answers are provided in the
“Let’s Check” portion of the module and finally with a post-test.
Link to videos and/ or other reading materials are also given to reinforce the learnings
for each lesson presented.
Module Outcomes:
1. Set up equations given enough properties of lines.
2. Draw the graph of the given equation of the lines.
Module Requirements:
At the end of this module, the students will submit the following:
1. An educational video of at least one of the lesson presented in this module.
2. Solution to all the exercises of each lesson.
3. Take a module post-test.
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Learning Plan
Lesson No: 1
Lesson Title: Polar Coordinates
Let’s Hit These:
At the end of this lesson, students should be able to:
Plot points using polar coordinates.
To determine the position of a certain point/s, one uses coordinate system,
which uses one or more numbers.
Let’s Get Started:
The polar coordinate system makes use of this method of describing the location of a
point on a plane. From the given fixed point, which is called the pole or origin, a reference
line is drawn (generally in a horizontal direction to the right). Another form of plotting
positions in a plane is using polar coordinates. When we think about plotting points in the
plane, we usually think of rectangular coordinates (x, y) (x, y) in the Cartesian coordinate
plane. However, there are other ways of writing a coordinate pair and other types of grid
systems. Polar coordinates are points labeled (r, θ) (r, θ) and plotted on a polar grid. The polar
grid is represented as a series of concentric circles radiating out from the pole, or the origin of
the coordinate plane.
Let’s Read:
This line is called the initial line or the polar axis and, when so drawn, coincides with
the right half of the Cartesian x-axis. Hence the polar axis is usually also lettered OX. The
distance r of any point P from
Figure 6.1
O is called its radius vector and its direction θ from OX is called its polar angle. The radius
vector and the polar angle are the polar coordinates (r, θ) of the point. The sign conventions
are:
(a) 8 is positive when measured counterclockwise, negative when
measured clockwise.
(b) r is positive if laid off on terminal side of θ, negative if laid off on the
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prolongation through O of the terminal side.
For instance, to plot P1(5, 30°), we first draw the line making an angle of 30° with OX
and lay off on this line the distance 5.
Figure 6.2
Again, to plot P2(-5,30°), we draw as before the line making 30° with OX. However,
since the radius vector is negative, we lay off the distance 5 on the prolongation through O of
the terminal side of 30°.
Finally, to plot P3(4, -45°), we draw the line making an angle of -45° (clockwise) with
OX. The positive radius vector 4 is laid off on this terminal side.
From the foregoing discussion, the student will immediately notice the following
important features of the polar coordinate system.
(a) Every pair of polar coordinates represents one and only one point.
(b) Every point may be represented by an infinite number of pairs of polar
coordinates.
Thus, in the first example given, the pair (5, 30°) represents P1, and no other point. However,
P1, may also be represented by (-5, -150°). (5, -330°), (5, 390°), (-5, 210°), (5, 750°), etc. The
student should also write down other pairs representing P2, and P3.
Distance Between Two Points. The distance between two points whose polar coordinates are
given easily found by solving a triangle whose two sides and the included angle are given.
Let the point be P1(r1, θ₁) and P2(r2, θ 2); obviously, the distance d is the third side of the
triangle whose two other sides are r₁ and r2. with included angle (θ 2 -θ₁). Hence, by the law
of cosines.
d2 = r12 + r22 - 2r1r2 cos (θ 2 -θ₁)
which is the distance formula in polar coordinates.
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7
Example 1.1 Show that the following points P₁( √ 2, 75°), P2(4, 30°). P3(3, 120°) are the
2
vertices of a right triangle and find its area.
Solution:
Figure 6.3
2
7 2 7 2
d = √ + 42 −2 √ ( 4 ) cos 45 0
2
1 ( ) ( )
2 2
49 √ 2 = 25
¿
2
+16−28 √ 2
2( ) 2
2
7 √2 7 2
d 22= ( ) +3 2−2 √ ( 3 ) cos 450
( )
2 2
49 √ 2 = 25
¿
2
+9−21 √ 2 ( )
2 2
d 23=4 2 + 32−2 ( 4 ) ( 3 ) cos 900 =25
Since d 21 + d 22' = d 23, P1P2P3, is a right triangle with right angle at P₁. The area is half the
product of the two legs d1 and d₂:
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1
A=
2 (√ 252 )(√ 252 )= 254 ∨6 14 sq. units.
The reference point (analogous to the origin of a Cartesian system) is called the pole,
and the ray from the pole in the reference direction is the polar axis. The distance from the
pole is called the radial coordinate or radius, and the angle is called the angular coordinate,
polar angle, or azimuth. The radial coordinate is often denoted by r or ρ, and the angular
coordinate by ϕ, θ, or t.
Figure 6.4
Examples of Polar Coordinates: Points in the polar coordinate system with pole 0 and polar
axis L. In green, the point with radial coordinate 3 and angular coordinate 60 degrees or
(3, 60°). In blue, the point (4, 210°).
Figure 6.5
Polar Graph Paper: A polar grid with several angles labeled in degrees
Angles in polar notation are generally expressed in either degrees or radians (2π rad being
equal to 360°). Degrees are traditionally used in navigation, surveying, and many applied
disciplines, while radians are more common in mathematics and mathematical physics. In
many contexts, a positive angular coordinate means that the angle ϕ is measured
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counterclockwise from the axis. In mathematical literature, the polar axis is often drawn
horizontal and pointing to the right.
Plotting Points Using Polar Coordinates. The polar grid is scaled as the unit circle with the
positive x–axis now viewed as the polar axis and the origin as the pole. The first coordinate r
is the radius or length of the directed line segment from the pole. The angle θ, measured in
radians, indicates the direction of r. We move counterclockwise from the polar axis by an
angle of θ, and measure a directed line segment the length of r in the direction of θ. Even
though we measure θ first and then r, the polar point is written with the r-coordinate first. For
π π
example, to plot the point (2, ) we would move units in the counterclockwise direction
4 4
and then a length of 2 from the pole. This point is plotted on the grid in Figure 6.6.
Figure 6.6
π π
Plotting a point on a Polar Grid: Plot of the point (2, ), by moving units in the
4 4
counterclockwise direction and then a length of 2 from the pole.
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Learning Plan
Lesson No: 2
Lesson Title: Graphs in Polar Coordinates
Let’s Hit These:
At the end of this lesson, students should be able to:
Test polar equations for symmetry.
Graph polar equations by plotting points.
Let’s Get Started:
Keplar's First Law of Planetary Motion argues that the planets move through space in
elliptical, periodic orbits about the sun, as shown in Figure 6.7 . They are in constant motion,
so fixing an exact position of any planet is valid only for a moment. In other words, we can
fix only a planet’s instantaneous position. This is one application of polar coordinates,
represented as (r, θ). We interpret r as the distance from the sun and θ as the planet’s angular
bearing, or its direction from a fixed point on the sun. In this section, we will focus on the
polar system and the graphs that are generated directly from polar coordinates.
Figure 6.7
Planets follow elliptical paths as they orbit around the Sun. (credit: modification of work by
NASA/JPL-Caltech)
Let’s Read:
Just as a rectangular equation such as y=x2 describes the relationship
between x and y on a Cartesian grid, a polar equation describes a relationship
between r and θ on a polar grid. Recall that the coordinate pair (r, θ) indicates that we move
counterclockwise from the polar axis (positive x-axis) by an angle of θ, and extend a ray from
B4: Analytic Geometry Page 8 of 18
the pole (origin) r units in the direction of θ. All points that satisfy the polar equation are on
the graph.
Symmetry is a property that helps us recognize and plot the graph of any equation. If an
equation has a graph that is symmetric with respect to an axis, it means that if we folded the
graph in half over that axis, the portion of the graph on one side would coincide with the
portion on the other side. By performing three tests, we will see how to apply the properties
of symmetry to polar equations. Further, we will use symmetry (in addition to plotting key
points, zeros, and maximums of r) to determine the graph of a polar equation.
π
In the first test, we consider symmetry with respect to the line θ = (y-axis). We replace (r,
2
θ) with (−r, −θ) to determine if the new equation is equivalent to the original equation. For
example, suppose we are given the equation r = 2sinθ;
r = 1 – 2cosθ
r = 1 – 2cos(-θ) Replace (r, -θ)
r = 1 – 2cosθ Even/Odd identity
The graph of this equation exhibits symmetry with respect to the polar axis.
In the third test, we consider symmetry with respect to the pole (origin). We replace (r, θ)
with (−r, θ) to determine if the tested equation is equivalent to the original equation. For
example, suppose we are given the equation r = 2sin(3θ).
r = 2sin(3θ)
−r = 2sin(3θ)
The equation has failed the symmetry test, but that does not mean that it is not symmetric
with respect to the pole. Passing one or more of the symmetry tests verifies that symmetry
will be exhibited in a graph. However, failing the symmetry tests does not necessarily
π
indicate that a graph will not be symmetric about the line θ = , the polar axis, or the pole. In
2
these instances, we can confirm that symmetry exists by plotting reflecting points across the
apparent axis of symmetry or the pole. Testing for symmetry is a technique that simplifies the
graphing of polar equations, but its application is not perfect.
Note: SYMMETRY TESTS
A polar equation describes a curve on the polar grid. The graph of a polar equation can be
evaluated for three types of symmetry, as shown in Figure 6.8.
Figure 6.8
π
Figure 6.8: (a) A graph is symmetric with respect to the line θ = (y-axis) if replacing (r, θ)
2
with (−r,−θ) yields an equivalent equation.
B4: Analytic Geometry Page 9 of 18
(b) A graph is symmetric with respect to the polar axis (x-axis) if replacing (r, θ) with (r, −θ)
or (−r, π − θ) yields an equivalent equation.
(c) A graph is symmetric with respect to the pole (origin) if replacing (r, θ) with (−r, θ)
yields an equivalent equation.
How to: Given a polar equation, test for symmetry
1. Substitute the appropriate combination of components for
π
(r, θ): (−r,−θ) for θ = symmetry; (r, −θ) for polar axis symmetry; and (−r, θ) for
2
symmetry with respect to the pole.
2. If the resulting equations are equivalent in one or more of the tests, the graph
produces the expected symmetry.
Example 2.1 Test the equation r = 2sinθ for symmetry
Solution:
Test for each of the three types of symmetry.
1) Replacing (r, θ) with (−r,−θ) yields the same result. Thus, the graph is symmetric with
π
respect to the line θ = .
2
−r = 2sin(−θ)
−r = −2sinθ Even-odd identity
r = 2sinθ Multiply by −1
Passed
2) Replacing θ with −θ does not yield the same equation. Therefore, the graph fails the test
and may or may not be symmetric with respect to the polar axis.
r = 2sin(−θ)
r = −2sinθ Even-odd identity
r = -2sinθ ≠ 2sinθ
Failed
3) Replacing r with –r changes the equation and fails the test. The graph may or may not be
symmetric with respect to the pole.
-r = 2sinθ
r = -2sinθ ≠ 2sinθ
Failed
Analysis
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Using a graphing calculator, we can see that the equation r = 2sinθ is a circle centered at
π
(0,1) with radius r = 1 and is indeed symmetric to the line θ = . We can also see that the
2
graph is not symmetric with the polar axis or the pole. See Figure 6.9.
Figure 6.9
π
Answer: The equation fails the symmetry test with respect to the line θ = and with respect
2
to the pole. It passes the polar axis symmetry test.
Graphing Polar Equations by Plotting Points. To graph in the rectangular coordinate
system, we construct a table of x and y values. To graph in the polar coordinate system, we
construct a table of θ and r values. We enter values of θ into a polar equation and calculate r.
However, using the properties of symmetry and finding key values of θ and r means fewer
calculations will be needed.
Let’s Do This:
Exercise 6.1
Plot the following points:
1. P1 (-3, 135°)
−π
P2 (2, )
3
P3 (4, 405°)
Graph
2. Sketch the graph of r = 3 − 2cosθ.
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Learning Plan
Lesson No: 3
Lesson Title: Relationships Between Rectangular and Polar Coordinates
Let’s Hit These:
At the end of this lesson, students should be able to:
Derive and use the formulae for converting between Polar and Cartesian
coordinates.
Let’s Get Started:
Rectangular coordinates, or cartesian coordinates, come in the form (x, y). It’s easy to
remember that they’re called rectangular coordinates, because if you start at the origin and
move first to the x-coordinate, and then to the y-coordinate, your path is a horizontal line,
followed by a vertical line, which form two sides of a rectangle. Polar coordinates, on the
other hand, come in the form (r, θ). Instead of moving out from the origin using horizontal
and vertical lines, we instead pick the angle θ, which is the direction, and then move out from
the origin a certain distance r.
Let’s Read:
Polar Coordinates to Rectangular (Cartesian) Coordinates). When given a set of
polar coordinates, we may need to convert them to rectangular coordinates. To do so, we can
recall the relationships that exist among the variables x, y, r, and θ, from the definitions of cos
θ and sin θ. Solving for the variables x and y yields the following formulas:
x
cos θ = ⇒ x = r cos θ
r
y
sin θ = ⇒ y = r sin θ
r
An easy way to remember the equations above is to think of cos θ as the adjacent side over
the hypotenuse and sin θ as the opposite side over the hypotenuse. Dropping a perpendicular
from the point in the plane to the x–axis forms a right triangle, as illustrated in Figure below.
Figure 6.10
Trigonometry Right Triangle: A right triangle with rectangular (Cartesian) coordinates and
equivalent polar coordinates.
To convert polar coordinates (r, θ), to rectangular coordinates (x, y) follow these steps:
B4: Analytic Geometry Page 12 of 18
x y
1)Write cos θ = ⇒ x = rcos θ and sin θ = ⇒ y = rsin θ
r r
2) Evaluate cos θ and sin θ.
3) Multiply cos θ by r to find the x-coordinate of the rectangular form.
4) Multiply sin θ by r to find the y-coordinate of the rectangular form.
x
Example 3.1 Write the polar coordinates (3, ) as rectangular coordinates.
2
Solution:
x = r cos θ
π
= 3cos
2
=0
y = r sin θ
π
= 3cos
2
=3
The rectangular coordinates are (0, 3)
Figure 6.11
Polar and Coordinate Grid of Equivalent Points: The rectangular coordinate (0, 3) is the
π
same as the polar coordinate (3, ) as plotted on the two grids above.
2
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Rectangular (Cartesian) Coordinates to Polar Coordinates. To convert rectangular
coordinates to polar coordinates, we will use two other familiar relationships. With this
conversion, however, we need to be aware that a set of rectangular coordinates will yield
more than one polar point.
Converting from rectangular coordinates to polar coordinates requires the use of one
or more of the relationships illustrated below. Recall:
x
cos θ = ⇒ x = r cos θ
r
y
sin θ = ⇒ y = r sin θ
r
r2 = x 2 + y 2
y
tan θ = r
Figure 6.12
Example 3.2 Convert the rectangular coordinates (3, 3) to polar coordinates.
Solution:
We are given the values of x and y and need to solve for θ and r. Start by solving for θ using
the tan function:
y
tan θ =
x
3
=
3
=1
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So:
θ = tan-1 (1)
π
=
4
Next substitute the values of x
and y into the formula r2 = x2 + y2 and solve for r.
r2 = x2 + y 2
= 3 2 + 32
= 18
So:
r = √ 18
= 3√ 2
π
(
The polar coordinates are 3 √ 2 ,
4).
Note that r2 = 18 implies r = ±√ 18. We chose to ignore the negative r value. Also note
that tan−1(1) has many answers. This corresponds to the non-uniqueness of polar coordinates.
Multiple sets of polar coordinates can have the same location as our first solution. For
5π 7π
(
example, the points −3 √ 2 ,
4 ) (
and −3 √ 2 ,
2 )
will coincide with the original solution of
π
(3√2, .
4)
Let’s Do This:
Exercise 6.2
2π
1. Convert the polar coordinates (-8, ) into rectangular coordinates.
3
2. Convert the rectangular coordinates (3, -3) into polar coordinates with r > 0
and 0 ≤ θ < 2π.
3. Convert the rectangular equation x2 + y2 = 100 into a polar equation that
expresses r in terms of θ.
4. Convert the polar equation 4r cos θ + r sin θ = 8 into a rectangular equation
that expresses y in terms of x.
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Let’s Check:
Exercise 6.1
1.
Exercise 6.2
1. The rectangular coordinates would be (4, -4√ 3) which is approximately (4, -7).
7π
2. The polar coordinates would be (3 √ 2, ).
4
3. r = 10
4. y = 8 – 4x
Let’s Remember:
This line is called the initial line or the polar axis and, when so drawn, coincides with the
right half of the Cartesian x-axis. Hence the polar axis is usually also lettered OX. The
distance r of any point P from O is called its radius vector and its direction θ from OX is
called its polar angle. The radius vector and the polar angle are the polar coordinates (r, θ) of
the point. The sign conventions are:
(a) 8 is positive when measured counterclockwise, negative when
measured clockwise.
(b) r is positive if laid off on terminal side of θ, negative if laid off on the
prolongation through O of the terminal side.
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From the foregoing discussion, the student will immediately notice the following
important features of the polar coordinate system.
(a) Every pair of polar coordinates represents one and only one point.
(b) Every point may be represented by an infinite number of pairs of polar
coordinates.
The reference point (analogous to the origin of a Cartesian system) is called the pole,
and the ray from the pole in the reference direction is the polar axis. The distance from the
pole is called the radial coordinate or radius, and the angle is called the angular coordinate,
polar angle, or azimuth. The radial coordinate is often denoted by r or ρ, and the angular
coordinate by ϕ, θ, or t.
To graph in the rectangular coordinate system, we construct a table of x and y values.
To graph in the polar coordinate system, we construct a table of θ and r values. We enter
values of θ into a polar equation and calculate r. However, using the properties of symmetry
and finding key values of θ and r means fewer calculations will be needed.
When given a set of polar coordinates, we may need to convert them to rectangular
coordinates. To do so, we can recall the relationships that exist among the variables x, y, r,
and θ, from the definitions of cos θ and sin θ. Solving for the variables x and y yields the
following formulas:
x
cos θ = ⇒ x = r cos θ
r
y
sin θ = ⇒ y = r sin θ
r
Suggested Readings/ Videos:
Polar Coordinates
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aSdaT62ndYE
Graphs in Polar Coordinates
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jO4lwddfeDA
Relationship Between Rectangular and Polar Coordinates
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fTBkr27r3pw
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=flTz_pSzVFI
References/Sources:
Quirino D.D.A & Mijares J.M. (1993). Plane and Solid Analytic Geometry. Quezon City:
Royal Publishing House, Inc.
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-algebra/chapter/the-polar-coordinate-system/
https://math.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Precalculus/Precalculus_(OpenStax)/08%3A_
Further_Applications_of_Trigonometry/8.04%3A_Polar_Coordinates_-_Graphs
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