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Series, Parallel, and Series-Parallel Circuits 87

24. The sum of all voltage drops in a series c. Both A and B

circuit equals the: d. Neither A nor B
a. Voltage across the largest load
26. What is the name for a circuit
b. Voltage across the smallest load
that allows only one path for
c. Source or applied voltage
current to flow?
25. What is the name for a circuit that allows a. Series circuit
two or more paths for current flow? b. Parallel circuit
a. Series circuit c. Series-parallel circuit
b. Parallel circuit d. Integrated circuit
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LEARNING

6
OBJECTIVES
Upon completion and review of this chapter, you
should be able to:
• Identify the wire types and materials used in
automotive wiring.
• Explain how wire size is determined by both
the American Wire Gauge (AWG) system
and the metric system.
• Explain the use of a wiring harness and
define the different types of connectors and
terminal ends.
Electrical • Define the ground, parallel data, serial data,
and multiplexing paths.
Diagrams • Identify common electrical parts and explain
their operation.

and Wiring •

•
Explain the color-coding of automotive
wiring.
Explain the terms used in the language of
automotive wiring diagrams.
• Identify the component symbols used in
automotive wiring schematics.
• Explain the purpose of a wiring diagram or
schematic.

KEY TERMS
Circuit Number
Color Coding
Component Symbols
Connectors
Ground Cable
Installation Diagram
Metric Wire Sizes
Multiplexing
Primary Wiring
Schematic Diagram
Solenoid
Switches
Weatherproof Connectors
Wire Gauge Diagram
Wire Gauge Number
Wiring Harness

89
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90 Chapter Six

INTRODUCTION WIRING AND

Now that we have discussed current flow, volt-
HARNESSES
age, sources, electrical loads, and series and par- An automobile may contain as much as half a mile
allel circuits, in this chapter we start to build some of wiring, in as many as 50 harnesses, with more
automotive circuits. To build a complete circuit, than 500 individual connections (Figure 6-1). This
we must have conductors to carry the current wiring must perform under very poor working
from the voltage source to the electrical loads. conditions. Engine heat, vibration, water, road
The conductors are the thousands of feet of wire dirt, and oil can damage the wiring and its con-
and cable used in the complete electrical system. nections. If the wiring or connections break down,
The vehicle chassis is also a conductor for the the circuits will fail.
ground side of the circuits, as we will see later. We To protect the many wires from damage and to
will begin our study by looking at the wiring har- keep them from becoming a confusing tangle, the
nesses, connectors, and terminals of the system. automotive electrical system is organized into
The preceding chapters used symbols to show bundles of wire known as wiring harnesses that
some of the components in an automotive elec- serve various areas of the automobile. The wires
trical system. After studying the basic parts of are generally wrapped with tape or plastic cover-
the system (voltage source, conductors, and ing, or they may be enclosed in insulated tubing.
loads), it is time to put them together into com- Simple harnesses are designed to connect two
plete circuits. components; complex harnesses are collections
In real-world cases, diagrams of much greater of simple harnesses bound together (Figure 6-2).
complexity are used. Technicians must be able Main wiring harnesses are located behind the
to identify each component by its symbol and instrument panel (Figure 6-3), in the engine com-
determine how current travels from the power partment (Figure 6-4 and Figure 6-5), and along
source to ground. Technicians use electrical cir- the body floor. Branch harnesses are routed from
cuit diagrams to locate and identify components the main harness to other parts of the system.
on the vehicle and trace the wiring in order to Items 1, 2, and 3 in Figure 6-4 are ground con-
make an accurate diagnosis of any malfunctions nections. The colored insulation used on individ-
in the system. ual wires makes it easier to trace them through

Figure 6-1. The wiring harness in this vehicle is typical of those in most late-model cars. (GM Service and Parts Operations)
ker88839_ch06.qxd 1/9/06 11:25 AM Page 91

Figure 6-2. Wiring harnesses range from the simple to the complex. (DaimlerChrysler Corporation)

Figure 6-3. This instrument panel wiring harness has 41 different connectors. (GM Service and Parts Operations)

91
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92 Chapter Six

trucks also are considered low-voltage systems.)

The low-voltage wiring of a vehicle, with the
exception of the battery cables, is called the
primary wiring. This usually includes all lighting,
accessory, and power distribution circuits. By 2003,
we will see 42-volt systems in some hybrid and
mybrid applications. For more information about
diagnosing wiring problems, see the “Tracing
Circuits” section in Chapter 6 of the Shop Manual.

WIRE TYPES AND

MATERIALS
Figure 6-4. The engine compartment wiring har- Most automotive wiring consists of a conductor
nesses. (GM Service and Parts Operations) covered with an insulator. Copper is the most com-
mon conductor used. It has excellent conductivity,
is flexible enough to be bent easily, solders readily,
and is relatively inexpensive. A conductor must be
surrounded with some form of protective covering
to prevent it from contacting other conductors.
This covering is called insulation. High-resistance
plastic compounds have replaced the cloth or paper
insulation used on older wiring installations.
Stainless steel is used in some heavy wiring,
such as battery cables and some ignition cables.
Some General Motors cars use aluminum wiring in
the main body harness. Although less expensive,
aluminum is also less conductive and less flexible.
For these reasons, aluminum wires must be larger
than comparable copper wires and they generally
are used in the lower forward part of the vehicle
Figure 6-5. The engine wiring harnesses connects to where flexing is not a problem. Brown plastic wrap-
the individual engine components to the engine com- ping indicates aluminum wiring in GM cars; copper
partment wiring harness. (GM Service and Parts Operations) wiring harnesses in the cars have a black wrapping.

these harnesses, especially where sections of the

wire are hidden from view. Wire Types
Aloose or corroded connection, or a replacement
wire that is too small for the circuit, will add extra Automotive wiring or circuit conductors are used
resistance and an additional voltage drop to the cir- in one of three forms, as follows:
cuit. For example, a 10-percent extra drop in volt- • Solid wires (single-strand)
age to the headlamps will cause a 30-percent • Stranded wires (multistrand)
voltage loss in candlepower. The same 10-percent • Printed circuitry
voltage loss at the power windows or windshield
wiper motor can reduce, or even stop, motor opera- Solid or single-strand wire is used where cur-
tion. All automotive electrical circuits, except the rent is low and flexibility is not required. In auto-
secondary circuit of the ignition system (from motive electrical systems, it is used inside
the coil to the spark plugs), operate on 12 to 14 volts components such as alternators, motors, relays,
and are called low-voltage systems. (Six-volt and other devices with only a thin coat of enamel
systems on older cars and 24-volt systems on or shellac for insulation. Stranded or multistrand
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Electrical Diagrams and Wiring 93

wire is made by braiding or twisting a number of printed circuit consists of conductors, insulating
solid wires together into a single conductor insu- material, and connectors for lamps and other
lated with a covering of colored plastic, as shown components, and is called a printed circuit (PC)
in Figure 6-6. Most automotive electrical system board. It is used in places where space for indi-
wiring uses stranded wire, either as single con- vidual wires or harnesses is limited, such as
ductors or grouped together in harnesses or behind instrument panels.
looms. For more information about wire types,
see the section on “Copper Wiring Repair” in
Chapter 6 of the Shop Manual.
Printed circuitry is a thin film of copper or WIRE SIZE
other conductor that has been etched or embedded Automotive electrical systems are very sensitive
on a flat insulating plate (Figure 6-7). A complete to changes in resistance. This makes the selection
of properly sized wires critical whenever systems
are designed or circuits repaired. There are two
important factors to consider: wire gauge number
and wire length.

Wire Gauge Number

A wire gauge number is an expression of the
cross-sectional area of the conductor. The most
common system for expressing wire size is the
American Wire Gauge (AWG) system. Figure 6-8
is a table of AWG wire sizes commonly used in
automotive systems. Wire cross-sectional area is
Figure 6-6. Automotive wiring may be solid-wire con-
measured in circular mils; a mil is one-thousandth
ductors or multistrand-wire conductors. (DaimlerChrysler of an inch (0.001), and a circular mil is the area of a
Corporation) circle 1 mil (0.001) in diameter. A circular mil mea-
surement is obtained by squaring the diameter of a
conductor measured in mils. For example, a conduc-
tor 1/4 inch in diameter is 0.250 inch, or 250 mils, in
diameter. The circular mil cross-sectional area of the
wire is 250 squared, or 62,500 circular mils.

Figure 6-7. Printed circuit boards are used in automo- Figure 6-8. This table lists the most common wire
tive instrument panels and elsewhere. (DaimlerChrysler gauge sizes used in automotive electrical systems.
Corporation) (DaimlerChrysler Corporation)
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94 Chapter Six

electrical systems require larger-gauge wires than

12-volt systems for the same current loads. This is
because the lower source voltage requires lower
resistance in the conductors to deliver the same
current. Generally, 6-volt systems use wires two
sizes larger than 12-volt systems for equivalent
current loads. Future 42-volt systems will not
require as large a wire diameter as the current
12-volt system. Generally, a 42-volt system will
use two sizes smaller than 12-volt systems for
equivalent current loads.

Wire Size Matters

The following drawing shows how a large wire
Figure 6-9. This figure shows the relationship
easily conducts a high-amperage current, such as
between current capacity and resistance as the cross-
section of a conductor changes. you would find going to a starter motor. The heav-
iest wires are often called cables, but their pur-
pose is the same. On the other hand, a compara-
Gauge numbers are assigned to conductors of tively light wire tends to restrict current flow, which
various cross-sectional areas. As gauge number may generate excess heat if the wire is too small
increases, area decreases and the conductor for the [Link] much current running though a light
becomes smaller (Figure 6-9). A 6-gauge conduc- wire may cause the insulation to melt, leading to a
tor is smaller than a 3-gauge conductor, and a short circuit or even a fire.
12-gauge conductor is smaller than a 6-gauge
conductor. You learned in Chapter 1 that as the Correct Wire for Load Easy Current Movement
cross-sectional area of a conductor decreases, its
resistance increases. As resistance increases, so
does the gauge number. Also, because the current-
carrying ability of a conductor decreases as the
E E
E E E
resistance increases, a conductor with a higher E E
gauge number will carry less current than a con-
ductor with a lower gauge number.
Remember that the wire gauge number refers to More Heat
the size of the conductor, not the size of the com- Wire Too Small; Restricted Current Movement
plete wire (conductor plus insulation). For example,
it is possible to have two 16-gauge wires of differ-
ent outside diameters because one has a thicker
insulation than the other. Twelve-volt automo-
Metric Wire Sizes
tive zelectrical systems generally use 14-, 16-, and Look at a wiring diagram or a service manual for
18-gauge wire. Main power distribution circuits most late model vehicles, and you may see wire
between the battery and alternator, ignition switch, sizes listed in metric measurements. Metric wire
fuse box, headlamp switch, and larger accessories sizes have become the norm in domestic auto-
use 10- and 12-gauge wire. Low-current electronic motive manufacturing due to the global econ-
circuits may use 20-gauge wire. Lighting other than omy. For example, if you look at a wiring dia-
the headlamps, as well as the cigarette lighter, radio, gram for an import or late-model domestic
and smaller accessories, use 14-, 16-, and 18-gauge vehicle, you will see wire sizes listed as 0.5,
wire. Battery cables, however, generally are listed 1.0, 1.5, 4.0, and 6.0. These numbers are the
as 2-, 4-, or 6-AWG wire size. cross-sectional area of the conductor in square
The gauge sizes used for various circuits in an millimeters (mm2). Metric measurements are
automobile are generally based on the use of cop- not the same as circular-mil measurements;
per wire. A larger gauge size is required when alu- they are determined by calculating the cross-
minum wiring is used, because aluminum is not sectional area of the conductor with the follow-
as good a conductor as copper. Similarly, 6-volt ing formula: Area = Radius2 × 3.14. A wire with
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Electrical Diagrams and Wiring 95

a 1-mm cross-sectional area actually has a different lengths to carry various current loads. Wire
1.128-mm diameter. The following table lists lengths are based on circuits that are grounded to the
AWG sizes and equivalent metric wire sizes. vehicle chassis.

AWG Size Metric Size Table

Special Wiring
AWG Size (Gauge) Metric Size (mm2)
Although most of the electrical system is made up
20 0.5 of low-voltage primary wiring, special wiring is
18 0.8 required for the battery and the spark plugs. Since
14 2.0 these wires are larger in size than primary wiring,
12 3.0 they are often called cables. Battery cables are low-
10 5.0 resistance, low-voltage conductors. Ignition cables
8 8.0 are high-resistance, high-voltage conductors.
6 13.0
4 19.0
Battery Cables
The battery is connected to the rest of the elec-
trical system by very large cables. Large cables
are necessary to carry the high current required
Wire Length by the starter motor. Figure 6-11 shows several
Wire length also must be considered when design- kinds of battery cables. Twelve-volt systems
ing electrical systems or repairing circuits. As con- generally use number 4 or number 6 AWG wire
ductor length increases, so does resistance. An cables; 6-volt systems and some 12-volt diesel
18-gauge wire can carry a 10-ampere load for systems require number 0 or number 1 AWG
10 feet without an excessive voltage drop. However, wire cables. Cables designed for a 6-volt system
to carry the same 10-ampere load for 15 feet, a can be used on a 12-volt system, but the smaller
16-gauge wire will be required. Figure 6-10 is a cable intended for a 12-volt system cannot be
table showing the gauge sizes required for wires of used on a 6-volt system without causing too
much voltage drop.
Battery installations may have an insulated
ground cable or one made of braided, uninsulated
wire. The braided cables or straps are flat instead
of round; however, they have the same resistance
and other electrical properties of a round cable of
equivalent gauge. Most battery cables are fitted at
one end with a lead terminal clamp to connect to
the battery, although many import cars use a
spring-clamp terminal. The lead terminal is used
to reduce corrosion when attached to the lead bat-
tery post. A tinned copper terminal is attached to
the other end of the cable to connect to the starter
motor or ground, as required.

Ignition Cables
The ignition cables, or spark plug cables, are often
called high-tension cables. They carry current at
10,000 to 40,000 volts from the coil to the dis-
tributor cap, and then to the spark plugs. Because
of the high voltage, these cables must be very well
Figure 6-10. Wire gauge table: As wire length
insulated.
increases, larger-gauge wire must be used to carry the Years ago, all ignition cables were made with cop-
same amount of current. per or steel wire conductors. During the past 30
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96 Chapter Six

Figure 6-11. Assorted battery cables.

years, however, high-resistance, non-metallic cables insulation while resisting heat and moisture better
have replaced metallic conductor cables as original than other materials. However, silicone insulation
equipment on cars and light trucks. Although metallic- is softer and more pliable than other materials and
conductor ignition cables are still made, they are thus more likely to be torn or damaged by rough
sold for special high-performance or industrial handling. Cables often have several layers of insu-
applications and are not recommended for highway lation over the conductor to provide the best insu-
use. The conductors used in high-resistance, non- lating qualities with strength and flexibility.
metallic ignition cables are made of carbon, or of
linen or fiberglass impregnated with carbon. These
cables evolved for the following reasons:
• High-voltage ignition pulses emit high-fre- CONNECTORS AND
quency electrical impulses or radio frequency
interference (RFI) that interfere with radio
TERMINALS
and television transmission, as described in Electrical circuits can be broken by the smallest
Chapter 2. The principal method used to limit gap between conductors. The gaps can be caused
this interference is the use of high-resistance by corrosion, weathering, or mechanical breaks.
ignition cables, often referred to as suppres- One of the most common wear points in an auto-
sion cables. mobile electrical system is where two conductors
• The extra resistance in the cable decreases have been joined. Their insulation coats have been
the current flow and thus reduces the burn- opened and the conductive material exposed.
ing of spark plug electrodes. The higher Special connectors are used to provide strong,
resistance also helps take advantage of the permanent connections and to protect these points
high-voltage capabilities of the ignition sys- from wear.
tem, as shown in Part Five of this manual. These simple connectors are usually called
wiring terminals. They are metal pieces that
The high-voltage current carried by ignition can be crimped or soldered onto the end of a wire.
cables requires that they have much thicker insu- Terminals are made in many shapes and sizes for
lation than low-voltage primary wires. Ignition the many different types of connections required.
cables are 7 or 8 millimeters in diameter, but the They can be wrapped with plastic electrical tape
conductor in the center of the cable is only a small or covered with special pieces of insulation. The
core. The rest of the cable diameter is the heavy simplest wire terminals join a single wire to a
insulation used to contain the high voltage and device, to another single wire, or to a few other
protect the core from oil, dirt, heat, and moisture. wires (Figure 6-12). Terminals for connecting to
One type of cable insulation material is known a device often have a lug ring, a spade, or a hook,
by its trade name, Hypalon, but the type most com- which can be bolted onto the device. Male and
monly used today is silicone rubber. Silicone is female spade terminals or bullet connectors are
generally thought to provide greater high-voltage often used to connect two individual wires
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Electrical Diagrams and Wiring 97

Figure 6-12. Some common single-wire terminals

(connectors).

Figure 6-13. Male and female bullet connectors and

spade terminals are common automotive connectors.
(DaimlerChrysler Corporation)

(Figure 6-13). For more information about the

use of different types of connectors, see the Figure 6-14. Multiple connectors are used to make
complex switch connections. (DaimlerChrysler Corporation)
“Connector Repair” section in Chapter 6 of the
Shop Manual.

Multiple Wire Connectors

Although the simple wiring terminals just described
are really wire connectors, the term connector is
normally used to describe multiple-wire connector
plugs. This type of plug is used to connect wiring to
switches, as shown in Figure 6-14, or to other com-
ponents. It also is used to join wiring harnesses.
Multiple-wire connectors are sometimes called
junction blocks. On older vehicles, a junction block
was a stationary plastic connector with terminals set
into it, in which individual wires were plugged or Figure 6-15. This junction block accepts individual
screwed in place. Because of the time required to wires on one side and connectors on the other.
(DaimlerChrysler Corporation)
connect this type of junction block on the assembly
line, it has been replaced by a modem version that
accepts several plugs from different harnesses individual circuits while still grouping them
(Figure 6-15). together in harnesses. Wiring connections can be
Some multiple-connector plugs have as many as made quickly and accurately with multiple connec-
40 separate connections in a single plug. They pro- tors, an important consideration in assembly-line
vide a compact, efficient way to connect wires for manufacturing.
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98 Chapter Six

Such connector plugs generally have hard

plastic shells, with one half of the connector
containing the male terminals or pins, and the
other half containing the female terminals or
sockets. Probing the rear of the individual con-
nections without separating the connector can
test circuit operation. A locking tab of some type
is used to prevent the connector halves from sep-
arating. Separation or removal of the plug may
require the locking tab to be lifted or depressed
(Figure 6-16).
Although many hard-shell connector designs
allow removal of the individual wires or their ter-
minals for repair, as shown in Figure 6-17, manu-
facturers are now using plugs that are serviced as
an assembly. If a wire or terminal is defective, the
entire plug is cut from the harness. The replace-
ment plug is furnished with 2 or 3 inches of wires
extending from the rear of the plug. These plugs
are designed to be replaced by matching and sol-
Figure 6-16. Connectors have some form of lock to dering their wire leads to the harness.
prevent accidental separation. Individual terminals
and wires can be removed from some connectors;
other connectors are replaced as an entire assembly.
(GM Service and Parts Operations) Bulkhead Connectors
A special multiple connector, called a bulkhead
connector or bulkhead disconnect, is used where a

Figure 6-17. A bulkhead connector, or disconnect, is mounted on many firewalls. Multiple-wire connectors plug
into both sides. (DaimlerChrysler Corporation)
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Electrical Diagrams and Wiring 99

number of wiring circuits must pass through a bar- hot, cable. The insulated side of every circuit in
rier such as the firewall (Figure 6-17). The bulk- the vehicle is the wiring running from the bat-
head connector is installed in the firewall and mul- tery to the devices in the circuit. The ground
tiple connectors are plugged into each side of it to side of every circuit is the vehicle chassis
connect wires from the engine and front acces- (Figure 6-19).
sories to wires in the rest of the car. The hot battery cable is always the insulated
type of cable described earlier. The ground cable
may be an insulated type of cable, or it may be a
braided strap. On many vehicles additional
Weatherproof Connectors grounding straps or cables are connected between
Special weatherproof connectors are used in the the engine block and the vehicle body or frame.
engine compartment and body harnesses of late- The battery ground cable may be connected to
model GM cars. This type of connector has a rubber either the engine or the chassis, and the additional
seal on the wire ends of the terminals, with sec- ground cable ensures a good, low-resistance
ondary sealing covers on the rear of each connector ground path between the engine and the chassis.
half. Such connectors are particularly useful in elec- This is necessary for proper operation of the cir-
tronic systems where moisture or corrosion in the cuits on the engine and elsewhere in the vehicle.
connector can cause a voltage drop. Some Japanese Late-model vehicles, which rely heavily on com-
carmakers use a similar design (Figure 6-18). puterized components, often use additional
ground straps whose sole purpose is to minimize
or eliminate electromagnetic interference (EMI),
as shown in Chapter 4.
GROUND PATHS The resistances in the insulated sides of all the
We have spoken as if wiring carried all of the cur- circuits in the vehicle will vary depending on
rent in an automotive electrical system. In fact, the number and kinds of loads and the length of
wiring is only about half of each circuit. The other the wiring. The resistance on the ground side of
half is the automobile engine, frame, and body, all circuits, that is, between each load and its
which provide a path for current flow. This side of ground connection, must be virtually zero. For
the circuit is called the ground (Figure 6-19). more information about ground paths, see the
Automotive electrical systems are called single- “Copper Wiring Repair” section in Chapter 6 of
wire or ground-return systems. the Shop Manual.
The cable from one battery post or terminal is
bolted to the car engine or frame. This is called
Early Wiring Problems
the ground cable. The cable from the other bat- Early automobiles had many problems with their
tery terminal provides current for all the car’s electrical systems, usually the result of poor elec-
electrical loads. This is called the insulated, or trical insulation. For example, high-tension cable

Figure 6-18. Nissan uses this type of waterproof Figure 6-19. Half of the automotive electrical system
connector. (Courtesy of Nissan North America, Inc.) is the ground path through the vehicle chassis.
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100 Chapter Six

insulation, made by wrapping cotton or silk electromagnetic interference (EMI), which you
around wire and then coating it with rubber, was learned about in Chapter 4. To meet the almost
easily hardened by heat. The insulation often endless need for electrical circuitry in the grow-
broke off, leaving bare wire exposed. ing and complex design of automotive control
A common problem in cars that used dry-cell systems, engineers are gradually reducing the size
batteries was moisture penetration through the and number of wire and wiring harnesses by using
battery’s paper insulation. Current design would a multiplex wiring system.
flow to ground and the batteries would become The term multiplexing means different things to
discharged. different people, but generally it is defined as a
Even washing a car sometimes caused trou- means of sending two or more messages simulta-
ble. Water got into the distributor terminals and neously over the same channel. Different forms of
made the engine hard to start. Some technicians multiplexing are used in automotive circuits. For
poured melted wax into the space between the example, windshield wiper circuits often use mul-
plug wires and the distributor cap terminals. tiplex circuits. The wiper and washer functions in
For protection from heat, moisture, oil, and such circuit work though a single input circuit by
grease, wiring was often run through a metal means of different voltage levels. In this type of
conduit. Armored cable-insulated wire enclosed application, data is sent in parallel form. However,
in a permanent, flexible metal wrapping was also the most common form of multiplexing in auto-
used, especially in a circuit where any voltage motive applications is serial data transmission,
drop was critical. also known as time-division multiplex. In the
time-division type of circuit, information is trans-
mitted between computers through a series of dig-
This is an important point to remember. It may be
ital pulses in a program sequence that can be read
helpful at this time to review the explanations in
and understood by each computer in the system.
Chapters 3 and 5 of voltage drops and current flow
The three major approaches to a multiplex wiring
in various circuits from the source, through all the
system presently in use are as follows:
loads, and back to the source. Every electrical load
is attached to the chassis so that current can pass • Parallel data transmission
through the ground and back to the grounded bat- • Serial data transmission
tery terminal. Grounding connections must be • Optical data links
secure for the circuit to be complete. In older cars
We will look at each of these types of system, and
where plastics were rarely used, most loads had a
then we will discuss the advantages of multiplex-
direct connection to a metal ground. With the
ing over older systems of wiring.
increased use of various plastics, designers have
had to add a ground wire from some loads to the
nearer metal ground. The ground wires in most
circuits are black for easy recognition. Parallel Data Transmission
The most common parallel data multiplexing cir-
cuits use differentiated voltage levels as a means of
MULTIPLEX controlling components. The multiplex wiring cir-
cuit used with a Type C General Motors pulse
CIRCUITS wiper-washer unit is shown in Figure 6-20. The cir-
cuit diagram shows several major advantages over
The use of multiplexing, or multiplex circuits, is other types of pulse wiper circuits, as follows:
becoming a necessity in late-model automobiles
because of the increasing number of conventional • Eliminating one terminal at the washer pump
electrical circuits required by electronic control reduces the wiring required between the wiper
systems. Wiring harnesses used on such vehicles and control switch.
have ballooned in size to 60 or more wires in a • Using a simple grounding-type control switch
single harness, with the use of several harnesses eliminates a separate 12-volt circuit to the
in a vehicle not uncommon. Simply put, there fuse block.
are too many wires and too limited space in • Eliminating a repeat park cycle when the
which to run them for convenient service. With so wash cycle starts with the control switch in
many wires in close proximity, they are subject to the OFF position—in standard circuits, the
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Electrical Diagrams and Wiring 101

Figure 6-20. Parallel data transmission through differentiated voltage levels reduces the amount of wiring
in this multiplex wiper-washer circuit. (DaimlerChrysler Corporation)

blades begin a wash cycle from the park Sequencing voltage inputs transmitted in serial
position and return to park before continu- form can operate several different components, or
ing the cycle—simplifies operation. elements within a single component. This allows
each component or element to receive input for a
An electronic timer controls the park and pulse specified length of time before the input is trans-
relays. The timer consists of a capacitor, a vari- mitted to another component or element. A four-
able resistor in the control switch, and electronic element light-emitting diode (LED) display in the
switching circuitry. The variable resistor controls instrument cluster is a typical example. By rotat-
the length of time required to charge the capaci- ing the applied voltage from left to right rapidly
tor. Once the capacitor reaches a certain level of enough, each segment of the display is illumi-
charge, it energizes the electronic switching cir- nated 25 percent of the time, but the human eye
cuit, completing the ground circuit to the pulse cannot detect that fact. To the eye, the entire dis-
relay. This energizes the 12-volt circuit to the play appears to be uniformly illuminated 100 per-
motor windings and the motor operates. When cent of the time.
the driver presses the wash button, it grounds the To prevent interference between the various
washer pump ratchet relay coil circuits, starting a signals transmitted, a multiplex system using bus
wash cycle. The electronic timer circuitry uses data links must have a central transmitter (micro-
a high-voltage signal for wiper operation and a processor) containing a special encoder. The sys-
low-voltage signal for the wash cycle. tem also requires a receiver with a corresponding
A multiplex circuit that functions with parallel decoder at each electrical load to be controlled.
data transmission is a good tool for simple circuit The transmitter and each receiver are connected to
control. However, transmitting data in parallel battery power and communicate through a two-
form is slower and more cumbersome than trans- way data link called a peripheral serial bus.
mitting in serial form. This is important when the Operational switches for each circuit to be con-
signal is to be used by several different compo- trolled have an individual digital code or signal
nents or circuits at the same time. and are connected to the transmitter. When the
transmitter receives a control code, it determines
Serial Data Transmission which switch is calling and sends the control sig-
nal to the appropriate receiver. The receiver then
Serial data transmission has become the most fre- carries out the command. If a driver operates the
quently used type of multiplex circuit in automo- headlamp switch, the transmitter signals the
tive applications. It is more versatile than parallel proper receiver to turn the headlights on or off,
transmission but also more complex. A single cir- according to the switch position.
cuit used to transmit data in both directions also is On the Chrysler application shown in Fig-
called a bus data link. ure 6-21, each module has its own microprocessor
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102 Chapter Six

Figure 6-21. The DaimlerChrysler EVIC system is an example of a vehicle data communications network
that allows separate computers to share data and communicate with each other through serial data trans-
mission. (DaimlerChrysler Corporation)

connected to the data bus through the Chrysler links or fiber-optic cables for the peripheral serial
Collision Detection (CCD) integrated circuit, bus. The concept is the same, but light signals are
which sends and receives data. The CCD circuit substituted for voltage signals. An optical data link
acts like a traffic control officer at a four-way inter- system operates with the transmitter and receivers
section. If the data bus is not in use, it allows unre- described earlier, but a light-emitting diode (LED)
stricted transmission from a module. However, if in the transmitter sends light signals through the
one module is transmitting, it blocks the transmis- fiber-optic cables to a photo diode in the receiver.
sion of data from another module until the bus The light signals are decoded by the receiver,
(intersection) is clear. If two or more modules start which then performs the required control function.
to transmit at the same time, or almost at the same Primarily Toyota and other foreign manufacturers
time, the CCD circuit assigns a priority to the mes- have used this form of multiplexing. Because it
sages according to the identification code at the uses light instead of voltage to transmit signals,
beginning of the transmission. If the CCD circuit system operation is not affected by EMI, nor does
blocks a message, the module that originally sent it the system create interference that might have an
retransmits the signal until it is successful. adverse influence on other electrical systems in
Receivers work in one of two ways: they oper- the vehicle.
ate the electrical load directly, or they control a
relay in the circuit to operate the load indirectly.
They are not capable of making decisions on their Multiplex Advantages
own, but only carry out commands from the trans-
Regardless of the type of multiplex system used,
mitter. However, they can send a feedback signal
such a circuit offers several advantages over con-
informing the transmitter that something is wrong
ventional wiring circuits used in the past, as follows:
with the system.
• The size and number of wires required for a
given circuit can be greatly reduced. As a
result, the complexity and size of wiring har-
Optical Data Links nesses also are reduced.
A variation of the serial data transmission • The low-current-capacity switches used in a
approach to multiplexing substitutes optical data multiplex circuit allow the integration of
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Electrical Diagrams and Wiring 103

various touch-type switches into the overall

vehicle design.
COMMON
• The master computer or transmitter can be
programmed with timing functions for con-
ELECTRICAL PARTS
venience features, such as locking doors Many common electrical parts are used in various
above a given speed or unlocking them when circuits in an electrical system. All circuits have
the ignition is shut off. switches of some kind to control current flow.
Most circuits have some form of protective device,
such as a fuse or circuit breaker, to protect against
too much current flow. Various kinds of solenoids,
ELECTRICAL relays, and motors are used in many circuits, and
whatever their purpose, they operate in similar
SYSTEM POLARITY ways wherever they are used.
We discussed positive (+) and negative (
) elec- Before we look at complete circuits and system
trical charges in Chapter 3. We learned that like diagrams later in this next chapter, we should learn
charges repel each other and unlike charges about some of the common devices used in many
attract each other. We also noted that the terminals circuits.
of a voltage source are identified as positive and
negative. In Chapter 2, we defined magnetic
polarity in terms of the north and south poles of a
magnet and observed that unlike poles of a mag- Switches
net attract each other, just as unlike charges do. Switches are used in automobile electrical sys-
Similarly, like poles repel each other. tems to start, stop, or redirect current flow. They
The polarity of an electrical system refers to can be operated manually by the driver or
the connections of the positive and negative ter- remotely through mechanical linkage. Manual
minals of the voltage source, the battery, to the switches, such as the ignition switch and the head-
insulated and ground sides of the system. All lamp switch, allow the driver to control the opera-
domestic cars and trucks manufactured since tion of the engine and accessories. Examples are
1956 have the negative battery terminal con- shown in Figure 6-22; the driver or the passengers
nected to ground and the positive terminal con- control a remotely operated switch indirectly. For
nected to the insulated side of the system. These example, a mechanical switch called a neutral
are called negative-ground systems and are said safety switch on automatic transmission gear
to have positive polarity. selectors will not let the engine start if the auto-
Before 1956, 6-volt Ford and Chrysler vehi- mobile is in gear. Switches operated by opening
cles had the positive battery terminal connected and closing the doors control the interior lights.
to ground and the negative terminal connected For more information about switches, see the
to the insulated side of the system. These are “Copper Wiring Repair” section in Chapter 6 of
called positive-ground systems and are said to the Shop Manual.
have negative polarity. Foreign manufacturers
used positive-ground systems as late as 1969. In
both kinds of systems, we say that current
leaves the hot side of the battery and returns Toggle Push-Pull Push Button
through the ground path to the grounded battery Switches exist in many forms but have common char-
terminal. acteristics. They all depend upon physical movement
In your service work, it is very important to for operation. A simple switch contains one or more
recognize system polarity negative or positive sets of contact points, with half of the points station-
ground before working on the electrical system. ary and the other half movable. When the switch is
Some electrical components and test equipment operated, the movable points change position.
are sensitive to the system polarity and must be Switches can be designed so that the points are
installed with their connections matching those of normally open and switch operation closes them to
the battery. Reversing polarity can damage alter- allow current flow. Normally closed switches allow
nators, cause motors to run backwards, ruin elec- the operator to open the points and stop current
tronic modules, and cause relays or solenoids to flow. For example, in an automobile with a seatbelt
malfunction. warning buzzer, the switch points are opened when
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104 Chapter Six

Figure 6-22. Many different types of switches are used in the

complete electrical system of a modern automobile.

designs. Switches may be operated by temperature

or pressure. Switches designed to sense engine
coolant temperature contain a bimetal arm that
flexes as it heats and cools, opening or closing the
Figure 6-23. These symbols for normally open switch contacts (Figure 6-26). Oil pressure and
switches are used on electrical system diagrams. vacuum switches respond to changes in pressure.
Mercury and inertia switches are motion-
detector switches, that is, they open and close
the seatbelt is buckled; this stops current flow to the circuits automatically when their position is dis-
buzzer. Figure 6-23 shows the electrical symbols turbed. A mercury switch uses a capsule contain-
for some simple normally open switches. ing two electrical contacts at one end. The other
A switch may lock in the desired position, or end is partially filled with mercury, which is a
it may be spring-loaded so that a constant pres- good conductor (Figure 6-27).
sure is required to keep the points out of their When the capsule moves a specified amount
normal position. Switches with more than one in a given direction, the mercury flows to the
set of contact points can control more than one opposite end of the capsule and makes a circuit
circuit. For example, a windshield wiper switch between the contacts. This type of switch often
might control a low, medium, and high wiper is used to turn on engine compartment or trunk
speed, as well as a windshield washer device lamps. It can also be used as a rollover switch to
(Figure 6-24). open an electric fuel pump or other circuit in an
Switches are shown in simplified form on elec- accident.
trical diagrams so that current flow through them An inertia switch is generally a normally
can easily be traced (Figure 6-25). Triangular con- closed switch with a calibrated amount of spring
tact points generally indicate a spring-loaded pressure or friction holding the contacts together.
return, with circular contacts indicating a locking- Any sharp physical movement (a sudden change
position switch. A dashed line between the mov- in inertia) sufficient to overcome the spring pres-
able parts of a switch means that they are mechan- sure or friction will open the contacts and break
ically connected and operate in unison, as shown the circuit. This type of switch is used to open the
in Figure 6-26. fuel pump circuit in an impact collision. After the
In addition to manual switches, automotive switch has opened, it must be reset manually to its
electrical circuits use a variety of other switch normally closed position.
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Electrical Diagrams and Wiring 105

Figure 6-24. The instrument panel switch in this two-speed windshield wiper circuit has two sets of con-
tacts linked together, as shown by the broken line. The Park switch is operated by mechanical linkage from
the wiper motor armature. (DaimlerChrysler Corporation)

Figure 6-25. This starting and ignition switch has two Figure 6-26. A coolant temperature switch in
sets of contacts linked together by the dashed line. its normally open position.
Triangular terminals in the start (ST) position indicate
that this position is spring-Ioaded and that the switch
will return to RUN when the key is released.
(DaimlerChrysler Corporation)

Relays
A relay is a switch that uses electromagnetism to
physically move the contacts. It allows a small
current to control a much larger one. As you
remember from our introduction to relays in
Chapter 2, a small amount of current flow
through the relay coil moves an armature to open
or close a set of contact points. This is called the
control circuit because the points control the
flow of a much larger amount of current through Figure 6-27. A mercury switch is activated by motion.
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106 Chapter Six

Figure 6-28. A relay contains a control circuit and a

power circuit.

Figure 6-30. Energizing a solenoid moves its core,

converting current flow into mechanical movement.
(GM Service and Parts Operations)

Figure 6-29. When the horn button is pressed, low

current through the relay coil magnetizes the core. This
pulls the armature down and closes the contacts to
complete the high-current circuit from the battery to
the horn.

a separate circuit, called the power circuit

(Figure 6-28).
A relay with a single control winding is gener-
ally used for a short duration, as in a horn circuit
(Figure 6-29). Relays designed for longer periods
or continuous use require two control windings.
Figure 6-31. A starter solenoid mounted on
A heavy winding creates the magnetic field nec- the starter motor. Solenoid movement engages
essary to move the armature; a lighter second the starter drive with the engine flywheel gear.
winding breaks the circuit on the heavy winding
and maintains the magnetic field to hold the arma-
ture in place with less current drain. against spring pressure into the center of the coil
toward the plate. Once current flow stops, the
magnetic field collapses and spring pressure
moves the plunger out of the coil. This type of
Solenoids solenoid is used to operate remote door locks and
A solenoid is similar to a relay in the way it oper- to control vacuum valves in emission control and
ates. The major difference is that the solenoid air conditioning systems.
core moves instead of the armature, as in a relay. The most common automotive use of a solenoid
This allows the solenoid to change current flow is in the starter motor circuit. In many systems, the
into mechanical movement. starter solenoid is designed to do two jobs. The
Solenoids consist of a coil winding around a movement of the plunger engages the starter motor
spring-loaded metal plunger (Figure 6-30). drive gear with the engine flywheel ring gear so that
When the switch is closed and current flows the motor can crank the engine (Figure 6-31). The
through the windings, the magnetic field of the starter motor requires high current, so the solenoid
coil attracts the movable plunger, pulling it also acts as a relay. When the plunger moves into
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Electrical Diagrams and Wiring 107

the coil, a large contact point on the plunger meets tery energy, starting circuit solenoids have two coil
a large stationary contact point (Figure 6-32). windings, the primary or pull-in winding and the
Current flow across these contact points completes secondary or hold-in winding (Figure 6-33). The
the battery-to-starter motor circuit. The plunger pull-in winding is made of very large diameter
must remain inside the coil for as long as the starter wire, which creates a magnetic field strong enough
motor needs to run. to pull the plunger into the coil. The hold-in wind-
A large amount of current is required to draw the ing is made of much smaller diameter wire. Once
plunger into the coil, and the starter motor also the plunger is inside the coil, it is close enough to
requires a large amount of current. To conserve bat- the hold-in winding that a weak magnetic field will
hold it there. The large current flow through the
pull-in winding is stopped when the plunger is
completely inside the coil, and only the smaller
hold-in winding draws current from the battery. The
pull-in winding on a starter solenoid may draw
from 25 to 45 amperes. The hold-in winding may
draw only 7 to 15 amperes. Some starter motors do
not need the solenoid movement to engage gears;
circuits for these motors use a solenoid primarily as
a current switch. The physical movement of the
plunger brings it into contact with the battery and
starter terminals of the motor (Figure 6-34).

Buzzers and Chimes

Buzzers are used in some automotive circuits as
warning devices. Seatbelt buzzers and door-ajar
buzzers are good examples. A buzzer is similar in
construction to a relay but its internal connections
differ. Current flow through a coil magnetizes a core
to move an armature and a set of contact points.
Figure 6-32. A starter solenoid also acts as
However, in a buzzer, the coil is in series with the
a relay. armature and the contact points are normally closed.

Figure 6-33. A starter solenoid, showing the pull-in and

hold-in windings. (Delphi Corporation)
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108 Chapter Six

Figure 6-36. The motor principle.

Most simple automotive buzzers are sealed

units and simply plug into their circuits. Some
Figure 6-34. When the Ford starter relay is buzzers are combined in a single assembly with a
energized, the plunger contact disk moves against the relay for another circuit (Figure 6-35), such as a
battery and starter terminals to complete the circuit.
horn relay. This application is used on some
General Motors cars. While mechanical buzzers
are still in use, they are comparatively heavy and
draw a relatively high current compared to the
lighter solid-state chimes and buzzers provided
by electronic technology and tone generators.

Motors
The typical automotive electrical system includes
a number of motors that perform various jobs.
The most common is the starter motor (also called
a cranking motor), which rotates the automobile’s
crankshaft until the engine starts and can run by
itself. Smaller motors run windshield wipers,
power windows, and other accessories. Whatever
job they do, all electric motors operate on the
same principles of electromagnetism.
We explained the motor principle in terms of
magnetic field interaction in Chapter 4. When a
current-carrying conductor is placed in an exter-
nal magnetic field, it tends to move out of a
strong field area and into a weak field area
Figure 6-35. Typical horn relay and buzzer circuits. (Figure 6-36). This motion can be used to rotate
(Delphi Corporation)
an armature. Now we will see how automotive
electrical motors are constructed and used.
A simple picture of electric motor operation
When the switch is closed, current flow through (Figure 6-37) looks much like the operation of a
the buzzer coil reaches ground through the normally simple generator. Instead of rotating the looped
closed contacts. However, current flow also magne- conductor to induce a voltage, however, we are
tizes the buzzer core to move the armature and open applying a current to force the conductor to rotate.
the contacts. This breaks the circuit, and current flow As soon as the conductor has made a half-revolu-
stops. Armature spring tension then closes the con- tion, the field interaction would tend to force it
tacts, making the circuit again (Figure 6-35). This back in the opposite direction. To keep the con-
action is repeated several hundred times a second, ductor rotating in one direction, the current flow
and the vibrating armature creates a buzzing sound. through the conductor must be reversed.
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Electrical Diagrams and Wiring 109

This is done with a split-ring commutator, Most small motors used in automotive applica-
which rotates with the conductor as shown in tions, however, are built with permanent magnet
Figure 6-37. Current is carried to the conductor fields. These motors are inexpensive, lightweight,
through carbon brushes. At the point where cur- can reverse direction of operation if necessary,
rent direction must be reversed, the commutator and can be equipped with up to three operating
has rotated so that the opposite half of the split speeds. They are ideal for constant light loads,
ring is in contact with the current-feeding brush. such as a small electric fan.
Current flow is reversed in the conductor and Regardless of how they are built, all motors
rotation continues in the original direction. In work on these principles. Understanding the
actual motors, many more conductor loops are internal connections of a motor is essential for
mounted on an armature (Figure 6-38). testing and repair. Figure 6-39 shows the circuit
Electric motors can be manufactured with sev- symbol for a motor.
eral brushes and varying combinations of series
and parallel connections for armature windings
and electromagnetic field windings. The design
depends upon the use to which the motor will be
put. Electric motors generally use electromagnetic
WIRE COLOR
field poles because they can produce a strong field CODING
in a limited space. Field strength in such a motor Figure 6-40 shows current flows through a simple
is determined by the current flow through the field circuit consisting of a 12-volt battery for power, a
windings. The starter motor is the most common fuse for protection, a switch for control, and a lamp
automotive application of this design. as the load. In this example, each component is
labeled and the direction of current is marked.
Manufacturers use color coding to help technicians
follow wires in a circuit. We have explained how
most automotive wires are covered with a colored
polyvinyl chloride (PVC), or plastic, insulation. The
color of the insulation helps identify a particular
wire in the system. Some drawings of a circuit have
letters and numbers printed near each wire (Figure
6-41). The code table accompanying the drawing

Figure 6-37. A simple motor.

Figure 6-39. The electrical symbol for a motor.

Figure 6-38. An electric motor. (Delphi Corporation) Figure 6-40. Diagram of a simple circuit.
ker88839_ch06.qxd 1/9/06 11:25 AM Page 110

Figure 6-41. A Chrysler diagram showing circuits identified by number and wire color. (DaimlerChrysler
Corporation)

110
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Electrical Diagrams and Wiring 111

CIRCUIT INFORMATION the Toyota diagram in Figure 6-45 simply has the
A 2 18 LB/YL color name printed on the wires; wire gauge is not
identified in this drawing.
COLOR OF WIRE
(LIGHT BLUE WITH YELLOW TRACER)
For more information about wire color coding,
see the “Copper Wiring Repair” in Chapter 6 of
GAUGE OF WIRE the Shop Manual.
(18 GAUGE)

PART OF MAIN CIRCUIT

(VARIES DEPENDING ON EQUIPMENT) THE LANGUAGE
MAIN CIRCUIT IDENTIFICATION OF ELECTRICAL
WIRE COLOR CODE CHART DIAGRAMS
STANDARD
TRACER In this chapter, illustrations from GM, Chrysler,
COLOR CODE COLOR COLOR Ford, Toyota, and Nissan show how different manu-
BL BLUE WT facturers present electrical information. Note that
BK BLACK WT
many component symbols and circuit identification
BR BROWN WT
do not look exactly the same among different vehicle
DB DARK BLUE WT
DG DARK GREEN WT
manufacturers. Once you become familiar with the
GY GRAY BK diagrams, the differences become less confusing.
LB LIGHT BLUE BK
LG LIGHT GREEN BK
OR ORANGE BK Circuit Numbers
PK PINK BK or WT
RD RED WT If the wire is labeled with a circuit number, as in
TN TAN WT Figures 6-41 and 6-44, those circuits are identified in
VT VIOLET WT an accompanying table. The top half of Figure 6-42
WT WHITE BK shows the Chrysler method of identifying circuits
YL YELLOW BK with a letter and number. Any two wires with the
* WITH TRACER same circuit number are connected within the same
circuit. Some General Motors service manuals con-
Figure 6-42. Chrysler circuit identification and wire tain current-flow diagrams developed by SPX Valley
color codes. (DaimlerChrysler Corporation) Forge Technical Information Systems; However,
GM no longer uses these diagrams. Electrical circuit
diagrams are printed in color so the lines match the
color of the wires. The name of the color is printed
beside the wire (Figure 6-46). The metric wire gauge
may also be printed immediately before the color
name. Other GM drawings contain a statement that
all wires are of a certain gauge, unless otherwise
identified. If this is the case, only some wires in the
drawing have a gauge number printed on them.
The Ford circuit and table in Figure 6-44 are
for a heater and air conditioner electrical circuit.
Figure 6-43. GM diagrams printed in color in the ser- The wire numbers are indicated by code numbers,
vice manual include this table of color abbreviations. which are also circuit numbers. Again, no wire
(GM Service and Parts Operations) gauges are identified in this example.

explains what the letters and numbers stand for. This

Chrysler diagram contains code information on wire
Wire Sizes
gauge, circuit numbers, and wire color. Circuit num- Another piece of information found in some elec-
bers are discussed later in this chapter. Figures 6-41, trical diagrams is the wire size. In the past, vehicles
6-42, 6-43, and 6-44 show how Chrysler, GM, and built in the United States used wire sizes specified
Ford may present color-code information. Note that by gauge. Gauge sizes typically vary from 2 for a
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112 Chapter Six

Figure 6-44. The GM accessory circuit is color coded by circuit number. (GM Service and Parts Operations)

starter cable to 20 for a license plate lamp. Note that DaimlerChrysler Corporation. Nissan, like other
gauge-size numbers are the reverse of physical wire manufacturers, often includes the symbols with
sizes: a lower gauge number for heavy wires and a its components, connector identification, and
higher one for light wires. Figure 6-47 shows a typ- switch continuity positions (Figure 6-51). Switch
ical circuit using 20-gauge wire. continuity diagrams are discussed later in this
Most vehicles built in recent years specify wire chapter. For more information about component
sizes by their diameter in millimeters (mm). In symbols, see the “Copper Wiring Repair” section
this case, a starter cable might be 32 mm while a in Chapter 6 of the Shop Manual.
typical circuit might be 1 mm or 0.8 mm. The wire Figure 6-52 is a basic diagram of a Toyota
size appears next to the color and on the opposite Celica sunroof control relay, which controls the
side of the wire from the circuit number, as shown sunroof motor operation. Figure 6-53 shows how
in Figure 6-46. Note that the “mm” abbreviation the circuit is activated to tilt the sunroof open. The
does not appear in the diagram. An advantage to current travels to the motor through relay number
using the metric system is that wire size corre- one and transistor one when the “up” side of the
sponds directly to thickness. tilt switch is pressed.

Component Symbols
It is time to add new symbols to the basic
DIAGRAMS
component symbols list (Figure 6-48). Figures The color codes, circuit numbers, and symbols
6-49A and 6-49B show additional symbols for just illustrated are combined to create a variety of
many of the electrical devices on GM vehicles. electrical diagrams. Most people tend to refer to
Figure 6-50 illustrates symbols used by any electrical diagram as a “wiring diagram,” but