Basic Mathematics I

DMTH201
BASIC MATHEMATICS – I
 Copyright © 2011 RV Prabhakara
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 SYLLABUS
Basic Mathematics – I
Objectives: This course is designed to provide an introduction to the fundamental concepts in Mathematics. After the comple-
tion of this course prospective students will be able to apply the concepts of basic Mathematics in the professional course.

S. No. Description
1 Trigonometric Functions of Sum and Difference of Two Angles
2 Allied Angles. Transformation ormulae , Inverse Trigonometric Functions
3 Matrix, Types of Matrices, Matrix Operations, Addition, Substraction, Multiplication of Matrices, Transpose
of Matrix, Symmetric and Skew Symmetric Matrix
4 Adjoint of Matrix, Inverse of a Matrix using Elementary operation and Determinants Method
5 Minors and co-factors , Determinant , Solution of system of equations, Inverse of Matrix using determinants
6 Distance between two points, Slope of a line, Various forms of the equation of a line,
7 Distance of a Point from a Line, Circle.
8 Functions, Different types of functions, Limits and Continuity, Rules and Standard Procedures
9 Differentiability, Derivatives of Exponential, Logarithmic and Parametric Functions, Logarithmic
Differentiation,
10 Rate of Change, Tangents and Normal, Maxima and Minima.
 CONTENTS

Unit 1: Trigonometric Functions-I 1

Unit 2: Trigonometric Functions-II 16
Unit 3: Matrix 49
Unit 4: Determinants 72
Unit 5: Equations of Straight Lines 122
Unit 6: Functions 153
Unit 7: Limits 192
Unit 8: Continuity 221
Unit 9: Differential Calculus 242
Unit 10: Logarithmic Differentiation 266
Unit 11: Parametric Differentiation 288
Unit 12: Successive Differentiation 300
Unit 13: Maxima and Minima 325
Unit 14: Business Applications of Maxima and Minima 343
 Unit 1: Trigonometric Functions-I

Unit 1: Trigonometric Functions-I Notes

CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
1.1 Trigonometric Coordinates
1.2 Trigonometric Function
1.2.1 Reciprocal Ratio
1.2.2 Rotations of Angles
1.3 Sines and Cosines Defined
1.3.1 The Graphs of the Sine and Cosine Functions
1.3.2 The Graphs of the Tangent and Cotangent Functions
1.3.3 The Graphs of the Secant and Cosecant Functions
1.3.4 Domain and Range of Trigonometric Functions
1.4 Inverse Trigonometric Functions
1.4.1 The Arcsine Function
1.4.2 The Arccos Function
1.4.3 The Arctan Function
1.4.4 The Arccot Function
1.5 Summary
1.6 Self Assessment
1.7 Review Questions
1.8 Further Readings

Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
Define trigonometeric functions of a real number
Draw the graphs of trigonometeric functions
Interpret the graphs of trigonometeric functions

Introduction
Trigonometry is a branch of mathematics that deals with triangles, circles, oscillations and waves;
it is totally crucial to much of geometry and physics. You will often hear it described as if it was
all about triangles, but it is a lot more exciting than that. For one thing, it works with all angles,
not just triangles. For another, it describes the behaviour of waves and resonance, which are at
the root of how matter works at the most basic level. They are behind how sound and light move,
and there are reasons to suspect they are involved in our perception of beauty and other facets of
how our minds work, so trigonometry turns out to be fundamental to pretty much everything.

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Notes Any time you want to figure out anything to do with angles, or turning, or swinging, there’s
trigonometry involved.

1.1 Trigonometric Coordinates

As you have already studied the trigonometric ratios of acute angles as the ratio of the sides of
a right angled triangle. You have also studied the trigonometric identities and application of
trigonometric ratios in solving the problems related to heights and distances.
While considering, a unit circle you must have noticed that for every real number between 0
and 2p, there exists a ordered pair of numbers x and y. This ordered pair (x, y) represents the
Coordinates of the point P.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

If we consider = 0 on the unit circle, we will have a point whose coordinates are (1, 0).
If = /2, then the corresponding point on the unit circle will have its coordinates (0, 1).
In the above figures you can easily observe that no matter what the position of the point, corresponding
to every real number q we have a unique set of coordinates (x, y). The values of x and y will be
negative or positive depending on the quadrant in which we are considering the point.
Considering a point P (on the unit circle) and the corresponding coordinates (x, y), we define
trigonometric functions as:
Sin = y, cos =x
Tan = y/x (for x 0), cot = x/y (for y 0)
Sec = 1/x (for x 0), cosec = 1/y (for y 0)

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Now let the point P move from its original position in anti–clockwise direction. For various Notes
positions of this point in the four quadrants, various real numbers q will be generated. We
summarise, the above discussion as follows. For values of q in the:
I quadrant, both x and y are positive.
II quadrant, x will be negative and y will be positive.
III quadrant, x as well as y will be negative.
IV quadrant, x will be positive and y will be negative.
or
I quadrant II quadrant III quadrant IV quadrant.
All positive sin positive tan positive cos positive
Cosec positive cot positive sec positive
Where what is positive can be remembered by:
All sin tan cos
Quadrant I II III IV
If (x, y) are the coordinates of a point P on a unit circle and q , the real number generated by the
position of the point, then sin = y and cos = x. This means the coordinates of the point P can also
be written as (cos , sin ) From Figure you can easily see that the values of x will be between –1
and +1 as P moves on the unit circle. Same will be true for y also. Thus, for all P on the unit circle.

–1 < x > 1 and –1 < y > 1

Thereby, we conclude that for all real numbers
–1 < cos > 1 and –1 < sin >1
In other words, sin and cos can not be numerically greater than 1
Similarly, sec = 1/ cos ( n /2)

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Notes

1. Find the most general value of satisfying :

(i) (ii)

(iii) (iv)

2. Find the most general value of satisfying :

(i) (ii)

(iii) (iv)

3. Find the most general value of satisfying :

(i) tan = –1 (ii)

(iii) cot = –1

1.2 Trigonometric Function

The trigonometric ratios – sine, cosine, and tangent – are based on properties of right triangles.
The function values depend on the measure of the angle. The functions are outlined below.
sine x = (side opposite x)/hypotenuse
cosine x = (side adjacent x)/hypotenuse
tangent x = (side opposite x)/(side adjacent x)
In the figure, sin A = a/c, cosine A = b/c, and tangent A = a/b.
There are two special triangles you need to know, 45 – 45 – 90 and 30 – 60 – 90 triangles. They are
depicted in the figures below.

The figures show how to find the side lengths of those types of triangles. Besides knowing how to
find the length of any given side of the special triangles, you need to know their trig. ratio values
(they are always the same, no matter the size of the triangle because the trig. ratios depend on the
measure of the angle). A table of these values is given below:

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0° 30° 45° 60° 90° Notes

Sin 0 1
1 2 3
2 2
2
Cos 1 0
3 2 1
2 2
2
Tan 0 1 undef.
3 3
3

1.2.1 Reciprocal Ratio

The reciprocal ratios are trigonometric ratios, too. They are outlined below:
cotangent x = 1/tan x = (adjacent side)/(opposite side)
secant x = 1/cos x = (hypotenuse)/(adjacent side)
cosecant x = 1/sin x = (hypotenuse)/(opposite side)

1.2.2 Rotations of Angles

Angles are also called rotations because they can be formed by rotating a ray around the origin
on the coordinate plane. The initial side is the x-axis and the ray that has been rotated to form an
angle is the terminal side.

Example:

Reference angles are useful when dealing with rotations that end in the second, third, or fourth
quadrants.

Radians

Up until now, you have probably only measured angles using degrees. Another useful measure,
based on the unit circle, is called radians.
The figure shows measures in degrees and radians on the unit circle that you should probably
memorize, as they are commonly used measures.

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Notes

Sometimes, it will be necessary to convert from radians to degrees or vice versa. To convert
from degrees to radians, multiply by (( )/180 ). To convert from radians to degrees, multiply by
(180 /( )).

1.3 Sines and Cosines Defined

Sine and cosine are periodic functions of period 360°, that is, of period 2 . That’s because sines
and cosines are defined in terms of angles, and you can add multiples of 360°, or 2 , and it
doesn’t change the angle.

Properties of Sines & Cosines following from this definition

There are numerous properties that we can easily derive from this definition. Some of them
simplify identities that we have seen already for acute angles.
Thus,
sin (t + 360°) = sin t, and
cos (t + 360°) = cos t.
Many of the current applications of trigonometry follow from the uses of trig to calculus,
especially those applications which deal straight with trigonometric functions. So, we should use
radian measure when thinking of trig in terms of trig functions. In radian measure that last pair
of equations read as:
sin (t + 2 ) = sin t, and
cos (t + 2 ) = cos t.
Sine and cosine are complementary:
cos t = sin ( /2 – t)
sin t = cos ( /2 – t)
We’ve seen this before, but now we have it for any angle t. It’s true because when you reflect the
plane across the diagonal line y = x, an angle is exchanged for its complement.
The Pythagorean identity for sines and cosines follows directly from the definition. Since the
point B lies on the unit circle, its coordinates x and y satisfy the equation x 2 + y2 = 1. But the
coordinates are the cosine and sine, so we conclude
sin2 t + cos2 t = 1.

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We’re now ready to look at sine and cosine as functions. Notes

Sine is an odd function, and cosine is an even function. You may not have come across these
adjectives “odd” and “even” when applied to functions, but it’s important to know them. A function
f is said to be an odd function if for any number x, f(–x) = –f(x). A function f is said to be an even
function if for any number x, f(–x) = f(x). Most functions are neither odd nor even functions, but it’s
important to notice when a function is odd or even. Any polynomial with only odd degree terms is
an odd function, for example, f(x) = x5 + 8x3 – 2x. (Note that all the powers of are odd numbers.)
Similarly, any polynomial with only even degree terms is an even function. For example, f(x) =
x4 – 3x2 – 5. (The constant 5 is 5x0, and 0 is an even number.)
Sine is an odd function, and cosine is even
sin –t = –sin t,
and cos –t = cos t.

These facts follow from the symmetry of the unit circle across the -axis. The angle – is the same
angle as except it’s on the other side of the -axis. Flipping a point ( , ) to the other side of
the -axis makes it into ( ,– ), so the -coordinate is negated, that is, the sine is negated, but the
x-coordinate remains the same, that is, the cosine is unchanged.
An obvious property of sines and cosines is that their values lie between –1 and 1. Every point on
the unit circle is 1 unit from the origin, so the coordinates of any point are within 1 of 0 as well.

1.3.1 The Graphs of the Sine and Cosine Functions

Let’s continue to use as a variable angle. A good way to understand a function is to look at its
graph. Let’s start with the graph of sin . Take the horizontal axis to be the -axis (rather than the
-axis as usual), take the vertical axis to be the -axis, and graph the equation y = sin . It looks
like this.

First, note that it is periodic of period 2 . Geometrically, that means that if you take the curve
and slide it 2 either left or right, then the curve falls back on itself. Second, note that the graph is
within one unit of the -axis. Not much else is obvious, except where it increases and decreases.
For instance, sin grows from 0 to /2 since the -coordinate of the point B increases as the angle
AOB increases from 0 to /2.

Next, let’s look at the graph of cosine. Again, take the horizontal axis to be the -axis, but now
take the vertical axis to be the -axis, and graph the equation x = cos .

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Notes Note that it looks just like the graph of sin except it’s translated to the left by /2. That’s because
of the identity cos = sin ( /2 + ). Although we haven’t come across this identity before, it easily
follows from ones that we have seen: cos = cos – = sin ( /2 – (– )) = sin ( /2 + ).

1.3.2 The Graphs of the Tangent and Cotangent Functions

The graph of the tangent function has a vertical asymptote at x = /2. This is because the tangent
approaches infinity as approaches /2. (Actually, it approaches minus infinity as approaches
/2 from the right as you can see on the graph.

You can also see that tangent has period ; there are also vertical asymptotes every unit to the
left and right. Algebraically, this periodicity is uttered by tan ( + ) = tan .

This similarity is simply because the cotangent of is the tangent of the complementary angle
–

1.3.3 The Graphs of the Secant and Cosecant Functions

The secant is the reciprocal of the cosine, and as the cosine only takes values between –1 and 1,
therefore the secant only takes values above 1 or below –1, as shown in the graph. Also secant
has a period of 2 .

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Notes

As you would expect by now, the graph of the cosecant looks much like the graph of the secant.

1.3.4 Domain and Range of Trigonometric Functions

From the definition of sine and cosine functions, we observe that they are defined for all real
numbers. Further, we observe that for each real number x, – 1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1 and – 1 ≤ cos x ≤ 1

Thus, domain of y = sin x and y = cos x is the set of all real numbers and range is the interval [–1, 1],
i.e., −1 ≤ y ≤ 1. Range and domains of trigonometric function are given in a table shown below:

I quadrant II quadrant III quadrant IV quadrant

Sine increases from 0 decreases from decreases from increases from
to 1 1 to 0 0 to −1 −1 to 0
Cosine decreases from decreases from increases from increases from 0
1 to 0 0 to – 1 −1 to 0 to 1
Tan increases from 0 increases from increases from 0 increases from
to ∞ –∞ to 0 to ∞ −∞ to 0
Cot decreases from decreases from decreases from decreases from
∞ to 0 0 to −∞ ∞ to 0 0 to −∞
Sec increases from 1 increases from decreases from decreases from
to ∞ −∞ to −1 −1 to −∞ ∞ to 1
Cosec decreases from increases from 1 increases from decreases from
∞ to 1 to ∞ −∞ to −1 −1 to −∞

Task
Find the cot and cosec values of triangle where, equals to 30, 60 and 45
degree.

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Notes 1.4 Inverse Trigonometric Functions

1.4.1 The Arcsine Function

Till now there was the restriction on the domain of the sine function to [– /2, /2]. Now this
restriction is invertible because each image value in [–1, 1] corresponds to exactly one original
value in [– /2, /2]. The inverse function of that restricted sine function is called the arcsine
function. We write arcsin(x) or asin(x). The graph y = arcsin(x) is the mirror image of the restricted
sine graph with respect to the line y = x. The domain is [–1, 1] and the range is [– /2 , /2].

1.4.2 The Arccos Function

Like sine there was restriction on the domain of the cosine function to [0 , ]. But now this restriction
is invertible because each image value in [–1, 1] corresponds to exactly one original value in [0, ].
The inverse function of that restricted cosine function is called the arccosine function.We write
arccos(x) or acos(x). The graph y = arccos(x) is the mirror image of the restricted cosine graph with
respect to the line y = x. The domain is [–1, 1] and the range is [0, ].

1.4.3 The Arctan Function

We restrict the domain of the tangent function to [– /2, /2]. The inverse function of that
restricted tangent function is called the arctangent function. We write arctan(x) or atan(x). The
graph y = arctan(x) is the mirror image of the restricted tangent graph with respect to the line y
= x. The domain is R and the range is [– /2, /2].

1.4.4 The Arccot Function

We restrict the domain of the cotangent function to [0, ]. The inverse function of that restricted
cotangent function is called the arccotangent function. We write arccot(x) or acot(x). The graph y

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= arccot(x) is the mirror image of the restricted cotangent graph with respect to the line y = x. The Notes
domain is R and the range is [0, ].

Transformations

As with the trigonometric functions, the related functions can be created using simple
transformations.
y = 2.arcsin(x – 1) comes about by moving the graph of arcsin(x) one unit to the right, and then by
multiplying all the images by two. The domain is [0, 2] and the range is [– , ].

Example 1: A stairs stands vertically on the ground. From a point on the ground, which
is 20 m away from1 the foot of the tower, the angle of elevation of the top of the stairs is found to
be 60°. Find the height of the stairs.
Solution: First let us draw a simple diagram to represent the problem. Here AB represents the
stairs, CB is the distance of the point from the stairs and ACB is the angle of elevation. Now we
have to find the height 9 stairs that is AB. Also, ACB is a triangle, right-angled at B.

Now, tan 60° =

i.e., =

i.e., AB = 15

Hence the height of stair is 15 m.

Example 2: A scientist 1.5 m tall is 28.5 m away from a satellite. The angle of elevation of
the top of the satellite from satellite eyes is 45°. What is the height of the scientist?

Solution: Here, AB is the satellite, CD the observer and ADE the angle of elevation. In this case,
ADE is a triangle, right-angled at E and we are required to find the height of the chimney.
We have AB = AE + BE = AE + 1.5
and DE = CB = 28.5 m

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Notes To solve this, we choose a trigonometric ratio, which involves both AE and DE. Let us choose the
tangent of the angle of elevation.

Now, tan 45° =

i.e., 1=

Therefore, AE = 10
So the height of the satellite (AB) = (28.5 + 1.5) m = 30 m.

Example 3: The shadow of a building standing on a level ground is found to be 40 m

longer when the Sun’s altitude is 30° than when it is 60°. Find the height of the building.

Solution: Let AB is the building and BC is the length of the shadow when the Sun’s altitude is 60°,
i.e., the angle of elevation of the top of the building from the tip of the shadow is 60° and DB is
the length of the shadow, when the angle of elevation is 30°.
Now, let AB be h m and BC be x m. According to the question, DB is 40 m longer than BC.
So, DB = (40 + x) m
Now, we have two right triangles ABC and ABD.

In Δ ABC, tan 60° =

or, = (1)

In Δ ABC, tan 30° =

i.e., = (2)

From (1), we have h= x

Putting this value in (2), we get (x ) = x + 40, i.e., 3x = x + 40

i.e., x = 20

Som h = 20 [From (1)]

Therefore, the height of the building is 20 m.

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1.5 Summary Notes

Inverse of a trigonometric function exists if we restrict the domain of it.

(i) sin–1 x = y if sin y = x where –1 x 1,

(ii) cos–1 x = y if cos y = x where –1 x 1, 0 y

(iii) tan–1 x = y if tan y = x where x R,

(iv) cot–1 x = y if cot y = x where x R, 0 < y <

(v) sec–1 x = y if sec y = x where x 1,

(vi) cosec–1 x = y if cosec y = x where x 1,0 < y

or

Graphs of inverse trigonometric functions can be represented in the given intervals by

interchanging the axes as in case of y = sin x, etc.

1.6 Self Assessment

Multiple Choice Questions
1. The Principal value of

(a) (b) (c) (d)

2. equals to

(a) (b) (c) (d)

3. is equal to

(a) (b) (c) (d)

4. If sin–1 x = y then

(a) o y p (b) (c) o<y<p (d)

5. is equal to

(a) (b) (c) (d)

6. is equal to

(a) (b) (c) o (d)

Fill in the blanks:
7. Inverse trigonometric function is also called as ………………
8. The value of an inverse trigonometric functions which lies in its principal value branch is
called as ……………… of that inverse trigonometric functions.

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Notes 9. For suitable value of domain is equal to ………………

10. For suitable value of domain cot-1 (-x) is equal to ..............................................

1.7 Review Questions

1. Prove each of the following:

(a)

(b)

(c)

2. Prove each of the following:

(a)

(b)

(c)

3. (a) Prove that 2 sin–1 x =

(b) Prove that 2 cos–1 x =

(c) Prove that cos–1 x =

4. Prove the following:

(a)

(b)

(c)

5. Solve each of the following:

(a)

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(b) 2 tan–1 (cos x) = tan–1 (2 cosec x) Notes

(c)

(d)

7. Solve that

8. Find out solution of given equation

9. Show that

10. Verify that given equation is relevant or not ?

Answers: Self Assessment

1. (c) 2. (a)
3. (b) 4. (b)
5. (b) 6. (b)
7. Arc functions 8. Principal value
9. cosec-1 x 10. cot-1 x

1.8 Further Readings

Husch, Lawrence S. , 2001.

Ncert Mathematics books class XI
Ncert Mathematics books class XII
Smith and Minton. Third Edition. McGraw Hill.2008

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Notes Unit 2: Trigonometric Functions-II

CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
2.1 Computing Trigonometric Functions
2.1.1 Addition and Subtraction of Trigonometric Functions
2.1.2 Transformation of Products into Sums and Inverse
2.1.3 Trigonometric Functions of Multiples of Angles
2.1.4 Trigonometric Function of 3A in terms of A
2.2 Trigonometric Functions and Submultplication of Angles
2.3 Some Important Trigonometric Equations
2.4 Inverse of a Trigonometric Function
2.4.1 Possibility of Inverse of Every Function
2.4.2 Graphical Representation of Inverse of Trigonometric Function
2.5 Property of Inverse of Trigonometric Function
2.6 Derivatives of Exponential Functions
2.6.1 Derivatives of Logarithmic Functions
2.7 Summary
2.8 Self Assessment
2.9 Review Questions
2.10 Further Readings

Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
Discuss computing trignometeric functions
Explain transformations of products into sums and inverse
Discuss trignometric functions of multiples examples

Introduction
In last unit you have studied about the trigonometric functions. The inverse trigonometric
functions play an important role in calculus for they serve to define many integrals. The concepts of
inverse trigonometric functions is also used in science and engineering. The inverse trigonometric
functions are the inverse functions of the trigonometric functions, written cos–1, cot–1, csc–1, sec–1,
sin–1 and tan–1. The inverse trig functions are similar to any other inverse functions. In this unit we
will study about computing different tignomatric functions and transformation of products into
sums and inverse.

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2.1 Computing Trigonometric Functions Notes

Ptolemy (100–178) produced one of the earliest tables for trigonometry in his work, the Almagest,
and he incorporated the mathematics needed to develop that table. It was a table of chords for
every arc from 1/2 through 180 in intervals of 1/2 . Also he explained how to exclaim between
the given angles. let’s look at how to create tables for sines and cosines using his methods. First,
based on the Pythagorean theorem and similar triangles, the sines and cosines of certain angles
can be computed directly. In particular, you can directly find the sines and cosines for the angles
30 , 45 , and 60 as described in the section on cosines. Ptolemy knew two other angles that could
be constructed, namely 36 and 72 . These angles were constructed by Euclid in Proposition IV.10
of his Elements. Like Ptolemy, we can use that construction to compute the trig functions for
those angles. At this point we could compute the trig functions for the angles 30, 36, 45, 60, and
72 degrees, and, of course we know the values for 0 and 90 degrees, too.
Keeping in mind the sine of an angle, the cosine of the complementary angle
cos t = sin (90 – t) sin t = cos (90 – t)
So you have the trig functions for 18 and 54 degrees, too.
Use of the half–angle formulas for sines and cosines to compute the values for half of an angle if
you know the values for the angle. If it is an angle between 0 and 90 , then
sin t/2 = ((1 – cos t) / 2) cos t/2 = ((1 + cos t) / 2)
Using these, from the values for 18, 30, and 54 degrees, you can find the values for 27, 15, and 9
degrees, and, therefore, their complements 63, 75, and 81 degrees.
With the help of the sum and difference formulas,
sin (s + t) = sin s cos t + cos s sin t
sin (s – t) = sin s cos t – cos s sin t
cos (s – t) = cos s cos t + sin s sin t
cos (s + t) = cos s cos t – sin s sin t
you can find the sine and cosine for 3 (from 30 and 27 ) and then fill in the tables for sine and
cosine for angles from 0 though 90 in increments of 3 .
Again, using half–angle formulas, you could produce a table with increments of 1.5 (that is, 1
30’), then 0.75 (which is 45’), or even of 0.375 (which is 22’ 30”).

2.1.1 Addition and Subtraction of Trigonometric Functions

Earlier we have learnt about circular measure of angles, trigonometric functions, values of
trigonometric functions of specific numbers and of allied numbers.
You may now be interested to know whether with the given values of trigonometric functions of
any two numbers A and B, it is possible to find trigonometric functions of sums or differences.
You will see how trigonometric functions of sum or difference of numbers are connected with
those of individual numbers. This will help you, for instance, to find the value of trigonometric
functions of /12 can be expressed as /4 /6
5 /12 can be expressed as /4 + /6
How can we express 7 /12 in the form of addition or subtraction?
In this section we propose to study such type of trigonometric functions.

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Notes Addition formulae

For any two numbers A and B,

cos (A + B) = cos A cosB sinA sinB
In given figure trace out
SOP = A
POQ = B
SOR = B
Where points P, Q, R, S lie on the unit circle.
Coordinates of P, Q, R, S will be (cos A, sin A),
[cos (A + B), sin (A + B)],
[cos ( B), sin ( B)], and (1, 0).
From the given figure, we have
side OP = side OQ
POR = QOS (each angle = B+ QOR)
side OR = side OS
∆POR ∆QOS (by SAS)
PR = QS
PR = (cos A cos B)2 + (sin A sin( B)2
QS = (cos A + B 1) 2 + (sin A + B 0) 2
Since PR2 = QS2
cos2 A + cos2 B 2cos A cos B + sin2 A + sin2 B + 2sin A sin B
= cos2(A + B) + 1 2cos(A + B) + sin2(A + B)
1+1 2(cos A cos B sin A sin B) = 1 + 1 2cos(A + B)
cosA cosB sinA sinB = cos (A + B) (I)
For any two numbers A and B, cos (A B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B
Proof: Replace B by B in (I)
cos(A – B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B
cos (–B) = cos B and sin(–B) = –sin B
For any two numbers A and B
sin(A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B
Proof: We know that cos ( /2 – A) = sin A
sin ( /2 – A) = cos A
sin(A + B) = cos[ /2 – (A + B)
= cos[( /2 – A) + B]
= cos( /2 A) cos B + Sin ( /2 A)

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or sin(A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B .....(II) Notes

For any two numbers A and B

sin(A B) = sin A cos B cos A sin B
Proof: Replacing B by B in (2), we have
sin(A + ( B)) = sin A cos( B) + cos A sin( B)
or sin(A B) = sin A cos B cos A sin B

Example: Find the value of each of the following:

(i) sin5 /12 (ii) cos /12 (iii) cos7 /12

Solution
(a) (i) sin 5 /12 = sin ( /4 + /6) = sin /4. cos /6 + cos /4. sin /6
= 1/√2. 3/2 + 1/ 2.1/2
sin 5 /12 = 3 + 1/ 2. 1/2 = 3 + 1/2 2
(ii) cos /12 = cos( /4 – /6)
= cos /4 . cos /6+ sin /4+ sin /6
= 1/ 2. 3/2+ 1/ 2.1/2 = 3 + 1/2 2
cos /12 = √3 + 1/2/ 2
Observe that sin 5 /12 = cos /12
(iii) cos 7 /12 = cos ( /3 + /4)
= cos /3 . cos /4 sin /3 . sin /4
= 1/2. 1/ 2 √3/2. 1/ 2 = 1 √3 /2 2
cos 7 /12 = 1 3/2 2

2.1.2 Transformation of Products into Sums and Inverse

Transformation of Products into Sums or Differences

We know that
sin(A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B
sin(A B) = sin A cos B cos A sin B
cos(A + B) = cos A cos B sin A sin B
cos(A B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B
By adding and subtracting the first two formulae, we get respectively
2sin A cos B = sin(A + B) + sin(A B) …(1)
and 2cos A sin B = sin(A + B) sin(A B) …(2)

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Notes Similarly, by adding and subtracting the other two formulae, we get
2cos A cos B = cos(A + B) + cos(A B) …(3)
and 2sin A sin B = cos(A B) cos(A + B) …(4)
We can also reference these as
2sin A cos B =sin(sum) + sin(difference)
2cos A sin B =sin(sum) sin(difference)
2cos A cos B =cos (sum) + cos(difference)
2sin A sin B =cos(difference) cos(sum)

Transformation of sums or differences into products

In the above results put

A+B = C
A–B = D
Then A= C + D/2 and B = C – D/2 and (1), (2), (3) and (4) becomes
sin C + sin D = 2sin C + D/2 cos C – D/2
sin C – sin D = 2cos C + D/2 sin C – D/2
cos C + cos D = 2cos C + D/2 cos C – D/2
cos C – cos D = 2sin C + D/2 sin C – D/2

Further applications of addition and subtraction formulae

We shall prove that

(i) sin(A + B) sin(A B) = sin2 A sin2 B
(ii) cos(A + B) cos(A B) = cos2 A sin2 B or cos2 B sin2 A
Proof: (i) sin(A + B) sin(A B)
= ( sin A cos B + cos A sin B) (sin A cos B cos A sin B)
= sin2 A cos2 B cos2 A sin2 B
= sin2 A(1 sin2 B) (1 sin2 A) sin2 B
= sin2 A sin2 B
(ii) cos(A + B) cos(A B)
= (cos A cos B sin A sin B) (cos A cos B + sin A sin B)
= cos2 A cos2 B sin2 A sin2 B
= cos2 A(1 sin2 B) (1 cos2 A) sin2 B
= cos2 A sin2 B
= (1 sin2 A) (1 cos2 B)
= cos2 B sin2 A

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Notes
Example: Express the following products as a sum or difference
(i) 2sin 3 cos 2
(ii) cos 6 cos
Solution:
(i) (2sin 3 cos 2 = sin (3 + 2 ) + sin (3 2 )
= sin 5 + sin
(ii) cos 6 cos = 1/2 (2cos 6 cos )
= 1/2 [cos (6 + ) + cos (6 )]
= 1/2(cos 7 + cos 5 )

2.1.3 Trigonometric Functions of Multiples of Angles

(a) To express sin 2A in terms of sin A, cos A and tan A.

We know that
sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B
By putting B = A, we get
sin 2A = sin A cos A + cos A sin A
= 2sin A cos A
sin 2A can also be written as

(Q 1 = cos2 A + sin2 A)

Dividing numerator and denominator by cos2 A, we get

(b) To express cos 2A in terms of sin A, cos A and tan A.

We know that
cos (A + B) = cos A cos B – sin A sinB
Putting B = A, we have
cos 2A = cos A cos A – sin A sin A
or cos 2A = cos2 A – sin2 A
Also cos 2A = cos2 A – (1 – cos2 A)
= cos2 A – 1 + cos2 A

i.e, cos 2A = 2cos2 A – 1

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Notes Also cos 2A = cos2 A – sin2 A

= 1 – sin2 A – sin2 A

i.e., cos 2A = 1 – 2sin2 A

Dividing the numerator and denominator of R.H.S. by cos2 A, we have

(c) To express tan 2A in terms of tan A.

tan 2A = tan(A + A) =

Thus we have derived the following formulae :

sin 2A = 2sin A cos A =

cos 2A = cos2 A – sin2 A = 2cos2 A – 1 = 1 – 2sin2 A

tan 2A =

cos2 A = sin2 A =

Example: If verify the following:

(i) 2tan A = 2sin 2A 2sin A cos A =

(ii) cos 2A cos A sin 2A 2cos A 1 1 2sin A =

Solution

(i) sin2A =

2sinAcosA =

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Thus, it is verified that Notes

sin 2A = 2sin A cos A =

(ii) cos 2A =

cos2 A – sin2 A =

2cos2 A – 1 =

1 – 2sin2 A =

Thus, it is verified that

cos2A = cos2 A – sin2 A = 2cos2 A – 1 = 1 – 2sin2 A =

2.1.4 Trigonometric Function of 3A in terms of A

(a) sin 3A in terms of sin A

Substituting 2A for B in the formula
sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B, we get
sin(A + 2A) = sin A cos 2A + cos A sin 2A
= sin A(1 – 2sin2 A) + (cos A 2sin A cos A)
= sin A – 2sin A + 2sin A(1 – sin2 A)
3

= sin A – 2sin3 A + 2sin A – 2sin3 A

sin 3A = 3sin A – 4sin3 A ....(1)
(b) cos 3A in terms of cos A
Substituting 2A for B in the formula
cos(A + B) = cos A cos B – sin A sin B, we get
cos(A + 2A) = cos A cos 2A – sin A sin 2A
= cos A(2cos2 A – 1) – (sin A) 2sin A cos A

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Notes = 2cos3 A – cos A – 2cos A(1 – cos2 A)

= 2cos3 A – cos A – 2cos A + 2cos3 A
cos3 A = 4cos3 A – 3cosA ....(2)
(c) tan 3A in terms of tan A
Putting B = 2A in the formula

tan (A + B) =

tan (A + 2A) =

= …(3)

(d) Formulae for sin3 A and cos3 A

Q sin3A = 3sinA – 4sin3 A
4sin3 A = 3sinA – sin3A

or sin3 A =

Thus, we have derived the following formulae:

sin3A = 3sinA – 4sin3 A
cos3A = 4cos3 A – 3cosA

tan3A =

sin3 A =

cos3 A =

Example 4: If verify that

(i) sin3A = 3sinA – 4sin3 A

(ii) cos3A = 4cos3 A – 3cosA

(iii) tan3A =

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Solution Notes

(i) sin3A =

3sinA – 4sin3 A =

Thus, it is verified that sin3A = 3sinA – 4sin3 A

(ii) cos3A =

4cos3 A – 3cosA =

Thus, it is verified that cos3A = 4cos3 A – 3cosA

(iii) tan 3A =

Thus, it is verified that tan 3A =

1. If verify that

(a) (b)

(c)

2. Find the values of

Contd...

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Notes 3. Determine the values of

(a) (b)

(c)

2.2 Trigonometric Functions and Submultplication of Angles

are called submultiples of A.

It has been proved that

Replacing A by we easily get the following formulae for the sub–multiple

We will choose either the positive or the negative sign depending on whether corresponding

value of the function is positive or negative for the value of This will be clear from the
following examples:

Examples 5: Find the values of

Solution: We use the formulae and take the positive sign, because

are both positive.

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Notes
=

2.3 Some Important Trigonometric Equations

You are well–known with the equations like simple linear equations, quadratic equations in
algebra.
You must have also learnt how to solve this type of equations.
Thus,
(i) x 3 = 0 gives one value of x as a solution.
(ii) x2 9 = 0 gives two values of x.
You must have noticed, the number of values depends upon the degree of the equation.
Now we require thinking as to what will happen in case x’s and y’s are replaced by trigonometric
functions.
Thus solution of the equation sin 1 = 0, will give
sin = 1 and /2, /5, 9 /2, …………
Obviously, the solution of simple equations with only finite number of values does connot
essentially hold good in case of trigonometric equations.
So, we will try to find the ways of finding solutions of such equations.

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Notes To find the general solution of the equation sin =0

It is given that sin =0

But we know that sin 0, sin , sin 2 , ...., sin n are equal to 0
=n ,n N
But we know that sin( ) = sin =0
sin( ) , sin( 2 ), sin( 3 ) ,...., sin( n ) = 0
=n ,n I.

Thus, the general solution of equations of the type sin = 0 is given by = n where is an
integer.

To find the general solution of the equation cos =0

It is given that cos =0

But in practice we know that cos /2 = 0. Therefore, the first value of is
= /2 …(1)
We know that cos ( + ) = cos or cos( + /2) = cos /2 = 0.
or cos 3 /2 = 0
In the same way, it can be found that 9
cos 5 /2, cos 7 /2,cos 9 /2,....., cos( 2n + 1) /2 are all zero
( 2n + 1) /2, n N
But we know that cos( ) = cos
cos( /2) = cos( 3 /2) = cos( 5 /2) = cos{ (2n 1) /2} = 0
= (2n + 1) /2, n I
Therefore, = (2n + 1) /2 is the solution of equations cos = 0 for all numbers whose cosine is
0.

To find a general solution of the equation tan =0

It is given that tan =0

or sin /cos = 0 or sin =0
i.e. = n ,n I.
We have consider above the general solution of trigonometric equations, where the right hand is
zero. In the following equation, we take up some cases where right hand side is non–zero.

To find the general solution of the equation sin = sin

It is given that sin = sin

sin sin = 0
or 2cos ( + /2) sin( /2) = 0
Either cos ( + /2) = 0 or sin( /2) = 0

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Notes
or

= (2p + 1) – or =2 + …(1)

From (1), we get

= n + (–1)n , n I as the general solution of the equation sin = sin

To find the general solution of the equation cos = cos

It is given that, cos = cos

cos – cos = 0

= 0

Either, or

or

= 2p – or = 2p + ....(1)

From (1), we have

= 2n ± ,n I as the general solution of the equation cos = cos

To find the general solution of the equation tan = tan

It is given that, tan = tan

= 0

sin cos – sin cos = 0

sin( – ) = 0

– = n ,n I

= n + n I

Similarly, for cosec = cosec , the general solution is

= n + (–1)n

and, for sec = sec , the general solution is

= 2n

and for cot = cot

= n + is its general solution

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Notes If sin2 = sin2 , then

cos2 = cos2

2 = 2n 2 ,nI

= n

Similarly, if cos2 = cos2 , then

= n ,n I

Again, if tan2 = tan2 , then

cos2 = cos2

2 = 2n 2

= n ,n I is the general solution.

Example 6: Find the general solution of the following equation:

(a)

(b) 4sin2 = 1

Solution

(a) sin =

tan =

(b) 4sin2q = 1

sin =

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2.4 Inverse of a Trigonometric Function Notes

In the previous lesson, you have studied the definition of a function and different kinds of
functions. We have defined inverse function.

Let us briefly recall:

Let f be a one–one onto function from A to B.

Let y be an arbitary element of B. Then, f being onto, an element x A such that f(x) = y. Also,
f being one–one, then x must be unique. Thus for each y B, a unique element x A such that
f(x) = y. So we may define a function, denoted by f–1 as f–1 : B A

f–1 (y) = x f(x) = y

The above function f–1 is called the inverse of f. A function is invertiable if and only if f is one–one
onto.

It this case the domain of f–1 is the range of f and the range of f–1 is the domain f.

Let us take another example.

We define a function: f: Car Registration No.

If we write, g : Registration No. Car, we see that the domain of f is range of g and the range of
f is domain of g.

So, we say g is an inverse function of f, i.e., g = f–1.

In this lesson, we will learn more about inverse trigonometric function, its domain and range,
and simplify expressions involving inverse trigonometric functions.

2.4.1 Possibility of Inverse of Every Function

Take two ordered pairs of a function (x1, y) and (x2, y)

If we invert them, we will get (y, x1) and (y, x2)
This is not a function because the first member of the two ordered pairs is the same.
Now let us take another function:

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Notes Writing the inverse, we have

which is a function.
Let us consider some examples from daily life.

: Student Score in Mathematics

–1
Do you think will exist?

It may or may not be because the moment two students have the same score –1 will cease to be a
function. Because the first element in two or more ordered pairs will be the same. So we conclude
that
every function is not invertible.

2.4.2 Graphical Representation of Inverse of Trigonometric Function

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2.5 Property of Inverse of Trigonometric Function Notes

Property 1: sin–1 (sin ) = ,

Solution: Let sin =x

= sin–1 x
= sin–1 (sin ) =
Also sin(sin–1 x) = x
Similary, we can prove that
(i) cos–1 (cos ) = ,0

(ii) tan–1 (tan ) = ,

Property 2

(i)

(ii)

(iii)

Solution
(i) Let cosec–1 x =
x = cosec

= sin

cosec–1 x =

(ii) Let cot–1 x =

x = cot

= tan

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Notes
cot–1 x =

(iii) sec–1 x =
x = sec

= cos or =

sec–1 x =

Property 3
(i) sin–1(–x) = –sin–1 x
(ii) tan–1(–x) = –tan–1 x
(iii) cos–1(–x) = –cos–1 x
Solution
(i) Let sin–1 (–x) =
–x = sin or x = –sin = sin(– )
–q = sin–1 x or q = –sin–1 x
or sin–1(–x) = –sin–1 x
(ii) Let tan–1 (–x) =
–x = tan or x = –tan = tan (– )
q = –tan–1 x or tan–1(–x) = –tan–1 x
(iii) Let cos–1 (–x) =
–x = cos or x = –cos = cos ( – )
cos–1 x = –
cos–1(–x) = – cos–1 x
Property 4

(i) sin–1 x + cos–1 x =

(ii) tan–1 x + cot–1 x =

(iii) cosec–1 x + sec–1 x =

Solution

(i) sin–1 x + cos–1 x =

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Notes
Let sin–1 x = x = sin =

or cos–1 x =

+ cos–1 x = or sin–1 x + cos–1 x =

(ii) Let cot–1 x = x = cot =

tan–1 x = or + tan–1 x =

or cot–1 x + tan–1 x =

(iii) Let cosec–1 x =

…x = cosec =

sec–1 x = or + sec–1 x =

cosec–1 x + sec–1 x =

Property 5

(i) tan–1 x + tan–1 y =

(ii) tan–1 x – tan–1 y =

Solution
(i) Let tan–1 x = , tan–1 y = x = tan , y = tan

We have to prove that tan–1 x + tan–1 y =

By substituting that above values on L.H.S. and R.H.S., we have

L.H.S. = + and R.H.S. =

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Notes
= = q + f = L.H.S.

The result holds.

Similarly (ii) can be proved.

Property 6:

Let x = tan
Substituting in (i), (ii), (iii), and (iv) we get
2 tan–1 x = 2 tan–1 (tan ) = 2 …(i)

= sin–1 (2 sin cos )

= sin–1 (sin 2 ) = 2 …(ii)

= cos–1(cos2 – sin2 )
= cos–1 (cos 2 ) = 2 …(iii)

= tan–1 (tan 2 ) = 2 …(iv)

From (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv), we get

2 tan–1 x =

Property 7

(i) sin–1 x =

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Notes
=

(ii) cos–1 x =

Proof: Let sin–1 x = sin =x

(i)

sin–1 x = =

(ii) Let cos–1 x = x = cos

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Notes
and cosec =

cos–1 x =

Property 8

(i) sin–1 x + sin–1 y =

(ii) cos–1 x + cos–1 y =

(iii) sin–1 x – sin–1 y =

(iv) cos–1 x – cos–1 y =

Proof
(i) Let x = sin , y = sin , then
L.H.S. = θ + φ
R.H.S. =sin–1 (sin cos + cos sin )

L.H.S. = R.H.S
(ii) Let x = cos and y = cos
L.H.S. = +
R.H.S. = cos–1 (cos cos – sin sin )

L.H.S. = R.H.S
(iii) Let x = sin , y = sin
L.H.S. = –

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Notes
R.H.S =

= sin–1 [sin cos – cos sin ]

L.H.S. = R.H.S.
(iv) Let x = cos , y = cos
L.H.S. = –
R.H.S. = cos–1 [cos cos + sin sin ]

L.H.S. = R.H.S.

2.6 Derivatives of Exponential Functions

Let y = ex be an exponential function. …(i)
(x + x)
y+ y = e (Corresponding small increments) …(ii)

From (i) and (ii), we have

y = ex + x – ex
Dividing both sides by x and taking the limit as x 0

= ex 1 = ex

Thus, we have

Working rule: =

Next, let y = eax + b

Then y + y = ea(x + x)
+b
[ x and y are corresponding small increments]
y = ea(x + x) + b
– eax – b
= eax + b [aedx – 1]

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Notes
=

= [Multiply and divide by a]

Taking limit as x 0, we have

or = a ∙ eax + b ∙ 1

= aeax + b

2.6.1 Derivatives of Logarithmic Functions

We first consider logarithmic function

Let y = log x …(i)

y + y = log(x + x) …(ii)

( x and y are corresponding small increments in x and y)

From (i) and (ii), we get

y = log(x + x) –log x

= [Multiply and divide by x]

Taking limits of both sides, as x 0, we get

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Notes

Thus, =

Next, we consider logarithmic function

y =log(ax +b) …(i)

y + y = log[a(x + x) + b] …(ii)

[ x and y are corresponding small increments]

From (i) and (ii), we get

y = log[a(x + x) + b] – log(ax + b)

Talking limits on both sides as dx 0

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Notes
or =

or, =

Example 1: From point A, an observer notes that the angle of elevation of the top of a
tower (C,D) is a (degrees) and from point B the angle of elevation is b (degrees). Points A, B and
C (the bottom of the tower) are collinear. The distance between A and B is d. Find the height h of
the tower in terms of d and angles a and b.

Solution:
1. Let x be the distance between points B and C, hence in the right triangle ACD we have
tan(a) = h / (d + x)
2. and in the right triangle BCD we have tan(b) = h / x
3. Solve the above for x x = h / tan(b)
4. Solve tan(a) = h / (d + x) for h h = (d + x) tan(a)
5. Substitute x in above by h / tan(b) h = (d + h / tan(b)) tan(a)
6. Solve the above for h to obtain. h = d tan(a) tan(b) / [ tan(b) - tan(a)]

Problem 1: An aircraft tracking station determines the distance from a common point O to each
aircraft and the angle between the aicrafts. If angle O between the two aircrafts is equal to 49o and
the distances from point O to the two aircrafts are 50 km and 72 km, find distance d between the
two aircrafts.(round answers to 1 decimal place).
Solution to Problem 1:
1. A diagram to the above problem is shown below

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2. The cosine law may be used as follows: Notes

d2 = 72 2 + 502 – 2 (72)(50) cos(49 o)
3. Solve for d and use calculator.
d = SQRT [72 2 + 502 – 2 (72)(50) cos(49 o)]
(approximately) = 54.4 km

1. A triangle has sides equal to 4 m, 11 m and 8 m. Find its angles (round answers to 1
decimal place).
2. A ship leaves port at 1 pm traveling north at the speed of 30 miles/hour. At 3 pm, the
ship adjusts its course 20 degrees eastward. How far is the ship from the port at 4pm?
(round to the nearest unit).
Problem 2: The angle of elevation to the top C of a building from two points A and B on level
ground are 50 degrees and 60 degrees respectively. The distance between points A and B is 30
meters. Points A, B and C are in the same vertical plane. Find the height h of the building (round
your answer to the nearest unit).

Solution to Problem 2:
1. We consider triangle ABC. Angle B internal to triangle ABC is equal to
B = 180 o - 60 o = 120 o
2. In the same triangle, angle C is given by.
C = 180 o - (50 o + 120 o) = 10 o
3. Use sine law to find d.
d / sin(50) = 30 / sin(10)
4. Solve for d.
d = 30 *sin(50) / sin(10)
5. We now consider the right triangle.
sin (60) = h / d
6. Solve for h.
h = d * sin(60)
7. Substitute d by the expression found above.
h = 30 *sin(50) * sin(60) / sin(10)

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Notes 8. Use calculator to approximate h.

h = (approximately) 115 meters.
The angle of elevation of an aeroplane is 23°. If the aeroplane’s altitude is 2500 m, how far away
is it?
Answer: A represents aeroplane
Let the distance be x. Then .

You can walk across the Bridge and take a photo of the House from about the same height as top
of the highest sail. This photo was taken from a point about 500 m horizontally from the House
and we observe the waterline below the highest sail as having an angle of depression of 8°. How
high above sea level is the highest sail of the House?
This is a simple tan ratio problem.
tan 8° = h/500
So
h = 500 tan 8° = 70.27 m.
So the height of the tallest point is around 70 m.
[The actual height is 67.4 m.]

2.7 Summary
(i) In this unit you have studied about trigonometric functions. There are six trigonometric
functions, these are sine, cosine, tan, cot, sec and cosec.
(ii) By Pythagorean Theorem.
sin2a + cos2a = 1

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 Unit 2: Trigonometric Functions-II

(iii) 1 + tan2 x = sec2 x Notes

(iv) 1 + cot2 x = cosec2 x
(v) Sum of cosine of two angles
cos (x + y) = cos x cos y – sin x sin y
(vi) Difference of cosine of two angles
cos (x – y) = cos x cos y + sin x sin y
(vii) Sum of sines of two angles
sin (x + y) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y
(viii) Difference of sines of two angles
sin (x – y) = sin x cos y – cos x sin y

2.8 Self Assessment

1. The exact value of cos 75°

(a)

(b) 1

(c)

(d)

2. Value of 3 tan² (B/2) −1 = 0

(a)

(b)
(c) 1/2

(d)

3. Vale of sin 2A

(a) 1/2

(b)

(c)

(d)

4. Sin 120° − cos 150° is equals to

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

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Basic Mathematics – I

Notes 5. Tan θ is equals to

(a) sin θ/cos θ

(b) cos/sin θ

(c) sin2 θ/cos θ

(d) cos2 θ/sin θ

6. Value of tan 75 is

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)
7. Value of cot 45 is

(a) 1/2

(b)

(c)

(d) 1

8. Value of cot 45° − cos 30°

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

9. cos (a) + cos (b) is equals to

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

10. Value of sin (a) − sin (b) is

(a)

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 Unit 2: Trigonometric Functions-II

Notes
(b)

(c)

(d)

2.9 Review Questions

1. What’s the exact value of tan 15° or tan (π/12)?

2. Find all solutions for sin² (E/2) − cos² (E/2) = 1.

3. Solve

4. Prove that :

5. Prove that : sin2 6x – sin2 4x = sin 2x sin 10x

6. Verify that cos2 2x – cos2 6x = sin 4x sin 8x

7. Prove that sin2 x + 2 sin 4x + sin 6x = 4 cos2 x sin 4x

8. Solve the given equation : cot 4x (sin 5x + sin 3x) = cot x (sin 5x – sin 3x)

9. Prove the cosine sum of two angles

10. Prove the tan sum of two angles

Answers: Self Assessment

1. (a) 2. (b)

3. (a) 4. (a)

5. (a) 6. (a)

7. (d) 8. (b)

9. (a) 10. (d)

2.10 Further Readings

Books
Husch, Lawrence S. Visual Calculus, University of Tennessee, 2001.
NCERT Mathematics books class XI
NCERT Mathematics books class XII
Smith and Minton. Calculus Early Trancendental, Third Edition. McGraw Hill.2008

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Basic Mathematics – I

Notes

Online links
http://www.suitcaseofdreams.net/Trigonometric_Functions.htm
http://library.thinkquest.org/20991/alg2/trigi.html
http://www.intmath.com/trigonometric−functions/5−signs−of−trigonometric−
functions.php

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 Unit 3: Matrix

Unit 3: Matrix Notes

CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
3.1 Matrix
3.2 Equality of Matrices
3.3 Types of Matrices
3.4 Operation of Matrices
3.5 Transpose of a Matrix
3.6 Summary
3.7 Keywords
3.8 Self Assessment
3.9 Review Questions
3.10 Further Readings

Objectives

After studying this unit, you will be able to:

Explain the meaning of matrix.
Discuss different types of matrices.
Describe the matrix operation such as addition, subtraction and multiplication.
Understand the transpose of matrix.
Explain the symmetric and skew symmetric matrix.

Introduction

In earlier units you have studied about the trigonometric functions of sum and difference of two
angles and inverse trigonometric functions.

A matrix was first introduced to solve systems of linear equations. In 1750, G. Cramer gave a
rule called Cramer’s rule to solve the simultaneous equations. Sir Arthur Cayley introduced the
theory of matrices. If all the equations of a system or model are linear, then matrix algebra
provides an efficient method of their solution than the traditional method of elimination of
variables. Just like ordinary algebra, matrix algebra has operations like addition and subtraction.
In this unit you will generalize matrix algebra and different types of matrices.

3.1 Matrix

A matrix is an array of numbers arranged in certain number of rows and columns. If there are
m × n numbers (i = 1 to m and j = 1 to n), we can write a matrix with m rows and n columns as

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Basic Mathematics – I

Notes a11 a12  a1n

a 21 a 22  a2n
A
  
am1 am 2  amn

A matrix having m rows and n columns is called a matrix of order m×n. The individual entries of
the array, are termed as the elements of matrix A.

A matrix can be indicated by enclosing an array of numbers by parentheses [ ] or ( ).

Matrices are usually denoted by capital letters A, B, C, ...... etc., while small letters like a, b, c, ......
etc. are used to denote the elements of a matrix.
In order to locate an element of a matrix one has to specify the row and column to which it
belongs. For example, lies in ith row and jth column of A.

1 1 2 0 7
Example: A , B
2 5 1 4 10

3 5 2 0 1
C 0 6 , D 4 10 7
7 12 11 2 8

Notes 1. We shal follow the notations namely A= [a ij] m × n to indicat that A is a matrix
of order m × n.
2. We shall consider only those matrices whose elements are real numbers or
functions telling real value.

Order (Type of a Matrix)

If a matrix has m rows and n columns then the matrix is said to be of order m n.
In the above examples, A is of order 2 2 , B is of order 2 3 , C is of order 3 2 , D is of order
3 3.

Example.
In an examination of Economics, 25 students from college A, 28 Students from college B and 35
students from college C appeared. The number of students passing the examination were 14, 18,
20 and those obtaining distinction were 7, 10 and 15 respectively. Express the above information
in matrix form.
Solution

We assume that each column represents the information about a college. Similarly, let first row
represent total number of students appeared, second row represent the number of students
passed and third row represent the number of students who obtained distinction. The required
matrix can be written as
College
A B C
Appeared 25 28 35
Passed 14 18 20
Distinction 7 10 15

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 Unit 3: Matrix

3.2 Equality of Matrices Notes

Two matrices A and B are said to be equal if they are of the same order and the corresponding
elements of A and B are equal:

1 2 3 1 2 3
Example: (1) A ,B
8 7 4 2 3
8 7 4 2 3

The orders are same and the corresponding elements are equal.

A B.

x 2 1 2
(2) If A and B then
0 y 2 2
0 4

A B x 1 and y 4.

3.3 Types of Matrices

1. Rectangular matrix: A matrix of order m n is called a rectangular matrix.

1 2 1
Example: A is a rectangular matrix.
4 7 0 2 3

2. Square matrix: A matrix in which the number of rows is equal to the number of columns
(i.e., m m matrix) is called square matrix.

2 6 11
1 4
Example: A B 5 0 8
7 0 2 2
7 4 1 3 3

3. Diagonal matrix: A square matrix in which all the elements except the principal diagonal
elements are zero, is called a diagonal matrix.

4 0 0
2 0
Example: A , B 0 1 0 are diagonal matrices.
0 1
0 0 8

Notes If A = [aij] is a sq matrix of order n, then elements entries a 11, a22 … ann are said to

1 3 1
constitute diagonal of the matrix A. Thus of A = 2 4 1 , Them elements of the
3 5 6
diagonal of A are 1, 4, 6.
4. Scalar matrix: A diagonal matrix in which all the principal diagonal elements are equal,
is called a scalar matrix.

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Basic Mathematics – I

Notes
5 0 0
2 0
Example: A , B 0 5 0
0 2
0 0 5

5. Unit matrix (or Identity matrix): A scalar matrix in which all the principal diagonal
elements are equal to 1 is called a unit matrix.

1 0 0
1 0
Example: A ,B 0 1 0
0 1 2 2
0 0 1 3 3

A unit (or identity) matrix is denoted by I.

6. Null matrix (or zero matrix): A matrix in which all the elements are 0 is called a null
matrix. A null (or zero) matrix is denoted by 0.

0 0
0 0 0 0 0
Example: A ,B 0 0 ,C
0 0 0 2 3
0 0 2 2
0 0 3 2

0 0 0
D 0 0 0
0 0 0 3 3

7. Row matrix: A matrix having only one row and any number of columns (i.e., 1 n
matrix) is called a row matrix.

Example: 1 3 0 1 3

8. Column matrix: A matrix having only one column and any number of rows (i.e., m 1
matrix) is called a column matrix.

2
Example: 7
0 3 1

Example.

Cars and Jeeps are produced in two manufacturing units, M1 and M2 of a company. It is known
that the unit M1 manufactures 10 cars and 5 Jeeps per day and unit M2 manufactures 8 cars and 9
Jeeps per day. Write the above information in a matrix form. Multiply this by 2 and explain its
meaning.

Solution:
Let A denote the required matrix. Let first row of A denote the output of M1 and second denote
the output of M2. Further, let first column of A represent the number of cars and second the
number of Jeeps.

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 Unit 3: Matrix

Thus, the matrix Notes

Cars Jeeps
A= M1 10 5
M2 8 9

20 10
Further, 2 A . This matrix gives the number of cars and Jeeps produced by each unit
16 18
of the company in two days.

3.4 Operation of Matrices

1. Addition of matrices: Addition of two matrices A and B is defined if and only if they are of
the same order.

Notes If A and B are not of same order, then A + B is not defined. e.g.
2 3 1 2 3
A ,B , then A +B is not defined. We may observe that addition of
1 0 1 0 1
matrices is an example of binary operation or the set of matrices of same order.

If A and B are matrices of the same order then their sum A B is obtained by adding the
corresponding elements of A and B.

2 1 0 0 1 7
Example: A ,B
4 7 10 2 3
5 8 15 2 3

2 0 1 ( 1) 0 7
then A B
4 5 7 8 10 15 2 3

2 2 7
9 15 25 2 3

0 2 ( 1) ( 1) 7 0
B A
5 4 8 7 15 10 2 3

2 2 7
9 15 25 2 3

A B B A.

2. Subtraction of matrices: Subtraction of two matrices A and B is defined if and only if they
are of the same order.

If A and B are matrices of the same order then their difference A B is obtained by
subtracting the elements of B by the corresponding elements of A.

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Basic Mathematics – I

Notes
2 0 1 8
Example: If A 5 1 ,B 9 0
4 7 3 2
7 3 3 2

2 ( 1) 0 8
then A B = 5 9 1 0
4 7 7 ( 3) 3 2

3 8
4 1
3 10 3 2

1 2 8 0
B A 9 5 0 ( 1)
7 4 3 7 3 2

3 8
4 1
3 10 3 2

A B B A.

3. Scalar multiplication: If A is a matrix of order m n and k is a scalar, then the matrix kA

is obtained by multiplying all the elements of A by k.

2 5 4
Example: If A
7 3 10 2 3

4 10 8
then 2 A
14 6 20 2 3

5
1 2
1 2
and A
2 7 3
5
2 2 2 3

4. Multiplication of matrices: Multiplication of matrices is defined if and only if the number

of columns of the first matrix is equal to the number of rows of the second matrix. i.e., if A
is a matrix of order m n and B is a matrix of order n p then only AB is defined and AB
will be a matrix of order m p. The mode of multiplication is always row column.

Multiplication of diagonal matrices of same order will be commutative.

Notes

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 Unit 3: Matrix

x1 y1 Notes
a1 b1 c1
Let A and B x2 y2
a2 b2 c2 2 3
x3 y3 3 2

x1 y1
a1 b1 c1
then AB x2 y2
a2 b2 c2
x3 y3

a1 x1 b1 x2 c1 x3 a1 y 1 b1 y 2 c1 y 3
a2 x 1 b2 x2 c 2 x3 a2 y 1 b2 y 2 c2 y3 2 2

x1 y1
a1 b1 c1
Also BA x2 y2
a2 b2 c2
x3 y3

x1 a1 y 1 a2 x1b1 y1b2 x 1c 1 y 1c 2
x2 a1 y 2 a2 x2 b1 y 2 b2 x2c1 y 2c 2
x3 a1 y 3 a2 x3b1 y 3b2 x 3c 1 y 3c 2 3 3

From these, we observe that AB BA. Hence in general AB BA.

x 3 z 4 2y 7 0 6 3y 2
Task If 6 a 1 0 6 3 2c 2 find the value of a, b, c, x, y
b 3 21 0 2b 4 21 0
and z.

Example.
A firm produces chairs, tables and cupboards, each requiring three types of raw materials
increase length timber, nails and varnish. You are given below, the units of different raw
materials required for producing one unit of each product:

Product Timber (c.ft.) Nails (dozens) Varnish (litres)

Chair 0.7 2 1
Table 1 4 1.5
Cupboard 3.2 6 2

If the firm produces 300 units of each product, find the quantity of each raw material using
matrix algebra.
Solution:

0.7 1 3.2
Let A= 2 4 6
1 1.5 2

Where each row gives the requirement of a raw materials (timber, nails or varnish) to produce
one unit of each product.

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Basic Mathematics – I

Notes
300
Let, B= 300
300

0.7 1 3.2 300 1470

Then, AB = 2 4 6 300 3600
1 1.5 2 300 1350

Thus the requirement is: 1470 c.ft. of timber, 3600 dozens of nails and 350 litres of varnish.

Example 
In a certain city, there are 50 colleges and 400 schools. Each school and college have 18 Peons, 5
Clerks and 1 Cashier. Each college in addition has one Section Officer and one Librarian. The
monthly salary of each of them is as follows:

Peon: 1,200; Clerk: 2,000; Cashier: 2,400; Section Officer: 2,800 and Librarian: 3,600. Using
the matrix notation, find (i) total number of posts of each kind in schools and colleges taken
together, (ii) the total monthly salary bill of all the schools and colleges taken together.
Solution:
The number of posts of each kind in a school or a college can be written as a column vector.
(i) The total number of posts of each kind, in schools and colleges taken together, can be
written as column matrix P, as shown below, where the first and second column vectors
give the number of posts of each kind in a school and a college respectively.

18 18 7200 900 8100 Peons

5 5 2000 250 2250 Clerks
P = 400 1 50 1 400 50 450 Cashiers
0 1 0 50 50 S.Officers
0 1 0 50 50 Librarians

(ii) Salaries for different posts can be written as row matrix S, as shown below:
S = [1200 2000 2400 2800 3600]

8100
2250
Total salary bill = SP = [1200 2000 2400 2800 3600] 450
50
50

= 1200 × 8100 + 2000 × 2250 + 2400 × 450 + 2800 × 50 + 3600 × 50

= 1,56,20,000.
Example 15.

A firm produces three products A, B and C, which it sells in two markets. Annual sales in units
are given below:

Units Sold
Market A B C
I 8000 4000 16000
II 7000 18000 9000

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 Unit 3: Matrix

If the prices per unit of A, B and C are 2.50, 1.25 and 1.50 and the costs per unit are 1.70, Notes
1.20 and 0.80 respectively, find total profit in each market by using matrix algebra.

Solution:
Let Q be the matrix of the quantities sold.

8000 4000 16000

Q= 7000 18000 9000

2.50 1.70
We can also write P 1.25 and C 1.20 , as the matrices of prices and costs respectively.
1.50 0.80

Note: P and C can also be written as row matrices.

The respective total revenue and cost matrices are

2.50
8000 4000 16000 49000
TR = QP = 7000 18000 9000 1.25 = 53500 ,
1.50

1.70
8000 4000 16000 31200
and TC = QC = 7000 18000 9000 1.20 =
40700
0.80

49000 31200 17800

The profit matrix = TR – TC = –
53500 40700 12800

Hence the profits from market I and II are 17,800 and 12,800 respectively.

Alternatively, the profit matrix can be written as = Q [P – C].

Example 
A firm produces three products P1, P2 and P3 requiring the mix-up of three materials M1, M2 and
M3. The per unit requirement of each product for each material (in units) is as follows:

M1 M2 M3
P1 2 3 1
A = P2 4 2 5
P3 2 4 2

Using matrix notations, find:

(i) The total requirement of each material if the firm produces 100 units of each product.

(ii) The per unit cost of production of each product if the per unit cost of materials M1, M2 and
M3 are 5, 10 and 5 respectively.
(iii) The total cost of production if the firm produces 200 units of each product.

Solution:

100 P1 5 M1
Let B 100 P2 and C 10 M2 denote the output vector and the cost of material vector
100 P 5 M
3 3
respectively.

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Basic Mathematics – I

Notes (i) The total requirement of each material is given by

P1 P2 P3
M1 2 4 2 100 P1 800
A¢B = M2 3 2 4 100 P2 900
M3 1 5 2 100 P3 800

(ii) The per unit cost production of each product is given by

M1 M2 M3
P1 2 3 1 5 45
AC = P2 4 2 5 10 65
P3 2 4 2 5 60

(iii) The total cost of production of 200 units of each product

45
200 200 200 65 = 9000 + 13000 + 12000 = 34000.
60

Tasks
A manufacturer produces three products A, B and C, which are sold in Delhi and Calcutta.
The annual sales of these products are given below:
Product
A B C
Delhi 5000 7500 15000
Calcutta 9000 12000 8700
If the sale price of the products A, B and C per unit be 2, 3 and 4 respectively,
calculate total revenue from each centre by using matrices.

3.5 Transpose of a Matrix

If A is a matrix of order m n, then the matrix obtained by interchanging the rows and columns
is called the transpose of A and is denoted by A or AT . A will be a matrix of order n m .

1 4
1 3 5
Example: If A then A 3 7
4 7 8 2 3
5 8 3 2

1 2 1 0
Example: If A ,B , find A B, A B, 2 A 3B, 2 A 3B, 5 A B,
3 4 4 7
A 7B
Solution:

1 2 1 0 1 1 2 0 0 2
A B
3 4 4 7 3 4 4 7 7 11

1 2 1 0 1 1 2 0 2 2
A B
3 4 4 7 3 4 4 7 1 3

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 Unit 3: Matrix

Notes
1 2 1 0 2 3 4 0 1 4
2 A 3B 2 3
3 4 4 7 6 12 8 21 18 29

1 2 1 0 2 3 4 0 5 4
2 A 3B 2 3
3 4 4 7 6 12 8 21 6 13

1 2 1 0 5 1 10 0 4 10
5A B 5
3 4 4 7 15 4 20 7 19 27

1 2 1 0 1 7 2 0 8 2
A 7B 7
3 4 4 7 3 28 4 49 25 45

1 5 2 1
Example: If A ,B verify
0 6 3 8

Verify ( A B) A B and ( A B) A B .
Solution:

1 5 2 1
A ,B
0 6 3 8

1 0 2 3
A ,B
5 6 1 8

1 5 2 1 1 2 5 1 1 6
A B
0 6 3 8 0 3 6 8 3 2

1 3
( A B) ...(1)
6 2

1 0 2 3 1 2 0 3
A B
5 6 1 8 5 1 6 8

1 3
A B ...(2)
6 2

From (1) and (2) ; ( A B) A B

1 5 2 1 1 2 5 1 3 4
A B
0 6 3 8 0 3 6 8 3 14

3 3
( A B) ...(3)
4 14

1 0 2 3 1 2 0 3
A B
5 6 1 8 5 1 6 8

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Basic Mathematics – I

Notes
3 3
A B ...(4)
4 14

From (3) and (4) ( A B) A B.

2 3 1
Example: Find the matrices A and B given that 2A B and
1 4 0

4 6 1
3A 2B
2 3 5

Solution:

2 3 1
2A B ...(1)
1 4 0

4 6 1
3A 2B ...(2)
2 3 5

Multiply (1) by (2)

4 6 2
(1) 2 4 A 2B
2 8 0

4 6 1
(2) 3A 2B
2 3 5

0 0 1
Subtracting, we get A
0 5 5

Substituting this in (1), we get

0 0 1 2 3 1
2 B
0 5 5 1 4 0

2 3 1 0 0 2
B
1 4 0 0 10 10

2 0 3 0 1 2 2 3 1
1 0 4 10 0 10 1 6 10

0 0 1 2 3 1
A , B
0 5 5 1 6 10

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 Unit 3: Matrix

Notes
2 2 1 1
Example: If A ,B find AB and BA.
2 2 1 1

Solution:

2 2 1 1
AB
2 2 1 1

2(1) ( 2)(1) 2(1) ( 2)1

2(1) 2(1) ( 2)1 2(1)

2 2 2 2 0 0
2 2 2 2 0 0

1 1 2 2
BA
1 1 2 2

1(2) 1( 2) 1( 2) 1(2)
1(2) 1( 2) 1( 2) 1(2)

2 2 2 2 0 0
2 2 2 2 0 0

1 1 1 0
Example: Simplify:
2 3 0 8

Solution:

1 1 1 0
2 3 0 8

1( 1) ( 1)0 1(0) ( 1)( 8)

( 2)( 1) ( 3)0 ( 2)(0) ( 3)( 8)

1 0 0 8 1 8
2 0 0 24 2 24

x 2 3 4
Example: Find x and y if
y 4 5 1
Solution:

x 2(4) 3( 1) 8 3 5
y 4(4) 5( 1) 16 5 11

Equating the corresponding elements, we get

x 5, y 11.

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Basic Mathematics – I

Notes
0 2
Example: If A , prove that A2 4I 0 where I is the unit matrix of second
2 0
order.
Solution:

0 2 0 2
A2
2 0 2 0

0 4 0 0
A2
0 0 4 0

4 0
A2
0 4

1 0 4 0
4I 4
0 1 0 4

4 0 4 0
A2 4I
0 4 0 4

4 4 0 0 0 0
0
0 0 4 4 0 0

A2 4I 0.

3 1
Example: If A , prove that A2 8 A 13I 0.
2 5

Solution:

3 1 3 1 9 2 3 5 11 8
A2
2 5 2 5 6 10 2 25 16 27

3 1 24 8
8A 8
2 5 16 40

1 0 13 0
13 I 13
0 1 0 13

11 8 24 8 13 0
Adding, A2 8 A 13 I
16 27 16 40 0 13

11 24 13 8 8 0 0 0
16 16 0 27 40 13 0 0

A2 8 A 13 I 0.

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 Unit 3: Matrix

Notes
3 1
5 2 1
Example: If A ,B 4 7
0 7 1
1 1

Verify that ( AB) BA.

Solution:

5 0
3 4 1
A 2 7 ,B
1 7 1
1 1

3 1
5 2 1
AB 4 7
0 7 1
1 1

5( 3) 2(4) ( 1)1 5(1) 2(7) ( 1)( 1)

0( 3) 7(4) 1(1) 0(1) 7(7) 1( 1)

15 8 1 5 14 1
0 28 1 0 49 1

8 20
AB
29 48

8 29
( AB) ...(1)
20 48

5 0
3 4 1
BA 2 7
1 7 1
1 1

( 3)5 4(2) 1( 1) ( 3)0 4(7) 1(1)

1(5) 7(2) ( 1)(1) 1(0) 7(7) ( 1)1

15 8 1 0 28 1
5 14 1 0 49 1

8 29
BA ...(2)
20 48

From (1) and (2), ( AB) BA

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Basic Mathematics – I

Notes
2 4
Example: If A , find ( A )2 A I.
4 1

Solution:

22 44 2 2 44
AA , AA
44 11 4 4 11

2 4 2 4
( A )2 AA
4 1 4 1

4 16 8 4
8 4 16 1

12 12
( A )2
12 15

2 4
A
4 1

1 0
I
0 1

12 2 1 12 4 0 13 8
( A )2 A I
12 4 0 15 1 1 8 15

3 4
Example: If A , find A3 .
1 1

Solution:

3 4 3 4
A2
1 1 1 1

9 4 12 4 13 8
3 1 4 1 2 5

13 8 3 4
A3 A2 . A
2 5 1 1

39 8 52 8
6 5 8 5

47 44
A3
11 3

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 Unit 3: Matrix

Notes
a h g x
Example: Find the product of A [ x y z], B h b f ,C y .
g f c z

Solution:

A is a matrix of order 1 3, B is of 3 3 and C is of 3 1.

ABC will be a matrix of order 1 1.

a h g
AB [ x y z]1 3 h b f
g f c 3 3

ax hy gz hx by fz gx fy cz 1 3

x
( AB)C ax hy gz hx by fz gx fy cz y
z

( ax hy gz) x ( hx by fz)y ( gx fy cz)z

[ ax 2 hxy gzx hxy by 2 fyz gzx fyz cz2 ]

[ ax 2 by 2 cz 2 2 hxy 2 fyz 2 gzx ]1 1

1 2 2
2
Example: If A 2 1 2 , prove that A 4 A 5I 0.
2 2 1

Solution:

1 2 2 1 2 2
2
A 2 1 2 2 1 2
2 2 1 2 2 1

1 4 4 2 2 4 2 4 2
2 2 4 4 1 4 4 2 2
2 4 2 4 2 2 4 4 1

9 8 8
A2 8 9 8
8 8 9

4 8 8
4A 8 4 8
8 8 4

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Notes
5 0 0
5I 0 5 0
0 0 5

9 4 5 8 8 0 8 8 0
2
Adding A 4 A 5I 8 8 0 9 4 5 8 8 0
8 8 0 8 8 0 9 4 5

0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0

A2 4 A 5I 0.

1 2 3 2 4 8
Example: If A 4 7 5 ,B 0 6 3
0 18 10 5 7 11

Verify that 2( A B) 2 A 2 B.

Solution:

1 2 2 4 3 8
A B 4 0 7 6 5 3
0 5 8 7 10 11

1 2 11
4 13 2
5 15 21

1 2 11
2( A B) 2 4 13 2
5 15 21

2 4 22
2( A B) 8 26 4 ...(1)
10 30 42

1 2 3 2 4 6
2A 2 4 7 5 8 14 10
0 8 10 0 16 20

2 4 8 4 8 16
2B 2 0 6 3 0 12 6
5 7 11 10 14 22

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Notes
2 4 6 4 8 16
2 A 2B 8 14 10 0 12 6
0 16 20 10 14 22

2 4 4 8 6 16
8 0 14 12 10 6
0 10 16 14 20 22

2 4 22
2 A 2B 8 26 4 ...(2)
10 30 42

From (1) and (2), 2( A B) 2 A 2 B.

0 1 1 0 2
Example: If A ,B , prove that A B2 2I 0.
1 0 0 1

Solution:

0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0
A2
1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1

1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
B2
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1

1 0 2 0
2I 2
0 1 0 2

1 0 1 0 2 0
Adding, A2 B2 2I
0 1 0 1 0 2

1 1 2 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 1 2 0 0

A2 B2 2I 0.

x 2 3 4 4
Example: Solve for x, y, z given that y 4 5 6 5
z 7 8 9 6

Solution:

x 2 3 4 4
y 4 5 6 5
z 7 8 9 6

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Notes
8 15 24 47
16 25 36 77
28 40 54 122

x 47, y 77, z 122.

1 3 5 0 1 2 9 8 7
Example: Evaluate: 2 3
2 4 6 3 4 5 6 5 4

Solution:

1 3 5 0 1 2 9 8 7
2 3
2 4 6 3 4 5 6 5 4

1 3 5 0 2 4 27 24 21
2 4 6 6 8 10 18 15 12

1 0 27 3 2 24 5 4 21 26 19 12
2 6 18 4 8 15 6 10 12 10 3 4

5 1
Example: Find the matrix X such that A 2 X B given that A and
4 7

2 5
B
4 9

Solution:

A 2X B

2X B A

1
X (B A)
2

1 2 5 5 1 1 3 4
2 4 9 4 7 2 0 2

3
2
i.e., X 2
0 1

3.6 Summary

In this unit we have studied the concepts of matrices their importance in solving real
world problems of business. While a matrix is an array of numbers arranged into certain
number of rows and columns.

A matrix is an ordered rectangular array of numbers or functions.A matrix having m rows

and n columns is called a matrix of order m × n.

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 Unit 3: Matrix

[aij]m × 1 is a column matrix and [aij]1 × n is a row matrix. Notes

An m × n matrix is a square matrix if m = n.

A = [aij]m × m is a diagonal matrix if aij = 0, when i j.

A = [aij]n × n is a scalar matrix if aij = 0, when i j, aij = k, (k is some constant), when i = j.

A = [aij]n × n is an identity matrix, if aij = 1, when i = j, aij = 0, when i j.

A zero matrix has all its elements as zero.

A = [aij] = [bij] = B if (i) A and B are of same order, (ii) aij = bij for all possible values of i and j.

3.7 Keywords

Column Matrix: A matrix having only one column.

Matrix: An array of numbers arranged in certain numbers of rows and columns.

Rectangular Matrix: A matrix consisting of m rows and n columns.

Row Matrix: A matrix having only one row.

Square Matrix: If the number of rows of a matrix is equal to its number of columns, the matrix
is said to be a square matrix.

3.8 Self Assessment

Fill in the blanks:

1. A matrix having m rows and n columns is called a matrix of order.................
2. A matrix consisting of m rows and n columns, where m n, is called a.................
3. If the number of rows of a matrix is equal to its number of columns, the matrix is said to
be a .................
4. A matrix having only one row is called a.................
5. A diagonal matrix in which all the diagonal elements are equal to 1 is called.................
Multiple choice Questions:

6. A aij m n is a Square Matrix, it

(a) m<n
(b) m>n
(c) m=n
(d) None of these
7. Which of the given values of x and y make the following pair of matrices equal to
3x 7 5 0 y 2
,
y 1 2 3x 8 4

1
(a) x ,y 7
3

(b) Not possible to find

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Notes 2
(c) y 7, x
3

1 2
(d) x ,y .
3 3

8. If A + B are symmetric matrices of same order, then AB - BA is a

(a) Skew symmetric matrix

(b) Symmetric matrix

(c) Zero matrix

(d) Identify matrix

cos sin
9. If A , Then A A I , If value of is
sin cos

(a)
6

(b)
3

(c)

3
(d)
2

3.9 Review Questions

1 2 3
3
1. If A 3 2 1 then show that A 23 A 40 I 0
4 2 1

1 2 3 3 1 2 4 1 2
2. If A 5 0 2 ,B 4 2 5 and C 0 3 2 then complete (A + B) and (B C)
1 1 1 2 0 3 1 2 3
Verify that A + (B C) = (A + B) C.

cos sin sin cos

3. Simplify cos sin
sin cos cos sin

4. Show that

6 7 9 2 4 1 2 4 1 6 7 9
2 4 3 6 7 9 6 7 9 2 4 3
1 2 4 9 2 3 9 2 3 1 2 4

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Notes
2 2 4
B 1 3 4
5. Express the matrix as the sum of a symmetric and a skew symmetric
1 2 3
matrix.

Answers: Self Assessment

1. m×n 2. Rectangular Matrix

3. Equality of Matrix 4. Row Matrix

5. Unit Matrix 6. (c)

7. (b) 8. (a)

9. (b)

3.10 Further Readings

Books D C Sanchethi and V K Kapoor, Business Mathematics

R S Bhardwaj, Mathematics for Economics and Business, Excel Books, New Delhi, 2005
Sivayya and Sathya Rao, An Introduction to Business Mathematics

Online links http://www.suitcaseofdreams.net/Trigonometric_Functions.htm

http://library.thinkquest.org/20991/alg2/trigi.html

http://www.intmath.com/trigonometric functions/5 signs of trigonometric

functions.php

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Notes Unit 4: Determinants

CONTENTS
Objectives

Introduction
4.1 Determinant of a Square Matrix

4.2 Minor of an Element of a Square Matrix

4.3 Cofactor of an Element of a Square Matrix

4.4 Adjoint of a Square Matrix

4.5 Singular and Non-singular Matrices

4.6 Inverse of a Square Matrix

4.7 Solution of a System of Linear Simultaneous Equations (Cramer’s Rule)
4.8 Examples on Adjoint and Inverse
4.9 Examples on Simultaneous Equations (Cramer’s Rule)
4.10 Examples of Business Application of Matrices
4.11 Summary
4.12 Keywords
4.13 Self Assessment
4.14 Review Questions
4.15 Further Readings

Objectives

After studying this unit, you will be able to:

Explain the meaning of determinants

Discuss matrix representation of a linear equation system
Describe inverse of a matrix using determinants

Understand solution of equations

Introduction

A determinant was first introduced to solve systems of linear equations. In 1750, G. Cramer gave
a rule called Cramer's rule to solve the simultaneous equations. In the previous unit, we have
studied about matrices and algebra of matrices. We have also learnt that a system of algebraic
equations can be expressed in the form of matrices.
In this unit, we shall study determinants up to order three only with real entries. Also, we will
study minors, cofactors and applications of determinants in finding the area of a triangle, adjoint
and inverse of a square matrix, consistency and inconsistency of system of linear equations and
solution of linear equations in two or three variables using inverse of a matrix.

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4.1 Determinant of a Square Matrix Notes

To every square matrix A, a real number is associated. This real number is called its determinant
and is denoted by ( A).

1 2 1 2
Example: If A then its determinant is denoted by (A) .
3 4 2 2
3 4

The value of this determinant is determined as ( A) ( 1)4 (3 2) 4 6 10.

a1 b1
In general if then its value is a1b2 a2 b1 .
a2 b2

a1 b1 c1
b2 c2 a2 c2 a2 b2
Similarly if a2 b2 c2 then its value is a1 b1 c1
b3 c3 a3 c3 a3 b3
a3 b3 c3

a1 (b2c3 b3c2 ) b1 ( a2c3 a3c2 ) c1 ( a2 b3 a3b2 ).

a1 b1
a1b2 a2 b1 is called a 2nd order determinant.
a2 b2

Notes For matrix A, |A| is read as determinant of A not modules of A only square
matrices have determinants.

a1 b1 c1
a2 b2 c2 a1 ( b2c 3 b3c 2 ) b1 ( a2c 3 a3c 2 ) c1 ( a2 b3 a3b2 )
a3 b3 c3

is called a 3rd order determinant.

The rows are represented by R1 , R2 , R3 , the columns are represented by C1 , C 2 , C 3 .

4.2 Minor of an Element of a Square Matrix

The minor of an element of a square matrix A is defined to be the determinant obtained by

deleting the row and column in which the element is present.

a1 b1
Example: A then
a2 b2

minor of a1 b2
minor of b1 a2
minor of a 2 b1
minor of b2 a1

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Notes
a1 b1 c1
If A a2 b2 c2
a3 b3 c3

b2 c2
Minor of a1 b2c 3 b3c 2
b3 c3

a2 c2
Minor of b1 a2c 3 a3c 2
a3 c3

a2 b2
Minor of c 1 a2 b3 a3b2
a3 b3

b1 c1
Minor of a2 b1c 3 b3c1
b3 c3

a1 c1
Minor of b2 a1c 3 a3c1
a3 c 3

Notes Minor of an element of a determinant of order n(n 2) is a determinant of order

n 1.

a1 b1
Minor of c 2 a1b3 a3b1
a3 b3

b1 c1
Minor of a3 b1c 2 b2c1
b2 c2

a1 c1
Minor of b3 a1c 2 a2c1
a2 c2

a1 b1
Minor of c 3 a1b2 a2 b1
a2 b2

4.3 Cofactor of an Element of a Square Matrix

i j
The cofactor of an element of a square matrix is defined to be ( 1) (minor of the element)
where i and j are the number of row and column in which the element is present.

Here ( 1) i j
will be equal to 1 if i j is even and will be equal to 1 if i j is odd.

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Notes
a1 b1
If A ,
a2 b2

Cofactor of a1 ( 1)1 1 (b2 ) b2

Cofactor of b1 ( 1)1 2 ( a2 ) a2

Cofactor of a2 ( 1)2 1 (b1 ) b1

Cofactor of b2 ( 1)2 2 ( a1 ) a1

The signs of the cofactors are

a1 b1 c1
If A a2 b2 c2 ,
a3 b3 c3

b2 c2
Cofactor of a1 ( 1)1 1
(b2c 3 b3c 2 )
b3 c3

a2 c2
Cofactor of b1 ( 1)1 2
( a2c 3 a3c 2 )
a3 c3

Notes If element of a row (or column) are multiplied with cofactors of any other row (or
column), then their sum is zero.

a2 b2
Cofactor of c 1 ( 1)1 3
( a2 b3 a3b2 )
a3 b3

b1 c1
Cofactor of a2 ( 1)2 1
(b1c 3 b3c1 )
b3 c 3

a1 c1
Cofactor of b2 ( 1)2 2
( a1c 3 a3c1 )
a3 c 3

a1 b1
Cofactor of c 2 ( 1)2 3
( a1b3 a3b1 )
a3 b3

b1 c1
Cofactor of a3 ( 1)3 1
(b1c 2 b2c1 )
b2 c2

a1 c1
Cofactor of b3 ( 1)3 2
( a1c 2 a2c1 )
a2 c2

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Notes
a1 b1
Cofactor of c 3 ( 1)3 3
( a1b2 a2 b1 )
a2 b2

The signs of cofactors are .

The cofactors of a1 , b1 , c1 a2 , b2 , c2 , a3 , b3 , c3 are denoted by capitals A1 , B1 , C1

A2 , B2 , C 2 , A3 , B3 , C 3 respectively.

4.4 Adjoint of a Square Matrix

The adjoint of a square matrix A is the transpose of the matrix of the cofactors of the elements of
A and is denoted by Adj. A.

a1 b1
If A , then
a2 b2

Cofactor of a1 b2 I column

Cofactor of b1 a2

Cofactor of a2 b1 II column

Cofactor of b2 a1

b2 b1
Adj. A
a2 a1

Notes To find the adjoint of a 2 nd order square matrix, interchange the elements of the
principal diagonal and change the signs of the elements of the other diagonal.

2 3 7 3
Example: If A , then Adj. A ...(1)
1 7 1 2

This can be calculated and verified

Cofactor of 2 (7) 7 I column

Cofactor of 3 ( 1) 1

Cofactor of 1 (3) 3 II column

Cofactor of 7 (2) 2

7 3
Adj. A which is the same as (1)
1 2

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Notes
a1 b1 c1
If A a2 b2 c 2 , then
a3 b3 c3

Cofactor of a1 (b2c 3 b3c 2 ) A1

Cofactor of b1 ( a2c3 a3c2 ) B1 I column

Cofactor of c1 ( a2 b3 a3b2 ) C1

Cofactor of a2 (b1c 3 b3c1 ) A2

Cofactor of b2 ( a1c3 a3c1 ) B2 II column

Cofactor of c2 ( a1b3 a3b1 ) C 2

Cofactor of a3 (b1c 2 b2c1 ) A3

Cofactor of b3 ( a1c2 a2c1 ) B3 III column

Cofactor of c3 ( a1b2 a2 b1 ) C 3

A1 A2 A3
Adj. A B1 B2 B3
C1 C2 C3

Notes A( Adj. A) ( Adj A) A | A| I where I is the identity matrix of the same order as that
of A.

4.5 Singular and Non-singular Matrices

A square matrix A is said to be singular if | A| 0 and is said to be non-singular if | A| 0.

2 1
Example: ( 2)7 (14)( 1) 14 14 0.
14 7

is singular.

1 4
7 12 5 0.
3 7

is non-singular.

4.6 Inverse of a Square Matrix

Inverse of a square matrix is defined if and only if it is non-singular. The inverse of a non-
1
singular square matrix A is denoted by A .

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Notes A 1
is determined by using the formula

1 Adj. A
A where | A| 0.
| A|

Notes If A is inverse of B, then B is also inverse of A.

4.7 Solution of a System of Linear Simultaneous Equations

(Cramer’s Rule)

1. To solve the simultaneous equations in two variables:

a1x b1 y c1 ...(1)

a2 x b2 y c2 ...(2)

a1 b1
Find a1b2 a2 b1 0.
a2 b2

Replace a1 , a2 by c1 , c2 to get

c1 b1
1 c 1b2 c 2 b1
c2 b2

Replace b1 , b2 by c1 , c 2 to get

a1 c1
2 a1c 2 a2 c 1
a2 c2

Then by Cramer’s Rule

1 2
x and y .

2. To solve the simultaneous equations in three variables

a1x b1 y c1 z d1

a2 x b2 y c 2 z d2

a3 x b3 y c 3 z d3

a1 b1 c1
Find a2 b2 c2 0.
a3 b3 c3

Replace a1 , a2 , a3 by d1 , d2 , d3

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Notes
d1 b1 c1
1 d2 b2 c2
d3 b3 c3

Replace b1 , b2 , b3 by d1 , d2 , d3

a1 d1 c1
2 a2 d2 c2
a3 d3 c3

Replace c1 , c 2 , c 3 by d1 , d2 , d3

a1 b1 d1
3 a2 b2 d2
a3 b3 d3

Then by Cramer’s Rule,

2
x , y ,z .

Tasks Evaluate the following determinants

1 3 1
5 3
1. 2. 2 0 1
2 1
4 5 1

3 4 x
Example: If 2 1 3 40, find x.
Solution: 5 1 2

3 4 x
2 1 3 40
5 1 2

3(2 3) 4(4 15) x( 2 5) 40

15 76 3x 40

3x 40 76 15

3x 21

x 7

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Notes
1 4 5
Example: Find the value of x: 2 x 0 0
3 5 8

Solution:

1 4 5
2 x 0 0
3 5 8

1(8x 0) 4(16 0) 5(10 3x ) 0

8x 64 50 15x 0

7 x 14 0

7x 14

x 2

2 1 x
Example: Find the value of x if 0 1 5 is singular.
1 3 1

Solution:

2 1 x 2 1 x
0 1 5 is singular 0 1 5 0
1 3 1 1 3 1

2( 1 15) 1(0 5) x(0 1) 0

32 5 x 0

x 37

x 2 2
Example: Find x if 2 x 2 0.
2 2 x

Solution:

x 2 2
2 x 2 0
2 2 x

x(0 4) 2(2 x 4) 2(4 0) 0

4x 4x 8 8 0

8x 16 0 x 2

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 Unit 4: Determinants

Notes
x 2 x 2
Example: If 3 5 8 is singular, find the value of x.
x 1 7 x 12

Solution:

The given matrix is singular its determinant = 0

x 2 x 2
i.e., 3 5 8 0
x 1 7 x 12

x(60 56 8x ) 2(36 8x 8) ( x 2)(21 3x 5x 5) 0

4 x 8x 2 56 16 x 16 x 32 8x 2 16 x 0

20x 24 0

24 6
x .
20 5

Example: Evaluate the following determinants

40 41 42 77 78 79
20 21
1. 2. 41 42 43 3. 75 74 73
22 23
42 43 44 76 75 74

12 0 0
4200 4201
4. 5. 4 3 0
4202 4203
2 2 3

Solution:

20 21
1. Let
22 23

R1 R2

2 2
22 23

C1 C 2

0 2
1 23

Expand

0(23) ( 1)( 2) 2

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Notes
40 41 42
2. Let 41 42 43
42 43 44

R1 R2 and R2 R3

1 1 1
1 1 1
42 43 44

R1 R2

0 0 0
1 1 1
42 43 44

Expand

0( 44 43) 0( 44 42) 0( 43 42)

0 0 0 0

77 78 79
3. Let 75 74 73
76 75 74

R1 R2 and R2 R3

2 4 6
1 1 1
76 75 74

C1 C 2 and C 2 C3

2 2 6
0 0 1
1 1 74

Expand

( 2) (0 1) 2(0 1) 6(0 0)

2 2 0 0

4200 4201
4. Let
4202 4203

R1 R2

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 Unit 4: Determinants

Notes
2 2
4202 4203

C1 C 2

0 2
1 4203

Expand

0(4203) ( 1)( 2)

12 0 0
5. Let 4 3 0
2 2 3

Expand

12( 9 0) 0( 12 0) 0(8 6)

108 0 0 108

4.8 Examples on Adjoint and Inverse

Example: Find the adjoint of the following matrices

2 1 1 5 3 0
1. 2. 3.
4 7 2 8 5 9

2 1 5 1 5 6 9 1 2
4 0 1 0 7 11 0 8 1
4. 5. 6.
9 3 6 5 2 4 5 1 7

2 7 3
4 10 1
7.
3 5 8

Solution:

2 1
1. A
4 7

Cofactor of 2 = + (7) = 7
Cofactor of 1 = (4) = 4 I column
Cofactor of 4 = ( 1) = 1

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Notes Cofactor of 7 = + (2) = 2 II column

7 1
Adj A
4 2

1 5
2. A
2 8

Cofactor of 1 = + (8) = 8

Cofactor of 5 = (2) = 2 I column

Cofactor of 2 = (5) = 5

Cofactor of 8 = + ( 1) = 1 II column

8 5
Adj A
2 1

3 0
3. A
5 9

Cofactor of 3 = + (9) = 9

Cofactor of 0 = (5) = 5 I column

Cofactor of 5 = (0) = 0
Cofactor of 9 = + (3) = 3 II column

9 0
Adj A
5 3

2 1 5
4. A 4 0 1
9 3 6

Cofactor of 2 = + (0 + 3) = 3
Cofactor of 1= (24 9) = 15 I column
Cofactor of 5 = + ( 12 0) = 12

Cofactor of 4 = ( 6 + 15) = 9

Cofactor of 0 = + (12 45) = 33 II column

Cofactor of 1 = ( 6 + 9) = 3
Cofactor of 9 = + ( 1 0) = 1

Cofactor of 3= (2 20) = 18 III column

Cofactor of 6 = + (0 + 4) = 4

3 9 1
Adj A 15 33 18
12 3 4

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 Unit 4: Determinants

Notes
1 5 6
5. A 0 7 11
5 2 4

Cofactor of 1 = + (28 + 22) = 50

Cofactor of 5= (0 55) = 55 I column

Cofactor of 6 = + (0 35) = 35

Cofactor of 0 = ( 20 + 12) = 8
Cofactor of 7 = + (4 30) = 26 II column

Cofactor of 11 = ( 2 + 25) = 23
Cofactor of 5 = + ( 55 42) = 97

Cofactor of 2= (11 0) = 11 III column

Cofactor of 4 = + (7 0) = 7

50 8 97
Adj A 55 26 11
35 23 7

9 1 2
6. A 0 8 1
5 1 7

Cofactor of 9 = + (56 1) = 55
Cofactor of 1= (0 + 5) = 5 I column
Cofactor of 2 = + (0 + 40) = 40
Cofactor of 0 = ( 7 2) = 9
Cofactor of 8 = + (63 10) = 53 II column
Cofactor of 1 = (9 5) = 4
Cofactor of 5=+( 1 16) = 17
Cofactor of 1 = (9 0) = 9 III column
Cofactor of 7 = + (72 0) = 72

55 9 17
Adj A 5 53 9
40 4 72

2 7 3
7. A 4 10 1
3 5 8

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Notes Cofactor of 2 = + (80 5) = 75

Cofactor of 7 = (32 + 3) = 35 I column
Cofactor of 3 = + (20 + 30) = 50
Cofactor of 4 = (56 + 15) = 71
Cofactor of 10 = + (16 9) = 7 II column
Cofactor of 1 = (10 + 21) = 31
Cofactor of 3 = + (7 + 30) = 37
Cofactor of 5 = (2 + 12) = 14 III column
Cofactor of 8 = + (20 28) = 8

75 71 37
Adj A 35 7 14
50 31 8

Example: Find the inverses of the following matrices provided they exist:

1 1 2 0 1 1
1. 2. 3.
2 0 4 1 3 4

1 2 1 1 2 0
5 2
4. 5. 1 2 1 6. 3 1 5
3 7
1 1 1 4 7 1

0 2 4 2 1 1
7. 1 7 3 8. 1 2 0
2 5 4 3 4 5

Solution:

1 1
1. Let A
2 0

1 1
| A| 0 2 2 0
2 0

Cofactor of 1 = + (0) = 0

Cofactor of 1= (2) = 2 I column

Cofactor of 2 = ( 1) = 1

Cofactor of 0 = + (1) = 1 II column

0 1
Adj A
2 1

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Notes
0 1 1
0
1 Adj A 2 1 2
A
| A| 2 1
1
2

2 0
2. Let A
4 1

2 0
| A| 2 0 2 0
4 1

Cofactor of 2 = + (1) = 1

Cofactor of 0 = (4) = 4 I column

Cofactor of 4 = (0) = 0

Cofactor of 1 = + ( 2) = 2 II column

1 0
Adj A
4 2

1 0
1
1 Adj A 4 2 0
A 2
| A| 2
2 1

1 1
3. Let A
3 4

1 1
| A| 4 3 7 0
3 4

Cofactor of 1 = + (4) = 4
Cofactor of 1= (3) = 3 I column

Cofactor of 3 = ( 1) = 1

Cofactor of 4 = + (1) = 1 II column

4 1
Adj A
3 1

4 1 4 1
1 Adj A 3 1 7 7
A
| A| 7 3 1
7 7

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Notes
5 2
4. Let A
3 7

5 2
| A| 35 6 41
3 7

Cofactor of 5 = + (7) = 7

Cofactor of 2= (3) = 3 I column

Cofactor of 3 = ( 2) = 2

Cofactor of 7 = + (5) = 5 II column

7 2
Adj A
3 5

7 2 7 2
1 Adj A 3 5 41 41
A
| A| 41 3 5
41 41

1 2 1
5. Let A 1 2 1
1 1 1

1 2 1
| A| 1 2 1
1 1 1

1( 2 1) 2(1 1) 1( 1 2)

3 0 3 0

Since | A| 0, the inverse does not exist.

1 2 0
6. 3 1 5
4 7 1

1 2 0
| A| 3 1 5
4 7 1

1( 1 35) 2( 3 20) 0(21 4)

36 46 10 0
Cofactor of 1=+( 1 35) = 36

Cofactor of 2= ( 3 20) = 23 I column

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Cofactor of 0 = + (21 4) = 17 Notes

Cofactor of 3 = (2 0) = 2

Cofactor of 1 = + (1 0) = 1 II column

Cofactor of 5 = ( 7 + 8) = 1
Cofactor of 4 = + ( 10 0) = 10

Cofactor of 7 = ( 5 0) = 5 III column

Cofactor of 1 = + ( 1 + 6) = 5

36 2 10
Adj A 23 1 5
17 1 5

36 2 10
1 Adj A 1
A 23 1 5
| A| 10
17 1 5

18 1
1
5 5
23 1 5
10 10 10
17 1 1
10 10 2

0 2 4
7. Let A 1 7 3
2 5 4

| A| 0( 28 15) 2( 4 6) 4(5 14)

0 20 36 56 0

Cofactor of 0 + ( 28 15) = 43
Cofactor of 2= ( 4 6) = 10 I column
Cofactor of 4 = + (5 14) = 9
Cofactor of 1 = (8 20) = 12
Cofactor of 7 = + (0 8) = 8 II column

Cofactor of 3 = (0 + 4) = 4

Cofactor of 2 = + ( 6 28) = 34
Cofactor of 5 = (0 4) = 4 III column

Cofactor of 4 = + (0 + 2) = 2

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Notes
43 12 34
Adj A 10 8 4
9 4 2

43 12 34
1 Adj A 1
A 10 8 4
| A| 56
9 4 2

43 3 17
56 14 28
1 5 1 1
i.e., A
28 7 14
9 1 1
56 14 28

2 1 1
8. Let A 1 2 0
3 4 5

2 1 1
| A| 1 2 0
3 4 5

2( 10 0) 1( 5 0) 1(4 6)

20 5 2 27 0

Cofactor of 2 = + ( 10 0) = 10
Cofactor of 1= ( 5 0) = 5 I column
Cofactor of 1 = + (4 6) = 2
Cofactor of 1 = (5 4) = 1

Cofactor of 2 = + ( 10 3) = 13 II column

Cofactor of 0 = (8 + 3) = 11
Cofactor of 3 = + (0 2) = 2

Cofactor of 4 = (0 1) = 1 III column

Cofactor of 5 = + (4 + 1) = 5

10 1 2
Adj A 5 13 1
2 11 5

10 1 2
1 Adj A 1
A 5 13 1
| A| 27
2 11 5

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Notes
1
Example: For the following matrices find A and verify that (i) A (Adj A) = (Adj A) A
= |A| I and (ii) AA 1 A 1 A I

1 1 1
1 1
1. 2. 2 1 0
2 2
3 2 1

Solution:

1 1
1. Let A
2 2

1 1
| A| 2 2 4 0
2 2

Cofactor of 1 = + (2) = 2

Cofactor of 1= (2) = 2 I column

Cofactor of 2 = ( 1) = 1
Cofactor of 2 = + (1) = 1 II column

2 1
Adj A
2 1

1 1
1 Adj A 1 2 1 2 4
A
| A| 4 2 1 1 1
2 4

1 1 2 1 2 2 1 1 4 0
A(Adj A)
2 2 2 1 4 4 2 2 0 4

1 0
A (Adj A) 4 4I A I ( A 4)
0 1

Similarly it can be verified that ( Adj A ) A A I.

1
1 1 1 2 1 1 2 2 1 1
Now, AA
2 2 4 2 1 4 4 4 2 2

1 4 0 1 0
I.
4 0 4 0 1

1
AA I.
1
Similarly, it can be verified that A A I.

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Notes
1 1 1
2. Let A 2 1 0
3 2 1

| A| 1(1 0) 1(2 0) 1(4 3) 4 0.

Cofactor of 1 = + (1 0) = 1
Cofactor of 1= (2 0) = 2 I column

Cofactor of 1 = + (4 3) = 1
Cofactor of 2 = ( 1 2) = 3

Cofactor of 1 = + (1 3) = 2 II column
Cofactor of 0 = (2 + 3) = 5

Cofactor of 3 = + (0 1) = 1
Cofactor of 2 = (0 2) = 2 III column

Cofactor of 1 = + (1 + 2) = 3

1 3 1
Adj A 2 2 2
1 5 3

1 1 1 1 3 1
A ( Adj A) 2 1 0 2 2 2
3 2 1 1 5 3

1 2 1 3 2 5 1 2 3
2 2 0 6 2 0 2 2 0
3 4 1 9 4 5 3 4 3

4 0 0
0 4 0
0 0 4

1 0 0
4 0 1 0
0 0 1

4I A I ( A 4)

Similarly, we can verify that ( Adj A ) A A I.

A (Adj A ) (Adj A ) A A I

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Notes
1 Adj A
Now, A
| A|

1 3 1
1
2 2 2
4
1 5 3

1 1 1 1 3 1
1 1
AA 2 1 0 2 2 2
4
3 2 1 1 5 3

4 0 0 1 0 0
1
0 4 0 0 1 0 I
4
0 0 4 0 0 1

1
AA I
1
Similarly it can be verified that A A I.
1 1
AA A A I.

4.9 Examples on Simultaneous Equations (Cramer’s Rule)

Example: Using Cramer’s Rule, solve the following equations:

1. 3x 4 y 7, 4x 3y 5
2. 3x 3 y 12, 2 x 4 y 12
3. 6x 4 y 10, x 7 y 8
4. x 6y 16, 2 x 3y 13
5. 2x y 4, 3x 4 y 11
6. x y z 11, 2 x 6 y z 0, 3x 4 y 2 z 0
7. x 3y z 4, x 2 z 5, 3x y 5
8. z 2 x 1 0, y z 2 0, x 2 y 5
Solution:

1. 3x 4 y 7

4x 3y 5

3 4
9 16 25
4 3

7 4
1 21 20 41
5 3

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Basic Mathematics – I

Notes
3 7
2 15 28 13
4 5

1 41 41
x
25 25

2 13 13
y
25 25

41 13
x , y
25 25

2. 3x 3 y 12

2x 4y 12

3 3
12 6 6
2 4

12 3
1 48 36 12
12 4

3 12
2 36 24 12
2 12

1 12
x 2
6

2 12
y 2
6

x 2, y 2

3. 6x 4 y 10

x 7y 8

6 4
42 4 38
1 7

10 4
1 70 32 38
8 7

6 10
2 48 10 38
1 8

1 38
x 1
38

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 Unit 4: Determinants

38
Notes
2
y 1
38

x 1, y 1

4. x 6y 16

2 x 3y 13

1 6
3 12 15
2 3

16 6
1 48 78 30
13 3

1 16
2 13 32 45
2 13

1 30
x 2
15

2 45
y 3
15

5. 2x y 4

3x 4 y 11

2 1
8 3 5
3 4

4 1
1 16 11 5
11 4

2 4
2 22 12 10
3 11

1 5
x 1
5

2 10
y 2
5

x 1, y 2

6. x y z 11

2x 6y z 0

3x 4 y 2 z 0

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Basic Mathematics – I

Notes
1 1 1
2 6 1
3 4 2

1( 12 4) 1 (4 3) 1(8 18)

8 7 26 11

11 1 1
1 0 6 1
0 4 2

11( 12 4) 0 0

88

1 11 1
2 2 0 1
3 0 2

1(0 0) 11(4 3) 1(0 0)

77

1 1 11
3 2 6 0
3 4 0

1(0 0) 1(0 0) 11(8 18)

286

1 88
x 8
11

2 77
y 7
11

3 286
z 26
11

7. x 3y z 4

x 2z 5

3x y 5

1 3 1
1 0 2
3 1 0

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 Unit 4: Determinants

1(0 2) 3(0 6) 1(1 0) Notes

2 18 1 17

4 3 1
1 5 0 2
5 1 0

4(0 2) 3(0 10) 1( 5 0)

8 30 5 17

1 4 1
2 1 5 2
3 5 0

1(0 10) 4(0 6) 1(5 15)

10 24 20 34

1 3 4
3 1 0 5
3 1 5

1(0 5) 3(5 15) 4(1 0)

5 60 4 51

1 17
x 1
17

2 34
y 2
17

3 51
z 3
17

x 1, y 2, z 3

8. z 2x 1 0 2x 0y z 1

y z 2 0 0x y z 2

x 2y 5 x 2 y 0z 5

2 0 1
0 1 1
1 2 0

2(0 2) 0(0 1) 1(0 1)

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Basic Mathematics – I

Notes 4 1 3

1 0 1
1 2 1 1
5 2 0

( 1)(0 2) 0(0 5) 1( 4 5)

2 0 1 3

2 1 1
2 0 2 1
1 5 0

2(0 5) 1(0 1) 1(0 2)

10 1 2 9

2 0 1
3 0 1 2
1 2 5

2( 5 4) 0(0 2) 1(0 1)

2 1 3

3
x 1
3

2 9
y 3
3

3 3
z 1
3

Example

2
a1 b1 a12 a22 a1b1 a2 b2
Show that =
a2 b2 a1b1 a2 b2 a12 b22

Solution:

a1 b1 a1 a2
Let D= a2 b2 b1 b2

a1 a2 a1 a2 a12 a22 a1b1 a2 b2

2
D = b .
1 b2 b1 b2 a1b1 a2 b2 b12 b22

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Notes
Example

2
a2 bc b 2 ca c 2 ab a b c
2
Prove that c ab a2 bc b 2 ca c a b
b2 ca c 2 ab a2 bc b c a

Solution:

a b c
Let A, B and C be the cofactors of a, b and c respectively in c a b . We note that the
b c a
determinant on the L.H.S. of the given equation is a determinant of cofactors.

a2 bc b 2 ca c 2 ab A B C
2
Let 1
= c ab a2 bc b 2 ca C A B
b2 ca c 2 ab a2 bc B C A

A B C a b c
Then 1
= C A B c a b
B C A b c a

aA bB cC cA aB bC bA cB aC 0 0
= aC bA cB cC aA bB bC cA aB 0 0
aB bC cA cB aC bA bB cC aA 0 0
3 2
Thus, 1
= or 1
= . Hence the result.
Note: The solution of the above example is based on property (7) of determinants.

Example
2
2bc a 2 c2 b2 a b c
Prove that c2 2 ac b 2 a2 b c a .
b2 a2 2 ab c 2 c a b
Solution:

2
a b c a b c a b c
We can write b c a = b c a b c a
c a b c a b c a b

a b c a c b 2bc a 2 c2 b2
= b c a b a c = c2 2 ac b 2 a2
c a b c b a b2 a2 2 ab c 2

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Basic Mathematics – I

Notes
a b c
c a b a b c
b c a
Further, = a b c
a b c b c a
c a b

= abc – a3 – b3 + abc + abc – c3 = –(a3 + b3 + c2 – 3abc)

2
a b c
b c a = (a3 + b3 + c3 – 3abc)2.
c a b

Example

A transport company uses 3 types of trucks T1, T2 and T3 to transport 3 types of vehicles V1, V2 and
V3. The capacity of each truck in terms of 3 types of vehicles is given below:
V1 V2 V3
T1 1 3 2
T2 2 2 3
T3 3 2 2
Using matrix method, find:
(i) The number of trucks of each type required to transport 85, 105 and 110 vehicles of V1, V2
and V3 types respectively.
(ii) Find the number of vehicles of each type which can be transported, if the company has 10,
20 and 30 trucks of each type respectively.
Solution:

(i) Let x1, x2 and x3 be the number of trucks of type T1, T2 and T3, respectively. Then we can
write
x1 + 2x2 + 3x3 = 85

3x1 + 2x2 + 2x3 = 105

2x1 + 3x2 + 2x3 = 110

1 2 3
Denoting the coefficient matrix by A, we have A 3 2 2
2 3 2

Further, |A| = 4 + 8 + 27 – 12 – 6 – 12 = 9

The cofactors of the elements of A are:

C11 = –2, C12 = –2, C13 = 5, C21 = 5, C22 = –4, C23 = 1 C31 = –2, C32 = 7, C33 = –4

1 2 5 2
Thus, A–1 = 2 4 7
9 5 1 4

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Notes
x1 2 5 2 85 135 15
1 1
and x2 = 2 4 7 105 180 20
9 5 1 4 110 9 90 10
x3
Hence x1 = 15, x2 = and x3 = 10.
(ii) The number of vehicles of each type, that can be transported, are given by

1 2 3 10 140 V1
3 2 2 20 = 130 V2
2 3 2 30 140 V3

4.10 Economic Applications

Two-Commodity Market Equilibrium

Let the demand and supply equations of the two commodities, 1 and 2, be as given below:

Q1d = a1 + b1P1 + c1P2

Q1s = e1 + f1P1 + g1P2
Q2d = a2 + b2P1 + c2P2
Q2s = e2 + f2P1 + g2P2
The two-commodity market will be in equilibrium if Q1d Q1s and Q2d Q2s .
The first condition implies that

a1 + b1P1 + c1P2 = e1 + f1P1 + g1P2

or (b1 – f1)P1 +(c1 – g1)P2 = –(a1 – e1) ...(1)
Similarly, the second equilibrium condition implies that
a2 + b2P1 + c2P2 = e2 + f2P1 + g2P2

or (b2 – f2)P1 + (c2 – g2)P2 = –(a2 – e2) ... (2)

Let us assume, for convenience, that
ai = bi – fi, bi = ci – gi, and g = –(ai – ei)(i = 1, 2)

Thus, equations (1) and (2) can be written as

P
1 1 P
1 2 1 1 1 P1 1
or
2 P1 2 P2 2 2 2 P2 2

This is a system of two equations in two unknowns P1 and P2, which can be solved either by
matrix inversion method or by Cramer’s Rule. We shall, however, solve this by matrix inversion
method.

1 1
Let A= , |A| = a1b2 – a2b1
2 2

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Notes
2 2 1 2 1
Also C= A–1 =
1 1 2 1
1 2 2 1

P1 1 2 1 1
Further, =
P2 1 2 2 1 2 1 2

1 2 2 1 2 1 1 2
Thus equilibrium prices are P1 and P2 .
1 2 2 1 1 2 2 1

On substituting these prices either in demand or in supply equation, we can obtain the equilibrium
quantities of the two commodities.
The two-commodity model can be easily generalised to the case of n-commodities. It will
consist of n equations in n prices as shown below:
a11P1 + a12P2 + ..... + a1nPn = g1
a21P1 + a22P2 + ..... + a2nPn = g2
......................................................
an1P1 + an2P2 + ..... + annPn = gn

National Income Model

The simplest form of the Keynesian model of national-income determination is given by the
following system of equations:
Y = C + I0
C = a + bY (a > 0, 0 < b < 1)
We note here that Y (the level of national income) and C (the level of national consumption) are
endogenous variables. The above equations must be rearranged so that all the endogenous
variables appear only on the L.H.S of the equations.
Thus, we have
Y – C = I0

–bY + C = a

Using matrix notation, the above equations can be written as

1 1 Y I0
=
b 1 C a

Applying Cramer’s rule, we get

I0 1 1 I0
a 1 I0 a b a a bI 0
Y= and C .
1 1 I b 1 b 1 b
b 1

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Notes
Example
For the following market conditions, find the equilibrium quantities and prices by using matrix
inverse method.

Q1D = 45 – 2P1 + 3P2 – 7P3, Q1S = –5 + 4P1

Q2D = 16 + 2P1 – P2 + 3P3, Q2S = –19 + 5P2
Q3D = 30 – P1 + 2P2 – 8P3, Q3S = –6 + 2P3
Solution:

Using the equilibrium condition Q1D Q1S , we can write

45 – 2P1 + 3P2 – 7P3 = –5 + 4P1

or –6P1 + 3P2 – 7P3 = –50

or 6P1 – 3P2 + 7P3 = 50 ...(1)

D S
Similarly Q = Q
2 2

16 + 2P1 – P2 + 3P3 = –19 + 5P2

or 2P1 – 6P2 + 3P3 = –35 ...(2)
D S
and Q = Q
3 3

30 – P1 + 2P2 – 8P3 = –6 + 2P3

or –P1 + 2P2 – 10P3 = –36
or P1 – 2P2 + 10P3 = 36 ...(3)
The system of equations given by (1), (2) and (3) can be written as the matrix equation

6 3 7 P1 50 6 3 7
2 6 3 P2 = 35 . Let A 2 6 3
1 2 10 P3 36 1 2 10
|A| = –360 – 9 – 28 + 42 + 36 + 60 = –259.
Since |A| ¹ 0, the solution is unique. Writing the matrix of cofactors as

54 17 2 54 16 33
16 53 9 1
C= A–1 = 17 53 4
33 4 30 259 2 9 30

P1 54 16 33 50
1
Thus, P2 = 17 53 4 35
P3 259 2 9 30 36

50 54 35 16 36 33
Hence P1 = 8
259

50 17 35 53 36 4
P2 = 11
259

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Basic Mathematics – I

Notes 50 2 35 9 36 30
P3 = 5
259
Further, Q1 = –5 + 4 × 8 = 27 (using supply equation)
Q2 = –19 + 5 × 11 = 36

Q3 = –6 + 2 × 5 = 4.

Example
A manufacturer produces two types of products X and Y. Each product is first processed in
machine M1 and then sent to another machine M2 for finishing. Each unit of X requires 20
minutes time on machine M1 and 10 minutes time on M2, whereas each unit of Y requires 10
minutes time on machine M1 and 20 minutes time on M2. The total time available on each
machine is 600 minutes and is fully utilized in the production of X and Y. Calculate the number
of units of two types of products produced by constructing a matrix equation of the form AX =
B and then solve it by matrix inversion method.
Solution:
Let x and y denote the number of units produced of X and Y respectively. Time taken on M1 by
the production of x units of X and y units of Y is 20x + 10y and this should be equal to 600 minutes.
Thus we have 20x + 10y = 600 ...(1)
Similarly, we can write an equation representing the time taken on machine M2. This equation
is given by
10x + 20y = 600 ...(2)

20 10 x 600
Writing equation (1) and (2) in matrix form
10 20 y 600

20 10 x 600
or AX = B, where A ,X and B
10 20 y 600

Now |A| = 400 – 100 = 300 ¹ 0. Thus, the system has a unique solution.

20 10 1 20 10
We write C= A–1 = 10 20
10 20 300

Thus the solution is given by

x 1 20 10 600 1 12, 000 6, 000 20

y = =
300 10 20 600 300 6, 000 12, 000 20
From the above, we can write x = 20 and y = 20.

Example

The prices, in rupees per unit, of the three commodities X, Y and Z are x, y and z respectively. A
purchases 4 units of Z and sells 3 units of X and 5 units of Y. B purchases 3 units of Y and sells 2

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 Unit 4: Determinants

units of X and 1 unit of Z. C purchases 1 unit of X and sells 4 units of Y and 6 units of Z. In the Notes
process A, B and C earn 6000, 5,000 and 13,000 respectively. Using matrices, find the prices of
the three commodities (note that selling the unit is positive earning and buying the units is
negative earning.)

Solutionl
The given information can be written as the following set of equations:

3 x 5 y – 4 z 6, 000 3 5 4 x 6, 000
2 x – 3 y z 5, 000 or 2 3 1 y 5, 000
– x 4 y 6 z 13, 000 1 4 6 z 13, 000

Let A be the matrix of the coefficients

|A| = –54 – 5 – 32 + 12 – 12 – 60 = –151 0.

Writing the matrix of cofactors, we get

22 13 5 22 46 7
1 1
C= 46 14 17 A 13 14 11
7 11 19 151 5 17 19

x 22 46 7 6, 000
1
Thus, y = 13 14 11 5, 000
z 151 5 17 19 13, 000

22 6, 000 46 5, 000 7 13, 000

x= 3, 000
151

13 6, 000 14 5, 000 11 13, 000

y= 1, 000
151
5 6, 000 17 5, 000 19 13, 000
z= 2, 000 .
151

Example

A company has two productions departments, P1 and P2, and three service departments, S1, S2
and S3. The direct cost allocated to each of the departments and the percentage of total cost of
each service department apportioned to various departments are given below:

Deptt. Direct Cost (Rs.) Percentage Allocation of Total Cost

S1 S2 S3
P1 60,000 40 35 25
P2 74,000 20 40 20
S1 6,000 0 20 35
S2 8,000 15 0 20
S3 68,500 25 5 0

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Notes Determine the total cost (allocated and apportioned) for each production department by using
matrix algebra.

Solution:
First of all, we find the total cost of each service department S1, S2 and S3. Let C1, C2 and C3 denote
the total cost of the service departments S1, S2 and S3 respectively. Therefore, we can write

C1 = 6,000 + 0 × C1 + 0.20C2 + 0.35C3

or C1 – 0.20C2 – 0.35C3 = 6,000 ...(1)

Similarly, C2 = 8,000 + 0.15C1 + 0 × C2 + 0.20C3

or –0.15C1 + C2 – 0.20C3 = 8,000 ...(2)

and C3 = 68,500 + 0.25C1 + 0.05C2 + 0 × C3

or –0.25C1 – 0.05C2 + C3 = 68,500 ...(3)

1 0.20 0.35 C1 6, 000

From (1), (2) and (3), we get 0.15 1 0.20 C2 8, 000
0.25 0.05 1 C3 68, 500

1 0.20 0.35
Let A= 0.15 1 0.20
0.25 0.05 1

|A| = 1 – 0.01 – 0.002625 – 0.0875 – 0.01 – 0.03 = 0.86 (approx.)

6000 0.20 0.35

Also |A1| = 8000 1 0.20 = 34395
68500 0.50 1

1 6000 0.35
|A2| = 0.15 8000 0.20 = 25796.25
0.25 68500 1

1 0.20 6000
|A3| = 0.15 1 8000 = 68790
0.25 0.05 68500

Thus, using Cramer’s rule, we have

34395 26796.25 68790

C1 39994.19, C2 29995.64, C3 79988.37
0.86 0.86 0.86

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The total cost of the two Production Departments, denoted by P1 and P2, is given by Notes

39994.19
P1 60000 0.40 0.35 0.25 106493.24
= 29995.64
P2 74000 0.20 0.40 0.20 109994.77
79988.37

Thus, P1 = 1,06,493.24 and P2 = 1,09,994.77.

Example

An amount of 4,000 is distributed into three investments at the rate of 7%, 8% and 9% per
annum respectively. The total annual income is 317.50 and the annual income from the first
investment is 5 more than the income from the second. Find the amount of each investment.
Solution:

Let x1, x2 and x3 denote the amount of first, second and third investments respectively. We can
write
x1 + x2 + x3 = 4,000 .... (1)
Also 0.07x1 + 0.08x2 + 0.09x3 = 317.50
or 7x1 + 8x2 + 9x3 = 31,750 .... (2)
Further, 0.07x1 – 0.08x2 = 5
or 7x1 – 8x2 = 500 .... (3)
Writing the above equations in matrix form

1 1 1 x1 4000
7 8 9 x2 = 31750 or AX = D
7 8 0 x3 500
Here |A| = 23

4000 1 1
Also |A1| = 31750 8 9 = 34500,
500 8 0

1 4000 1
|A2| = 7 31750 9 = 28750
7 500 0

1 1 4000
and |A3| = 7 8 31750 = 28750
7 8 500

34500
x1 = = 1,500
23

28750
and x 2 = x3 = 1,250.
23

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Notes
Example

To control a crop disease, it is necessary to use 8 units of chemical A, 14 units of chemical B and
13 units of chemical C. One barrel of spray P contains 1 unit of A, 2 units of B and 3 units of C. One
Barrel of spray Q contains 2 units of A, 3 units of B and 2 units of C. One barrel of spray R contains
1 unit of A, 2 units of B and 2 units of C. Find how many barrels of each spray be used to just meet
the requirement?
Solution:

Let x barrels of spray P, y barrels of spray Q and z barrels of Spray R be used to just meet the
requirement.
The above information can be written as the following matrix equation.
x + 2y + z = 8
2x + 3y + 2z = 14
3x + 2y + 2z = 13

1 2 1 8
Let A= 2 3 2 and B 14
3 2 2 13

|A| = 6 + 12 + 4 – 9 – 4 – 8 = 1

2 2 1
A–1 = Adj A 2 1 0
5 4 1

x 2 2 1 8 1
y = 2 1 0 14 2
z 5 4 1 13 3

i.e. x = 1, y = 2, z = 3 barrels of spray P, Q and R respectively.

Example
An amount of 65,000 is invested in three investments at the rate of 6%, 8% and 9% per annum,
respectively. The total annual income is 4,800. The income from the third investment is 600
more than the income from second investment. Using matrix algebra, determine the amount of
each investment.

Solution:
Let x, y and z be the amount invested in the three investments. Thus, we can write
x + y + z = 65000

0.06x + 0.08y + 0.09z = 4800 or 6x + 8y + 9z = 4,80,000

–0.08y + 0.09z = 600 or 8y – 9z = –60,000

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Notes
1 1 1 65, 000
We can write A= 6 8 9 and B 4, 80, 000
0 8 9 60, 000

|A| = –72 + 48 – 72 + 54 = – 42 ¹ 0.

144 17 1
1
Also –1
A = 54 9 3
42 48 8 2

x 144 17 1 65, 000 30, 000

1
y = 54 9 3 4, 80, 000 15, 000
z 42 48 8 2 60, 000 20, 000

Hence x = 30,000, y = 15,000 and z = 20,000.

Example
A mixture is to be made containing x kg of Food A, y kg of Food B and z kg of Food C. Total
weight of the mixture to be made is 5 kg. Food A contains 500 units of vitamin per kg and B and
C contain 200 and 100 units respectively. The 5 kg mixture is to contain total of 1500 units of
vitamin. Food A, B and C contain respectively 300, 600 and 700 calories per kg and 5 kg mixture
is to contain a total of 2,500 calories. Derive a general solution for x and y in terms of z so that the
5 kg mixture contains the required 2,500 calories. If the variables x, y and z are not permitted to
be negative, find the range of values that z is restricted to.
Solution:
The given information can be written as a system of following equations.
x+y+z= 5 (Weight constraint)
500x + 200y + 100z = 1500 or 5x + 2y + z = 15 (Vitamin constraint)
300x + 600y + 700z = 2500 or 3x + 6y + 7z = 25 (Calorie constraint)

1 1 1
The coefficient Matrix A= 5 2 1
3 6 7

|A| = 14 + 3 + 30 – 6 – 35 – 6 = 0
Thus all the equations are not independent. Dropping (say) third equation, we get a system of
two equations in three variables. Let us write them as follows:
x+y= 5–z
5x + 2y = 15 – z
Applying cramer’s rule, we can write

5 z 1
15 z 2 10 2 z 15 z ( z 5) z 5
x=
1 1 2 5 3 3
5 2

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Notes
1 5 z
5 15 z 15 z 25 5 z 4 z 10 10 4 z
y=
3 3 3 3
Since we can assign infinite number of values to z, there are infinite number of solutions.
Since the variables are not permitted to be negative, we can write.

z 5
x= 0 or z ³ –5
3

10 4 z 5
and y= 0 or 10 – 4z ³ 0 or z
3 2

5
Since z cannot be negative, therefore the range of values of z is restricted to 0 z .
2

Example
Two companies A and B are holding shares in each other, A is holding 20% shares of B and B is
holding 10% shares of A. If the separately earned profits of the two companies are 98,000 and
49,000 respectively, find total profit of each company using matrix algebra. Also show that the
total profits allocated to the outside shareholders is equal to the total of separately earned
profits.
Solution:
Let x and y denote the total profit of the two companies A and B respectively.
Then we can write
x = 98000 + 0.2y or x – 0.2y = 98000
y = 49000 + 0.1x or –0.1x + y = 49000

Writing the above equations as the matrix equation

1 0.2 x 98000
=
0.1 1 y 49000

This can be solved either by matrix inversion method or Cramer’s rule.

Using Cramer’s Rule, we get

98000 0.2
49000 1 107800.00
x= 1,10, 000
1 0.2 0.98
0.1 1

1 98000
0.1 49000 58800.00
y= 60, 000
0.98 0.98

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Thus x = 1,10,000 and y = 60,000. Notes

Since 90% shares of A and 80% shares of B are allocated to outside shareholders, we can write the
vector S = [0.9 0.8].
Let P = [x y] = [1,10,000 60,000] be vector of profits of the two companies A and B. Thus, the total
profits allocated to the outside shareholders is the scalar product of S and P.

S.P = 0.9 × 1,10,000 + 0.8 × 60,000 = 1,47,000.

Note that this is equal to 98,000 + 49,000 which is the total of separately earned profits.

Markov Brand-Switching Model

Let there be only two brands, A and B, of a toilet soap available in the market. Let the current
market share of brand A be 60% and that of B be 40%. We assume that brand-switching takes
place every month such that 70% of the consumers of brand A continue to use it while remaining
30% switch to brand B. Similarly, 80% of the consumers of brand B continue to use it while
remaining 20% switch to brand A.

The market shares of the two brands can be written as a row vector, S = [0.6 0.4] and the given
brand switching information can be written as a matrix P of transition probabilities,

A B
A 0.7 0.3
0.2 0.8 .
P=
B
Given the current information, we can calculate the shares of the two brands after, say, one
month or two months or ...... n months. For example, the shares of the two brands after one
month is

0.7 0.3
S(1) = 0.6 0.4 0.5 0.5
0.2 0.8
Similarly, the shares after the expiry of two months are given by

S(2) = S(1)×P
Proceeding in a similar manner, we can write the shares of the two brands after the expiry of
n months as
S(n) = S(n – 1)×P
= S(n – 2)×P×P = S(n – 2)×P2
....................................
= S(1)×Pn–1 = S(0)×Pn
where S(0) = [0.6 0.4] denotes the current market share vector of the two brands.

We note that as n ® ¥, the market shares of the two brands will tend to stabilize to an equilibrium
position. Once this state is reached, the shares of the two brands become constant. Eventually,
we have S(n) = S(n – 1). Thus, we can write S = S.P, where S = [sA sB] is the vector giving the
equilibrium shares of the two brands.

The above equation can also be written as

S[I – P] = 0

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Notes
1 0.7 0.3 0
or [sA sB] = 0
0.2 1 0.8

0.3 0.3 0
or [sA sB]
0.2 0.2 = 0

Note that I – P is a singular matrix and hence, effectively, there is only one equation, given by
0.3sA – 0.2sB = 0.
In order to find sA and sB, we need another equation. This equation is provided by the fact that the
sum of market shares is unity i.e. sA + sB = 1. Thus, solving 0.3sA – 0.2sB = 0 and sA + sB = 1,
simultaneously, we get the equilibrium values of the market shares sA and sB. In the above
example, these values are sA = 0.4 i.e. 40% and sB = 0.6, i.e. 60%.

Example

The price of an equity share of a company may increase, decrease or remain constant on any
given day. It is assumed that the change in price on any day affects the change on the following
day as described by the following transition matrix:
Change Tomorrow
Increase Decrease Unchange
Increase 0.5 0.2 0.3
Change Today Decrease 0.7 0.1 0.2

Unchange 0.4 0.5 0.1

(i) If the price of the share increased today, what are the chances that it will increase, decrease
or remain unchanged tomorrow?
(ii) If the price of share decreased today, what are the chances that it will increase tomorrow?
(iii) If the price of the share remained unchanged today, what are the chances that it will
increase, decrease or remain unchanged day after tomorrow?
Solution:

(i) Given that the price of the share has increased today, the probability of its going up
(today) is 1 and probability of each of events, decreasing or remaining unchanged is equal
to zero.
Thus, the initial state vector is R0 = [1 0 0]. Now the tomorrow’s state vector

0.5 0.2 0.3

R1 = 1 0 0 0.7 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.2 0.3
0.4 0.5 0.1

Hence, the chances that the price will rise, fall or remain unchanged tomorrow are 50%,
20%, 30% respectively (given that it has increased today).

(ii) The initial state vector is R0 = [0 1 0] and the chances of price increase tomorrow are 70%.
(iii) Here R0 = [0 0 1]

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Notes
0.5 0.2 0.3
R1 = 0 0 1 0.7 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.5 0.1
0.4 0.5 0.1

0.5 0.2 0.3

and R2 = 0.4 0.5 0.1 0.7 0.1 0.2 0.59 0.18 0.23
0.4 0.5 0.1
Thus, the chances that the price will increase, decrease or remain unchanged, day-after-tomorrow,
are 59%, 18% and 23% respectively.

Example: Two businessmen are trading in shares have three banking company shares as
shown in the following table
Merchant Vijaya Bank Canara Bank Corporation Bank

Mr. Jain 200 100 300

Mr. Gupta 250 150 100
The approximate prices of (in ) three banking company shares in three stock exchange market
are given below.
Vijaya Bank Canara Bank Corporation Bank
Bangalore 39 40 38
Bombay 40 50 35
New Delhi 35 45 42
In which market each of the above businessmen has to sell their shares to get maximum receipt.
Solve by matrix multiplication method.
Solution:

VB CB Cor.B
Let A 200 100 300 Jain
250 150 100 2 3
Gupta

Bang. Bomb N.Delhi

39 40 35 VB
B
40 50 45 CB
38 35 42 3 3
Cor.B

39 40 35
200 100 300
AB 40 50 45
250 150 100
38 35 42

200 39 100 40 300 38 200 40 100 50 300 35 200 35 100 45 300 42

250 39 150 40 100 38 250 40 150 50 100 35 250 35 150 45 100 42

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Notes
7800 4000 11400 8000 5000 10500 7000 4500 12600
9750 6000 3800 10000 7500 3500 8950 6750 4200

Bang. Bomb. ND
23200 23500 24100 Jain
19550 21000 19900 2 3
Gupta

Jain has to sell his shares in New Delhi and Gupta has to sell his shares in Bombay to get
maximum receipt.

Example: Keerthi buys 8 dozen of pens, 10 dozens of pencils and 4 dozen of rubber. Pens
cost 18 per dozen, pencils 9 per dozen and rubber 6 per dozen. Represent the quantities
bought by a row matrix and prices by a column matrix and hence obtain the total cost.
Solution:

Let A be the row matrix of quantities and B be the column matrix of prices.

A 8 10 4

18
B 9
6

18
AB 8 10 4 9 [144 90 24] [258]
6

Total cost is 258.

Example: Two oil merchants have the following stock of oil (in kg):
Merchant Groundnut Sunflower Coconut
A 250 300 150
B 400 350 100

The approximate prices (in per kg) of three types of oil in 3 markets are:
Market Groundnut Sunflower Coconut

X 70 50 150
Y 60 55 140

Z 55 60 132

In which market each of the above businessmen has to sell his stocks to get maximum receipt?
Solve by matrix multiplication method.

Solution:

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Notes
G.N. S.F. C.N
Let P 250 300 150 A
400 350 100 B

X Y Z
70 60 55 GN
Q
50 55 60 SF
150 140 132 CN

70 60 55
250 300 150
PQ 50 55 60
400 350 100
150 140 132

250 70 300 50 150 150 250 60 300 55 150 140 250 55 30 60 150 132
400 70 350 50 100 150 400 60 350 55 100 140 400 55 350 60 100 132

17500 15000 22500 15000 16500 21000 13750 18000 19800

28000 17500 15000 24000 19250 14000 22000 21000 13200

X Y Z
55000 52500 51550 A
60500 57250 56200 B

A has to sell his oil stock in market X and B also has to sell his oil stock in market X to get
maximum receipt.

Example: At Bangalore merchant A has 300 bags of Rice, 600 bags of Wheat and 800 bags
of Ragi and another merchant B has 250 bags, 700 bags and 1000 bags of same foodgrains. The
prices (in ) at three cities are:
Place Rice Wheat Ragi
Mysore 100 90 80

Mangalore 110 80 70

Kolar 120 70 80
To which city, each merchant will send his supply in order to get maximum gross receipts? Solve
by matrix multiplication method.
Solution:

300 600 800 A

Let P
250 700 1000 B

100 110 120

Q 90 80 70
80 70 80

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Notes
100 110 120
300 600 800
PQ 90 80 70
250 700 1000
80 70 80

30000 54000 64000 33000 48000 56000 36000 42000 64000

25000 63000 80000 27500 56000 70000 30000 49000 80000

Mysore Mangalore Kolar

148000 137000 142000 A
168000 153500 179000 B

A has to send his supply in order to Mysore and B has to send his supply in order to Kolar to get
maximum gross receipts.

Example: If 15 kgs of commodity A and 17 kgs of commodity B together costs 241 and
25 kgs of A and 13 kgs of B together costs 279; find the prices of each per kg by using Cramer’s
Rule method.
Solution:
Let prices of commodities A and B be x and y per kg respectively.

15x 17 y 241 and 25x 13y 279

15 17
195 425 230 0
25 13

241 17
1 3133 4743 1610
279 13

15 241
2 4185 6025 1840
25 279

1 1610
x 7
230

2 1840
y 8
230

the price of commodity A is 7 per kg. and the price of commodity B is 8 per kg.

Example: The price of 2 kgs of Rice and 5 kgs of Wheat is 85 and price of 3 kgs of Rice
and 8 kgs of Wheat is 132. Find the prices of Rice and Wheat using Cramer’s Rule.
Solution:

Let the price of Rice be x per kg and the price of Wheat be y per kg.
it is given that

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2 x 5y 85 and 3x 8y 132 Notes

2 5
16 15 1
3 8

85 5
1 680 660 20
132 7

2 85
2 264 255 9
3 132

1 20
x 20
1

2 9
y 9
1

The price of Rice is 20 per kg and the price of Wheat is 9 per kg.

4.11 Summary

To every square matrix A, a real number is associated. This real number is called its
determinant.
It is denoted by ( A).

The minor of an element of a square matrix A is defined to be the determinant obtained by

deleting the row and column in which the element is present.
i j
The cofactor of an element of a square matrix is defined to be ( 1) (minor of the
element) where i and j are the number of row and column in which the element is present.
The adjoint of a square matrix A is the transpose of the matrix of the cofactors of the
elements of A and is denoted by Adj. A.

A square matrix A is said to be singular if | A| 0 and is said to be non-singular if | A| 0.

Inverse of a square matrix is defined if and only if it is non-singular. The inverse of a non-
1
singular square matrix A is denoted by A .

In this unit we have studied the concepts of determinants and their importance in solving
real world problems of business.
A determinant is a scalar associated with a square matrix.

4.12 Keywords

Cofactor: A cofactor of an element aij, denoted by Cij, is its minor with appropriate sign.
Determinant: A numeric value that indicate singularity or non-singularity of a square matrix.

Minor: A minor of an element a ij denoted by Mij, is a sub-determinant of A obtained by

deleting its ith row and j th column.

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Notes 4.13 Self Assessment

1 4
1. Find the value of
7 8

(a) 18

(b) 20

(c) 28
(d) 24

a h g
2. Find the value of h b f
g f c

(a) abc 2 fgh af 2 bg 2 ch 2

(b) abc 2 fgc af 2 bg 2 ch 2

(c) abc 2 fgh af 2 bg 2 ch 2

(d) abc 2 fgh af 2 bg 2 ch 2

2 1 3
3. Find the value of x if 8 4 x 0
7 5 1

(a) 18
(b) 20
(c) 12
(d) 28

x 3 3
4. Find the value of x if 3 0 3 0
3 3 x

(a) 3

(b) 3
(c) 4

(d) 5

2 3 5
5. Find the adjoint of inverse of 5 2 7
4 3 1

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Notes
23 18 11
1
(a) 23 22 39
92
23 6 19

92 6 11
1
(b) 23 22 39
23
23 18 19

18 23 23
1
(c) 22 11 39
92
6 6 19

21 18 11
1
(d) 23 22 39
46
23 6 19

Fill in the blanks:

6. …………… is a numeric value that indicate singularity or non-singularity of a square
matrix.
7. A …………… of an element aij denoted by mij is a subdeterminant of |A| obtained by
deleting its ith row and j th column.
8. A …………… of an element aij denoted by cij is its minor with appropriate sign.
9. …………… of a square matrix A is the transpose of the matrix of the cofactors of the
element of A and is denoted by AdjA.
10. Minor of an element of a determinant of order n(n 2) is a determinant of order ……………

4.14 Review Questions

1. Find the adjoint and inverse of the following matrices and verify that
A (Adj A ) (Adj A ) A A I.

2 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 2
(a) 0 1 2 (b) 2 1 4 (c) 2 1 1
2 3 1 0 1 3 3 1 2

2. Using Cramer’s rule, solve the following equations:

(a) 3x y 2 z 13 (b) x 2y z 1
2x y z 3 x y 2z 3
x 3y 5z 8 3x 2 y 3 z 5

(c) x 3y 2 z 5 (d) x y 2z 9
2x y z 3 3x 2 y z 10
5x 2 y 3 z 6 x 2 y 3 z 14

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Notes
(e) 2x y z 2
x 2y z 5
x y 2z 3

3. The following table gives the price per share of two companies A and B during the months
of March and April and it also gives the amount in rupees invested by Rakesh during these
two months for the purchase of shares of the two companies.

Months Company and value Total amount

per share invested
A B
March 12 5 116
April 10 9 116
Find the shares of A and B.

4. The cost of 5 kg of Rice, 2 kg of Sugar and 5 kg of Wheat is 23. The cost of 4 kg of Rice,
4 kg of Sugar and 2 kg of Wheat is 19. The cost of 3 kg of Rice, 2 kg of Sugar and 4 kg of
Wheat is 18. Find the rate per kg of each of these commodities.
5. There are two families A and B. There are 2 men, 3 women and 1 child in family A and
1 man, 1 woman and 2 children in family B. The recommended daily allowance for calories
is:
Calories Proteins
Men 2400 55 gms
Women 1900 45 gms
Children 1800 33 gms
Represent the above information in the matrix form and calculate the total requirement of
calories and proteins for each of the two families.
6. The cost of 2 kg of Wheat and 1 kg of Sugar is 7. The cost of 1 kg of Wheat and 1 kg of Rice
is 7. The cost of 3 kg of Wheat, 2 kg of Sugar and 1 kg of Rice is 17. Find the cost of each
per kg.
7. Find the value of the following determinants:

1 3 2
3 9 5
(a)
1 3 2

1 0 0
4 5 -1
(b)
5 6 3

Answers: Self Assessment

1. (b) 2. (a)

3. (c) 4. (b)
5. (a) 6. Determinant

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7. Minor 8. Cofactor Notes

9. Adjoint 10. n 1

4.15 Further Readings

Books D.C. Sanchethi and V.K. Kapoor, Business Mathematics.

R.S. Bhardwaj, Mathematics for Economics and Business, Excel Books, New Delhi,
2005.

Sivayya and Sathya Rao, An Introduction to Business Mathematics.

Online links http://www.suitcaseofdreams.net/Trigonometric_Functions.htm

http://library.thinkquest.org/20991/alg2/trigi.html
http://www.intmath.com/trigonometric functions/5 signs of trigonometric
functions.php

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Notes Unit 5: Equations of Straight Lines

CONTENTS

Objectives

Introduction

5.1 Distance between Two Points

5.2 Slope of a Line

5.2.1 Slope of a Line when Coordinates of any Two Points on the Line are given

5.2.2 Conditions for Parallelism and Perpendicularity of lines in terms of their

Slopes

5.2.3 Angle between Two Lines

5.2.4 Collinearity of Three Points

5.3 Various Forms of the Equation of a Line

5.3.1 Horizontal and Vertical Lines

5.3.2 Point-slope Form

5.3.3 Two-point Form

5.3.4 Slope-intercept Form

5.3.5 Intercept Form

5.3.6 Normal Form

5.4 General Equation of a Line

5.5 Distance of a Point From a Line

5.5.1 Distance between Two Parallel Lines

5.6 Summary

5.7 Keywords

5.8 Self Assessment

5.9 Review Qustions

5.10 Further Readings

Objectives

After studying this unit, you will be able to:

Explain the distance between two points

Discuss the slope of a line

Understand the various forms of equation of line

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Introduction Notes

In this unit we find the equation of a straight line, when we are given some information about
the line. Straight-line equations, or "linear" equations, graph as straight lines, and have simple
variable expressions with no exponents on them.. The information could be the value of its
gradient, together with the co-ordinates of a point on the line. Alternatively, the information
might be the co-ordinates of two different points on the line. There are several different ways of
expressing the final equation, and some are more general than others. In order to master the
techniques explained here it is vital that you undertake plenty of practice exercises so that they
become second nature. If you see an equation with only x and y as opposed to, say x2 or sqrt(y)
- then you're dealing with a straight-line equation.

5.1 Distance between Two Points

As we know that coordinates are the pairs of numbers that defining the position of a point on a
two-dimensional plane. Given the coordinates of two points, the distance D between the points
is given by:
D = dx 2 dy 2

where dx is the difference between the x-coordinates of the points and dy is the difference
between the y-coordinates of the points. To review, the location of the points (6, - 4) and (3, 0) in
the XY-plane is shown in Figure 5.1. We may note that the point (6, - 4) is at 6 units distance from
the y-axis measured along the positive x-axis and at 4 units distance from the x-axis measured
along the negative y-axis. Similarly, the point (3, 0) is at 3 units distance from the y-axis measured
along the positive x-axis and has zero distance from the x-axis. We also studied there following
important formulae.
Figure 5.1

1. Distance between the points P (x1, y1) and Q (x2, y2) is

D = dx 2 dy 2

For example, distance between the points (6, – 4) and (3, 0) is

(3 6)2 (0 4)2 9 16 5 units.

2. The coordinates of a point dividing the line segment joining the points (x1, y1) and (x2, y)
mx2 nx1 my 2 ny 1
internally, in the ratio m: n are , .
m n m n

For example, the coordinates of the point which divides the line segment joining A
1.( 3) 3.1
(1, –3) and B (–3, 9) internally, in the ratio 1: 3 are given by x 0 and
1 3
1.9 3.( 3)
y 0.
1 3

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Notes 3. In particular, if m = n, the coordinates of the mid-point of the line segment joining the
x1 x2 y1 y 2
points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) are , .
2 2
4. Area of the triangle whose vertices are (x1, y1), (x2, y2) and (x3, y3) is
1
x1 y 2 y 3 x 2 y 3 y 1 x 3 y 1 y 2 .
2
For example, the area of the triangle, whose vertices are (4, 4), (3, – 2) and (– 3, 16) is
1 54
4( 2 16) 3(16 4) ( 3)(4 2) 27.
2 2

Notes If the area of the triangle ABC is zero, then three points A, B and C lie on a line, i.e.,
they are collinear.
In the this unit, we shall continue the study of coordinate geometry to study properties of
the simplest geometric figure – straight line. Despite its simplicity, the line is a vital concept
of geometry and enters into our daily experiences in numerous interesting and useful
ways. Main focus is on representing the line algebraically, for which slope is most essential.

5.2 Slope of a Line

As you are already familiar with coordinate geometry. A line in a coordinate plane forms two
angles with the x-axis, which are supplementary. The slope of a line is a number that measures
its “steepness”, usually denoted by the letter m. It is the change in y for a unit change in x along
the line. The angle (say) made by the line with positive direction of x-axis and measured anti-
clock-wise is called the inclination of the line. Obviously 0° 180° (Figure 5.2). If a line passes
through two distinct points P1(x1 , y1) and P2(x2, y2), its slope is given by: m = (y2 – y1) / (x2 – x1)
with x2 not equal to x1
We observe that lines parallel to x-axis, or coinciding with x-axis, have inclination of 0°. The
inclination of a vertical line (parallel to or coinciding with y-axis) is 90°.

Figure 5.2

Definition 1: If is the inclination of a line l, then tan is called the slope or gradient of the line l.

The slope of a line whose inclination is 90° is not defined.

The slope of a line is denoted by m.

Thus, m = tan , 90°

It may be observed that the slope of x-axis is zero and slope of y-axis is not defined.

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5.2.1 Slope of a Line when Coordinates of any Two Points on the Line Notes
are given

We know that a line is completely determined when we are given two points on it. Hence, we
proceed to find the slope of a line in terms of the coordinates of two points on the line.

The slope of a line (also called the gradient of a line) is a number that describes how "steep" it is.
If the line slopes downwards to the right, it has a negative slope. As x increases, y decreases. If
the line sloped upwards to the right, the slope would be a positive number. Adjust the points
above to create a positive slope. The slope of a line can positive, negative, zero or undefined.
Let P(x1, y1) and Q(x2, y2) be two points on non-vertical line lwhose inclination is . Obviously,
x1 x2, otherwise the line will become perpendicular to x-axis and its slope will not be defined.
The inclination of the line l may be acute or obtuse. Let us take these two cases.

Draw perpendicular QR to x-axis and PM perpendicular to RQ as shown in Figures 5.3 (i) and (ii).

Figure 5.3 (i)

Case I: When angle is acute:

In Figure 5.3 (i), MPQ = .
Therefore, slope of line l = m = tan . …(1)

MQ y2 y1
But in MPQ, we have tan . …(2)
MP x2 x1

y2 y1
From equations (1) and (2), we have m .
x2 x1

Figure 5.3 (ii)

Case II: When angle is obtuse: In Figure 5.3 (ii), we have MPQ = 180° .
Therefore, = 180° MPQ.

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Notes Now, slope of the line l

m = tan

= tan ( 180° MPQ) = tan MPQ

MQ y2 y1 y2 y1
= .
MP x1 x2 x2 x1

Consequently, we see that in both the cases the slope m of the line through the points (x1, y1) and
y 2 y1
(x2, y2) is given by m .
x 2 x1

5.2.2 Conditions for Parallelism and Perpendicularity of Lines in terms

of their Slopes

In a coordinate plane, suppose that non-vertical lines l1 and l2 have slopes m1 and m2, respectively.
Let their inclinations be and , respectively.

Figure 5.4

If the line l1 is parallel to l2 (Figure 5.4), then their inclinations are equal, i.e.,
= , and hence, tan = tan
Therefore m = m2g, i.e., their slopes are equal.
Conversely, if the slope of two lines l1 and l2 is same, i.e.,
m1 = m2.
Then tan = tan .
By the property of tangent function (between 0° and 180°), = . Therefore, the lines are parallel.
Hence, two non-vertical lines l 1 and l2 are parallel if and only if their slopes are equal.

Figure 5.5

If the lines l1 and l2 are perpendicular (Figure 5.5), then = + 90°.

Therefore, tan = tan ( + 90°)

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1 Notes
= cot
tan

1
i.e., m2 = or m1, m2 = 1
m1

Conversely, if m1 m2 = 1, i.e., tan tan = 1.

Then tan = cot = tan ( + 90°) or tan ( 90°) Therefore, and differ by 90°.

Thus, lines l1 and l2 are perpendicular to each other.

Hence, two non-vertical lines are perpendicular to each other if and only if their slopes are negative
reciprocals of each other,

1
i.e., m = or m1, m2 = 1.
m1

Let us consider the following example.

Example: Find the slope of the lines:

1. Passing through the points (3, 2) and ( 1, 4),
2. Passing through the points (3, 2) and (7, 2),
3. Passing through the points (3, 2) and (3, 4),
4. Making inclination of 60° with the positive direction of x-axis.
Solution:
1. The slope of the line through (3, 2) and ( 1, 4) is

4 ( 2) 6 3
m .
1 3 4 2

2. The slope of the line through the points (3, 2) and (7, 2) is

2 ( 2) 0
m 0.
7 3 4

3. The slope of the line through the points (3, 2) and (3, 4) is

4 ( 2) 6
m , which is not defined.
3 3 0

4. Here inclination of the line = 60°. Therefore, slope of the line is m = tan 60° = 3.

5.2.3 Angle between Two Lines

Suppose you think about more than one line in a plane, then you find that these lines are either
intersecting or parallel. Here we will discuss the angle between two lines in terms of their
slopes.
Let L1 and L2 be two non-vertical lines with slopes m1 and m2, respectively. If 1
and 2
are the
inclinations of lines L 1 and L2, respectively. Then
m1 = tan 1
and m2 = tan 2
.

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Notes You are know that when two lines intersect each other, they make two pairs of vertically
opposite angles such that sum of any two adjacent angles is 180°. Let and be the adjacent
angles between the lines L 1 and L2 (Figure 5.6). Then

= 2 1
and 1
, 2
90°.

tan 2 tan 1 m2 m1
Therefore, tan = tan ( 2
– 1
)= (as 1 + m1m2 0) and = 180° – so
1 tan 1 tan 2 1 m1m2
that

m2 m1
tan = tan (180° ) = tan = ,as 1 m1m2 0.
1 m1m2

Figure 5.6

Now, there arise two cases:

m2 m1
Case I: If is positive, then tan will be positive and tan will be negative, which means
1 m1m2
will be acute and will be obtuse.

m2 m1
Case II: If is negative, then tan will be negative and tan will be positive, which
1 m1m2
means that will be obtuse and will be acute.
Thus, the acute angle (say ) between lines L1 and L2 with slopes m1 and m2, respectively, is given
by

m2 m1
tan = , as 1 m1m2 0 …(1)
1 m1m2

The obtuse angle (say ) can be found by using =1800 .

1
Example: If the angle between two lines is and slope of one of the lines is , find the
4 2
slope of the other line.
Solution:

We know that the acute angle between two lines with slopes m1 and m2 is given by

m2 m1
tan = ... (1)
1 m1m2

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1 Notes
Let m1 , m2 m and .
2 4

Now, putting these values in (1), we get

1 1
m m
tan = 2 or 1 2 ,
4 1 1
1 m 1 m
2 2

1 1
m m
which gives 2 = 1 or 2 1.
1 1
1 m 1 m
2 2

1
Therefore m = 3 or m .
3

1
Hence, slope of the other line is 3 or . Figure 5.7 explains the reason of two answers.
3

Figure 5.7

Example: Line through the points (–2, 6) and (4, 8) is perpendicular to the line through
the points (8, 12) and (x, 24). Find the value of x.

Solution:

8 6 2 1
Slope of the line through the points (– 2, 6) and (4, 8) is m1
4 ( 2) 6 3

24 12 12
Slope of the line through the points (8, 12) and (x, 24) is m2
x 8 x 8

1 12
Since two lines are perpendicular, m1m2 = 1, which gives 1 or x 4.
3 x 8

5.2.4 Collinearity of Three Points

You know that slopes of two parallel lines are equal. If two lines having the same slope pass
through a common point, then two lines will coincide. Hence, if A, B and C are three points in

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Notes the XY-plane, then they will lie on a line, i.e., three points are collinear (Figure 5.8) if and only
if slope of AB = slope of BC.

Figure 5.8

Example: Three points P (h, k), Q (x1, y1) and R (x2, y2) lie on a line. Show that (h – x1)
(y2 – y1) = (k – y1) (x2 – x1).

Solution:

Since points P, Q and R are collinear, we have

y1 k y2 y1
Slope of PQ = Slope of QR, i.e.,
x1 h x2 x1

k y1 y2 y1
or ,
h x1 x2 x1

or (h x1) (y2 y1) = (k y1) (x2 x1).

Example: In Figure 5.9, time and distance graph of a linear motion is given. Two positions
of time and distance are recorded as, when T = 0, D = 2 and when T = 3, D = 8. Using the concept
of slope, find law of motion, i.e., how distance depends upon time.

Figure 5.9

Solution:

Let (T, D) be any point on the line, where D denotes the distance at time T. Therefore, points
(0, 2), (3, 8) and (T, D) are collinear so that

8 2 D 8
or 6(T 3) = 3(D 8)
3 0 T 3

or D = 2(T + 1),

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Notes

Notes

Positive Slope

Here, y increases as x increases, so the line slopes upwards to the right. The slope will be a
positive number. The line on the right has a slope of about +0.3, it goes up about 0.3 for
every step of 1 along the x-axis.

Negative Slope

Here, y decreases as x increases, so the line slopes downwards to the right. The slope will
be a negative number. The line on the right has a slope of about -0.3, it goes down about 0.3
for every step of 1 along the x-axis.
Zero Slope

Here, y does not change as x increases, so the line in exactly horizontal. The slope of any
horizontal line is always zero. The line on the right goes neither up nor down as x increases,
so its slope is zero.
Undefined Slope

When the line is exactly vertical, it does not have a defined slope. The two x coordinates
are the same, so the difference is zero. The slope calculation is then something like slope
21
=
0

When you divide anything by zero the result has no meaning. The line above is exactly
vertical, so it has no defined slope. We say “the slope of the line AB is undefined”. A
vertical line has an equation of the form x = a, where a is the x-intercept. For more on this
see Slope of a vertical line.

Tasks
1. Find a point on the x-axis, which is equidistant from the points (7, 6) and (3, 4).

2. Find the slope of a line, which passes through the origin, and the mid-point of the
line segment joining the points P (0, – 4) and B (8, 0).

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Notes 5.3 Various Forms of the Equation of a Line

You know that every line in a plane contains infinite poinjts on it.

The general equation of a line can be reduced into various forms of the equation of a line. In all
forms, slope is represented by m, the x-intercept by a, and the y-intercept by b. The Following are
the different forms of the equation of a line.
Slope-intercept form

Intercept form
Normal form

Notes The standard form coefficients A, B, and C have no particular graphical significance.

As we all know that you can find the equation of the line If two points on the line are given
and If one point on the line and the slope is given.

5.3.1 Horizontal and Vertical Lines

The general equation of straight line is given by: Ax + By = C

a - If we set A to zero in the general equation, we obtain an equation in y only of the form
By = C
which gives y = C/B = k; k is a constant. This is a horizontal line with slope 0 and passes through
all points with y coordinate equal to k.
b - If we set B to zero in the general equation, we obtain
Ax = C
which gives x = C/A = h; h is constant. This is a vertical line with undefined slope and passes
through all points with x coordinate equal to h
If a horizontal line L is at a distance a from the x-axis then ordinate of every point lying on the
line is either a or a [Figure 5.10 (a)]. Therefore, equation of the line L is either y = a or y = a.
Choice of sign will depend upon the position of the line according as the line is above or below
the y-axis. Similarly, the equation of a vertical line at a distance b from the y-axis is either x = b
or x = b [Figure 5.10(b)].

Figure 5.10

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Notes
Example: Find the equations of the lines parallel to axes and passing through ( 2, 3).
Solution:

Position of the lines is shown in the Figure 5.11. The y-coordinate of every point on the line
parallel to x-axis is 3, therefore, equation of the line parallel to x-axis and passing through ( 2,
3) is y = 3. Similarly, equation of the line parallel to y-axis and passing through ( 2, 3) is x = 2.

Figure 5.11

5.3.2 Point-slope Form

Assume that P0 (x0 , y0) is a fixed point on a non-vertical line L, whose slope is m. Let P (x, y) be an
arbitrary point on L (Figure 5.12).

Figure 5.12

Then, by the definition on equation of line through apoint p with the slope of L is given by
y y0
m , i.e., y y0 = m(x x0 ) …(1)
x x0

Since the point P0 (x0 , y0) along with all points (x, y) on L satisfies (1) and no other point in the
plane satisfies (1). Equation (1) is indeed the equation for the given line L.
Thus, the point (x, y) lies on the line with slope m through the fixed point (x0 , y0), if and only if,
its coordinates satisfy the equation
y y0 = m (x x0)

Example: Find the equation of the line through ( 2, 3) with slope 4.

Solution:
Here m = – 4 and given point (x0, y0) is ( 2, 3).

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Notes By slope-intercept form formula (1) above, equation of the given line is y 3= 4 (x + 2) or
4x + y + 5 = 0, which is the required equation.

5.3.3 Two-point Form

Let the line L passes through two given points P 1 (x1, y1) and P2 (x2, y2).
Let P (x, y) be a general point on L (Figure 5.13).

Figure 5.13

The three points P1, P2 and P are collinear, therefore, we have slope of P 1 P = slope of P1 P2

y y1 y y1 y2 y1
i.e., = 2 , or y y1 = (x x1 ).
x x1 x2 x1 x2 x1

Thus, equation of the line passing through the points (x1, y1) and (x2 , y2) is given by

y2 y1
y y1 = (x x1 ) …(2)
x2 x1

Example: Write the equation of the line through the points (1, 1) and (3, 5).
Solution:
Here x1 = 1, y1 = – 1, x2 = 3 and y2 = 5. Using two-point form (2) above for the equation of the line,
we have

5 ( 1)
y ( 1) = (x 1)
3 1

or 3x + y + 4 = 0, which is the required equation.

5.3.4 Slope-intercept Form

The equation of a line with a defined slope m can also be written as follows: y = mx + b

where m is the slope of the line and b is the y intercept of the graph of the line.
The above form is called the slope intercept form of a line. Sometimes a line is known to us with
its slope and an intercept on one of the axes. Then you have to find equations of such lines.

Case I: Suppose a line L with slope m cuts the y-axis at a distance c from the origin (Figure 5.14).
The distance c is called the y-intercept of the line L. Obviously, coordinates of the point where the
line meet the y-axis are (0, c). Thus, L has slope m and passes through a fixed point (0, c).
Therefore, by point-slope form, the equation of L is
y = c + m(x, 0) or y = mx + c

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Figure 5.14 Notes

Thus, the point (x, y) on the line with slope m and y-intercept c lies on the line if and only if

y = mx + c …(3)
Note that the value of c will be positive or negative according as the intercept is made on the
positive or negative side of the y-axis, respectively.

Case II: Suppose line L with slope m makes x-intercept d. Then equation of L is
y = m(x d) ...(4)
Students may derive this equation themselves by the same method as in Case I.

1
Example: Write the equation of the lines for which tan , where is the inclination
2
3
of the line and (i) y-intercept is (ii) x-intercept is 4.
2
Solution:

1 3
(i) Here, slope of the line is m tan and y - intercept c .
2 2
Therefore, by slope-intercept form (3) above, the equation of the line is

1 3
y = x or 2 y x 3 0,
2 2
which is the required equation.

1
(ii) Here, we have m tan and d = 4.
2

Therefore, by slope-intercept form (4) above, the equation of the line is

1
y = (x 4) or 2 y x 4 0,
2
which is the required equation.

5.3.5 Intercept - Form

Suppose a line L makes x-intercept a and y-intercept b on the axes, and L meets x-axis at the point
(a, 0) and y-axis at the point (0,b) (Figure 5.15). By two-point form of the equation of the line, we
b 0
have y 0 (x a) or ay bx ab ,
0 a

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Notes x y
i.e., = 1.
a b

Figure 5.15

Thus, equation of the line making intercepts a and b on x and y-axis, respectively, is
x y
= 1 ... (5)
a b

Example: Find the equation of the line, which makes intercepts 3 and 2 on the x and
y-axis respectively.
Solution:
Here a = 3 and b = 2. By intercept form (5) above, equation of the line is
x y
1 or 2 x 3y 6 0.
3 2

5.3.6 Normal Form

The equation of a straight line upon which the length of perpendicular from the origin is p and
the perpendicular makes an angle with the positive direction of x-axis is given by
x cos + y sin = p

Notes In normal form of equation of a straight line p is always taken as positive and a is
measured from positive direction of x-axis in anticlockwise direction between 0 and 2n.

Let a non-vertical line is known to us with following data:

(i) Length of the perpendicular (normal) from origin to the line.

(ii) Angle which normal makes with the positive direction of x-axis.
Let L be the line, whose perpendicular distance from origin O be OA = p and the angle between
the positive x-axis and OA be XOA = . The possible positions of line L in the Cartesian plane
are shown in the Figure 5.16. Now, our purpose is to find slope of L and a point on it. Draw
perpendicular AM on the x-axis in each case.
In each case, we have OM = p cos and MA = p sin , so that the coordinates of the point A are
(p cos , p sin ).

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Figure 5.16
Notes

Further, line L is perpendicular to OA. Therefore,

1 1 cos
The slope of the line L .
slope of OA tan sin

cos
Thus, the line L has slope and point A (pcos , psin )on it. Therefore, by point-slope
sin
form, the equation of the line L is

cos
y p sin (x p cos ) or x cos y sin p sin 2 cos2
sin
or x cos + y sin = p.

Hence, the equation of the line having normal distance p from the origin and angle which the
normal makes with the positive direction of x-axis is given by

x cos + y sin = p ... (6)

Example: Find the equation of the line whose perpendicular distance from the origin is
4 units and the angle which the normal makes with positive direction of x-axis is 15°.
Solution: Here, we are given p = 4 and = 15° (Figure 5.17)
Figure 5.17

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Notes 3 1
Now cos 15° =
2 2

3 1
and sin 15° = (Why?)
2 2

By the normal form (6) above, the equation of the line is

3 1 3 1
x cos 15 y sin 15 4 or x y 4 or 3 1x 3 1 y 8 2.
2 2 2 2

This is the required equation.

Example: The Fahrenheit temperature F and absolute temperature K satisfy a linear

equation. Given that K = 273 when F = 32 and that K = 373 when F = 212. Express K in terms of F
and find the value of F, when K = 0.

Solution:
Assuming F along x-axis and K along y-axis, we have two points (32, 273) and (212, 373) in
XY-plane. By two-point form, the point (F, K) satisfies the equation

373 273 100

K 273 = (F 32) or K 273 (F 32)
212 32 180

5
or K = (F 32) 273 …(1)
9

which is the required relation.

When K = 0, Equation (1) gives

5 273 9
0 (F 32) 273 or F 32 491.4 or F 459.4
9 5

Alternate method: We know that simplest form of the equation of a line is y = mx + c. Again
assuming F along x-axis and K along y-axis, we can take equation in the form
K = mF + c ... (1)

Equation (1) is satisfied by (32, 273) and (212, 373). Therefore

273 = 32m + c ... (2)

and 373 = 212m + c ... (3)

Solving (2) and (3), we get

5 2297
m = and c .
9 9

Putting the values of m and c in (1), we get

5 2297
K = F … (4)
9 9

which is the required relation. When K = 0, (4) gives F = – 459.4.

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Notes

Notes We know, that the equation y = mx + c, contains two constants, namely, m and c. For
finding these two constants, we need two conditions satisfied by the equation of line. In all
the examples above, we are given two conditions to determine the equation of the line.

5.4 General Equation of a Line

As unit, you have studied general equation of first degree in two variables, Ax + By + C = 0,
where A, B and C are real constants such that A and B are not zero simultaneously. Graph of the
equation Ax + By + C = 0 is always a straight line.

Therefore, any equation of the form Ax + By + C = 0, where A and B are not zero simultaneously
is called general linear equation or general equation of a line.

Different Forms of Ax + By + C = 0

The general equation of a line can be reduced into various forms of the equation of a line, by the
following procedures:

Slope-intercept Form

If B 0, then Ax + By + C = 0 can be written as

A C
y = x or y mx c ... (1)
B B

A C
where m = and c .
B B

We know that Equation (1) is the slope-intercept form of the equation of a line whose slope is
A C
, and y -intercept is .
B B

C C
If B = 0, then x , which is a vertical line whose slope is undefined and x-intercept is .
A A

Intercept Form

If C 0, then Ax + By + C = 0 can be written as:

x y x y
= 1 or 1 …(2)
C C a b
A B

C C
where a = and b .
A B

C
We know that equation (2) is intercept form of the equation of a line whose x-intercept is
A
C
and y-intercept is .
B

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Notes If C = 0, then Ax + By + C = 0 can be written as Ax + By = 0, which is a line passing through the

origin and, therefore, has zero intercepts on the axes.

Normal Form

Let x cos + y sin = p be the normal form of the line represented by the equation Ax + By + C
= 0 or Ax + By = – C. Thus, both the equations are:

A B C
same and therefore, =
cos sin P

Ap Bp
which gives cos = and sin .
C C

2 2
Ap Bp
Now sin2 + cos2 = 1
C C

C2 C
or p2 = 2
or p
A B2 A2 B2

A B
Therefore, cos = 2 2
and sin 2
.
A B A B2

Thus, the normal form of the equation Ax + By + C = 0 is

x cos + y sin = p,

A B C
where cos 2 2
, sin 2 2
and p 2
.
A B A B A B2

Proper choice of signs is made so that p should be positive.

Example: Equation of a line is 3x 4y + 10 = 0. Find its (i) slope, (ii) x - and y-intercepts.
Solution:

(i) Given equation 3x 4y + 10 = 0 can be written as

3 5
y = x ... (1)
4 2

3
Comparing (1) with y = mx + c, we have slope of the given line as m .
4

(ii) Equation 3x 4y + 10 = 0 can be written as

x y
3x 4 y 10 or = 1 …(2)
10 5
3 2

x y 10 5
Comparing (2) with 1, we have x-intercept as a and y-intercept as b .
a b 3 2

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Notes
Example: Reduce the equation 3x y 8 0 into normal form. Find the values of
p and .

Solution:
Given equation is:

3x y 8 = 0 ... (1)

2
Dividing (1) by 3 (1)2 = 2 , we get

3 1
x y = 4 or cos 30° x + sin 30° y = 4 …(2)
2 2

Comparing (2) with x cos + y sin = p, we get p = 4 and = 30°.

Example: Find the angle between the lines y 3x 5 0 and 3y x 6 0.

Solution:
Given lines are

y 3x 5 = 0 or y 3x 5 …(1)

1
and 3y x 6 = 0 or y x 2 3 …(2)
3

1
Slope of line (1) is m1 3 and slope of line (2) is m2 .
3

The acute angle (say) between two lines is given by

m2 m1
tan = ... (3)
1 m1m2

Putting the values of m1 and m2 in (3), we get

1
3
3 1 3 1
tan =
1 2 3 3
1 3
3

which gives = 30°. Hence, angle between two lines is either 30°or 180° – 30° = 150°.

Example: Show that two lines a1 x + b1 y + c1 = 0 and a2 x + b2 y + c2 = 0, where b1, b2 0 are:

a1 a2
(i) Parallel if , and
b1 b2

(ii) Perpendicular if a1 a2 + b1 b2 = 0.

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Notes Solution:
Given lines can be written as

a1 c1
y = x …(1)
b1 b1

a2 c2
and y = x …(2)
b2 b2

a1 a2
Slopes of the lines (1) and (2) are m1 and m2 , respectively. Now
b1 b2

(i) Lines are parallel, if m1 = m2, which gives

a1 a2 a a2
or 1 .
b1 b2 b1 b2

(ii) Lines are perpendicular, if m1.m2 = 1, which gives

a1 a2
1 or a1b2 b1b2 0
b1 b2

Example: Find the equation of a line perpendicular to the line x 2 y +3 = 0 and passing
through the point (1, 2).
Solution:
Given line x 2 y + 3 = 0 can be written as

1 3
y = x ...(1)
2 2

1
Slope of the line (1) is m1 . Therefore, slope of the line perpendicular to line (1) is
2

1
m2 = 2
m1

Equation of the line with slope 2 and passing through the point (1, 2) is
y ( 2) = 2(x 1) or y = 2x,

which is the required equation.

5.5 Distance of a Point From a Line

The distance of a point from a line is the length of the perpendicular drawn from the point to the
line. Let L : Ax + By + C = 0 be a line, whose distance from the point P (x1, y1) is d. Draw a
perpendicular PM from the point P to the line L (Figure 5.18). If the lines meets the x-and y-axes
C C
at the points Q and R, respectively. Then, coordinates of the points are Q ,0 and R 0, .
A B
Thus, the area of the triangle PQR is given by

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Figure 5.18
Notes

1 2 area( PQR)
area ( PQR) = PM.OR, which gives PM ... (1)
2 OR

1 C C C
Also, area ( PQR) = x1 0 y1 0( y 1 0)
2 B A A

1 C C C2
= x1 y1 … (2)
2 B A AB

C
or area ( PQR) = Ax 1 By 1 C , and
AB

2 2
C C C
OR = 0 0 A2 B2
A B AB

Substituting the values of area ( PQR) and QR in (1), we get

Ax1 By1 C
PM = 2 2
A B

Ax1 By1 C
or d = 2 2
.
A B

Thus, the perpendicular distance (d) of a line Ax + By + C = 0 from a point (x1, y1) is given by

Ax1 By1 C
d = .
A2 B2

5.5.1 Distance between Two Parallel Lines

As you have already studied that slopes of two parallel lines are equal.

Therefore, two parallel lines can be taken in the form

y = mx + c1 ... (1)

and y = mx + c2 ... (2)

c1
Line (1) will intersect x-axis at the point A ,0 as shown in Figure 5.19.
m

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Notes Figure 5.19

Distance between two lines is equal to the length of the perpendicular from point A to line (2).
Therefore, distance between the lines (1) and (2) is

c1
( m) ( c2 )
m c1 c2
2
or d .
1 m 1 m2

Thus, the distance d between two parallel lines y = mx + c1 and y = mx + c2 is given by

c1 c2
d = .
1 m2

If lines are given in general form, i.e., Ax + By + C1 = 0 and Ax + By + C2 = 0, then above formula
C1 C2
will take the form d
A2 B2

Students can derive it themselves.

Example: Find the distance of the point (3, 5) from the line 3x 4y –26 = 0.
Solution:

Given line is 3x – 4y –26 = 0 ... (1)

Comparing (1) with general equation of line Ax + By + C = 0, we get A = 3, B = 4 and C = 26.
Given point is (x1, y1) = (3, 5). The distance of the given point from given line is

Ax 1 By 1 C 3.3 ( 4)( 5) 26 3
d .
A 2
B 2
3 2
( 4) 2 5

Example: Find the distance between the parallel lines 3x 4y +7 = 0 and 3x 4y + 5 = 0

Solution:

7 5 2
Here A = 3, B = 4, C1 = 7 and C2= 5. Therefore, the required distance is d .
32 ( 4)2 5

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Notes

Tasks

1. Reduce the following equations into intercept form and find their intercepts on the
axes.
(i) 3x + 2y 12 = 0, (ii) 4x 3y = 6, (iii) 3y +2 = 0.

2. Find the distance of the point ( 1, 1) from the line 12(x + 6) = 5(y 2).

Example: If the lines 2x + y 3 = 0, 5x + ky 3 = 0 and 3x y 2 = 0 are concurrent, find

the value of k.
Solution:
Three lines are said to be concurrent, if they pass through a common point, i.e., point of
intersection of any two lines lies on the third line. Here given lines are
2x + y 3 = 0 ... (1)
5x + ky 3 = 0 ... (2)
3x y 2 = 0 ... (3)
Solving (1) and (3) by cross-multiplication method, we get

x y 1
or x 1, y 1.
2 3 9 4 2 3
Therefore, the point of intersection of two lines is (1, 1). Since above three lines are concurrent,
the point (1, 1) will satisfy equation (2) so that
5.1 + k .1 – 3 = 0 or k = 2.

Example: Find the distance of the line 4x y = 0 from the point P (4, 1) measured along
the line making an angle of 135° with the positive x-axis.
Solution:
Given line is 4x y = 0 ... (1)
In order to find the distance of the line (1) from the point P (4, 1) along another line, we have to
find the point of intersection of both the lines. For this purpose, we will first find the equation
of the second line (Figure 5.20). Slope of second line is tan 135° = 1. Equation of the line with
slope 1 through the point P (4, 1) is

Figure 5.20

y 1 = 1 (x 4) or x + y 5=0 ... (2)

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Notes Solving (1) and (2), we get x = 1 and y = 4 so that point of intersection of the two lines is Q (1, 4).
Now, distance of line (1) from the point P (4, 1) along the line (2)

= the distance between the points P (4, 1) and Q (1, 4).

= (1 4)2 (4 1)2 3 2 units.

Example: Assuming that straight lines work as the plane mirror for a point, find the
image of the point (1, 2) in the line x 3y + 4 = 0.

Solution:
Let Q (h, k) is the image of the point P (1, 2) in the line

x 3y + 4 = 0 ... (1)

Figure 5.21

Therefore, the line (1) is the perpendicular bisector of line segment PQ (Figure 5.21).

1
Hence Slope of line PO ,
Slope of line x 3 y 4 0

k 2 1
so that = or 3h k 5 ... (2)
h 1 1
3

h 1 k 2
and the mid-point of PQ, i.e., point , will satisfy the equation (1) so that
2 2

h 1 k 2
3 4 = 0 or h 3k = 3 …(3)
2 2

6 7
Solving (2) and (3), we get h and k .
5 5

6 7
Hence, the image of the point (1, 2) in the line (1) is , .
5 5

Example: Show that the area of the triangle formed by the lines

( c 1 c 2 )2
y m1 x c 1 , y m2 x c 2 and x 0 is .
2 m1 m2

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Solution: Notes

Given lines are

y = m1 x + c1 ... (1)

y = m2 x + c2 ... (2)
x = 0 ... (3)

We know that line y = mx + c meets the line x = 0 (y-axis) at the point (0, c). Therefore, two vertices
of the triangle formed by lines (1) to (3) are P (0, c1) and Q (0, c2) (Figure 5. 22).

Figure 5.22

Third vertex can be obtained by solving equations (1) and (2). Solving (1) and (2), we get

(c 2 c1 ) (m1c 2 m2c 1 )
x and y
(m1 m2 ) (m1 m2 )

(c 2 c 1 ) (m1c 2 m2c1 )
Therefore, third vertex of the triangle is R , .
(m1 m2 ) (m1 m2 )

Now, the area of the triangle is:

1 mc m2 c 1 c2 c1 m1c 2 m2 c 1 (c 2 c 1 )2
0 1 2 c2 (c 2 c1 ) 0 c1
2 m1 m2 m1 m2 m1 m2 2 m1 m2

Example: A line is such that its segment between the lines 5x y + 4 = 0 and 3x + 4y 4
= 0 is bisected at the point (1, 5). Obtain its equation.
Solution:

Given lines are

5x y+4 = 0 ... (1)

3x + 4y 4 = 0 ... (2)
Let the required line intersects the lines (1) and (2) at the points, ( 1, 1
) and ( 2, 2
), respectively
(Figure 5.23). Therefore 5 1 1
+ 4 = 0 and 3 2 + 4 2 4 = 0

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Notes Figure 5.23

4 3
or 1
= 5 1
+ 4 and 2
= 2
.
4

We are given that the mid point of the segment of the required line between ( 1, 1
) and ( 2, 2
)
is (1, 5). Therefore

1 2
= 1 and 1 2
5,
2 2

4 3 2
5 1 4
or + = 2 and 4 5,
1 2
2

or 1
+ 2
= 2 and 20 1
3 2
= 20 ... (3)

Solving equations in (3) for 1

and 2
, we get

26 20 26 222
1 and 2 and hence, 1 5. 4 .
23 23 23 23

Equation of the required line passing through (1, 5) and ( , ) is

222
5
5
y 5 1
( x 1) or y 5 23 ( x 1)
1 26
1 1
23

or 107x 3y 92 = 0,
which is the equation of required line.

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Notes
Example: Show that the path of a moving point such that its distances from two lines
3x 2y = 5 and 3x + 2y = 5 are equal is a straight line.

Solution:
Given lines are

3x – 2y = 5 …(1)

and 3x + 2y = 5 … (2)
Let (h, k) is any point, whose distances from the lines (1) and (2) are equal. Therefore

3h 2 k 5 3h 2 k 5
or 3h 2k 5 3h 2k 5,
9 4 9 4

which gives 3h 2k 5 = 3h + 2k 5 or (3h 2k 5) = 3h + 2k 5.

5
Solving these two relations we get k = 0 or h . Thus, the point (h, k) satisfies the equations y
3
5
= 0 or x , which represent straight lines. Hence, path of the point equidistant from the lines
3
(1) and (2) is a straight line.

5.6 Summary

Slope (m) of a non-vertical line passing through the points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) is given by
y2 y1 y1 y2
m , x1 x2 .
x2 x1 x1 x2

Slope of horizontal line is zero and slope of vertical line is undefined.

An acute angle (say ) between lines L1 and L2 with slopes m1 and m2 is given by

m2 m1
tan ,1 m1m2 0.
1 m1m2

Two lines are parallel if and only if their slopes are equal.

Two lines are perpendicular if and only if product of their slopes is 1.

Three points A, B and C are collinear, if and only if slope of AB = slope of BC.
Equation of the horizontal line having distance a from the x-axis is either y = a or y = a.

Equation of the vertical line having distance b from the y-axis is either x = b or x = b.

The point (x, y) lies on the line with slope m and through the fixed point (x0, y0), if and only
if its coordinates satisfy the equation y y0 = m (x x0).

Equation of the line passing through the points (x 1 , y 1 ) and (x 2 , y 2 ) is given by

y2 y1
y y1 (x x1 ).
x2 x1

The point (x, y) on the line with slope m and y-intercept c lies on the line if and only if
y = mx + c .

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Notes If a line with slope m makes x-intercept d. Then equation of the line is y = m (x – d).

x y
Equation of a line making intercepts a and b on the x-and y-axis, respectively, is 1.
a b

The equation of the line having normal distance from origin p and angle between normal
and the positive x-axis is given by x cos + y sin = p .
Any equation of the form Ax + By + C = 0, with A and B are not zero, simultaneously, is
called the general linear equation or general equation of a line.

The perpendicular distance (d) of a line Ax + By+ C = 0 from a point (x1 , y1) is given by
Ax1 By1 C
d 2 2
.
A B

Distance between the parallel lines Ax + By + C1 = 0 and Ax + By + C2 = 0, is given by

C1 C2
d 2
.
A B2

5.7 Keywords

Condition of Parallelism: When two lines are parallel then their inclination are equal.
Condition of Prependicular: Two non-vertical lines are perpendicular to each other of and only
of their slopes are negative reciprocals of each other.
Inclination of line: The angle made by a line with positive direction and measured in anti-clock
-wise.

5.8 Self Assessment

Fill in the blanks:

1. A line in a coardinate plane forms two angles with x-axis, which are ………………

2. If is the inclination of a line than tan is called the ……………… of line

3. Two non-vertical lines are parallel if and only if their slopes are ………………

m2 m1
4. If is positive, then tan will be ………………
1 m1m2

5. Two non-vertical lines are perpendicular to each of and only of their slopes are
……………… of each other.

Choose the Correct Answer:

6. Equation of line is equals to when point ( 2, 3) & slope 4

(a) 4x + y + 5

(b) 2x + 4y 5

(c) 4x + 2y + 6

(d) 4x + 2y + 3

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7. Find the equation whose distance from origin is 4 and angles is 15° in positive direction Notes

(a) x cos 15° + y sin 15° = 4

(b) x sin 15 + y cos 15° = 4

(c) x sin-1 15 + y cos-1 15° = 4

(d) x sin-1 15° + y cos-1 15° = 4

8. Distance between two parallel lines 3x 4y + 7 = 0

(a) 2/3

(b) 2/4
(c) 2/5

(d) 2/6
9. Equation of slope - Intercept form of line is

(a) y = mx + c
(b) y = m2x + cx
(c) y2 = m2x + c
(d) y = m/2 x +c
10. Distance of the point (3, 5) from the line 3x 4y 26 = 0 is
(a) 3/5
(b) 4/3
(c) 3/4
(d) 5/3

5.9 Review Qustions

1. Find perpendicular distance from the origin of the line joining the points (cos , sin ) and
(cos , sin ).

2. Find the area of the triangle formed by the lines y x = 0, x + y = 0 and x k = 0.

3. Find the value of p so that the three lines 3x + y 2 = 0, px + 2 y 3 = 0 and 2x y 3 = 0 may

intersect at one point.
4. If three lines whose equations are y = m1 x + c1, y = m1 x + c2 and y = m3 x + c3 are concurrent,
then show that m1(c2 c3) + m2(c3 c1) + m3 (c1 c2) = 0.

5. Find the equation of the lines through the point (3, 2) which make an angle of 45 o with the
line x 2y = 3.
6. Find the image of the point (3, 8) with respect to the line x + 3y = 7 assuming the line to be
a plane mirror.

7. If sum of the perpendicular distances of a variable point P (x, y) from the lines x + y 5
= 0 and 3x 2y +7 = 0 is always 10. Show that P must move on a line.
8. A ray of light passing through the point (1, 2) reflects on the x-axis at point A and the
reflected ray passes through the point (5, 3). Find the coordinates of A.

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Notes 9. A person standing at the junction (crossing) of two straight paths represented by the
equations 2x 3y + 4 = 0 and 3x + 4y 5 = 0 wants to reach the path whose equation is
6x 7y + 8 = 0 in the least time. Find equation of the path that he should follow.

Answers: Self Assessment

1. Supplementary 2. Slope

3. Equal 4. Positive

5. Negative reciprocal 6. (a)

7. (a) 8. (c)

9. (a) 10. (a)

5.10 Further Readings

Books D.C. Sanchethi and V.K. Kapoor, Business Mathematics.

Husch, Lawrence S. Visual Calculus, University of Tennessee, 2001.
R.S. Bhardwaj, Mathematics for Economics and Business, Excel Books, New Delhi,
2005.
Sivayya and Sathya Rao, An Introduction to Business Mathematics.
Smith and Minton. Calculus Early Trancendental, Third Edition. McGraw Hill.2008

Online links http://www.tpub.com/math2/2.html

www.ehow.com
www.mathopenry.com

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 Unit 6: Functions

Unit 6: Functions Notes

CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
6.1 Functions
6.1.1 General Characteristics of a Function
6.1.2 Types of Functions
6.1.3 Classification of Functions
6.1.4 Basic Properties
6.2 Rational Function
6.2.1 Definition and Domain of Rational Functions
6.2.2 Exponential Function
6.3 Inverse Function
6.3.1 Description of the Inverse Function
6.3.2 General Procedure for Finding the Inverse of a Function
6.3.3 Graphs of Inverse Functions
6.3.4 Existence of an Inverse
6.3.5 Horizontal Line Test
6.3.6 Finding Inverses
6.4 Logarithmic Function
6.5 Composition of Functions
6.5.1 Composition of Two Functions
6.5.2 Existence of Composition Set
6.6 Summary
6.7 Keywords
6.8 Self Assessment
6.9 Review Questions
6.10 Further Readings

Objectives

After studying this unit, you will be able to:

Define the function and its types
Discuss weather a function is one one, many one, onto or into
Analysis the graphical representation of functions
Discuss the composition of two functions
Explain the inverse of a function

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Notes Introduction

Functions are mathematical ideas that take one or more variables and produce a variable. You
can think of a function as a cook that takes one or more ingredients and cooks them up to make
a dish. Depending on what you put in, you can get very different things out. Moreover, not all
functions are the same. If you give one cook peanut butter, jelly, and bread, he may make a
sandwich, whereas another cook may start to sculpt a volcano with the peanut butter, and use
the jelly for lava after discarding the bread.

6.1 Functions

In an abstract mathematical sense, a function is a mapping of some domain onto some range. For
each item in the domain, there is a corresponding item in the range of the function. Thus, the
domain is all of the possible inputs to the function and the range is all of the possible outputs.
Each item in the domain corresponds to a specific item in the range. However, an item in the
range may correspond to multiple items in the domain.

For example, let’s describe a function for album titles. Our function will take as its domain,
album titles. Our function, let’s call it FL (album title) will output the first letter of the first word
in the title of the album. Thus, the range of our function will be all of the inputs.
For most of Algebra, functions are described as things that take a number and put out a
number. In higher mathematics, this is described as R 1 R1. This means that the real
number line (R1) is being mapped to the real number line. If however, we have two inputs and
one output, we have a function that is described as R 2 R1, or the real plane(R 2) is being
mapped to the real number line. Generally, we can have a function described by any
RN R M.

Let’s start with an old favorite the line.

f(x) = 2*x

Here, f is a function that is defined to take one variable x. It takes that one variable and doubles
it. We can plot this graph on a Cartesian grid by taking x along one axis and f(x) along the other.
Because f(x) is simply a constant, that is the number 2, multiplied by x, we know that f(x) is a line.
Assuming that we are totally ignorant, let us proceed as though we know nothing at all. To draw
a function that is new to us, here is what we normally will do (at least to begin with): We will
construct a Table 6.1. In one column, we will list various values for x that we would like to try to
see what comes out. In the other column, we will list the values of f that we get when we stuff our
values into the function. Next, on a piece of grid paper, we will plot the points, going over on the
x axis to the number we chose for x, and on the y axis to what we got out for f(x). Finally, we
will connect the dots for a rough view of what our function looks like. (More complex functions
need lots of dots!) For f(x) = 2*x, here’s what we get:

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Table 6.1
Notes

Let’s move on to the parabola. A basic parabola formula is: f(x) = x 2. Let us try several values to
plop into the function to see what comes out:

Most of the time, functions come out with nice looking smooth curves. So, if instead of using
straight lines to connect out dots, we use a smooth curve, we can get a better approximation of
what the function looks like. Hence, the proper parabola looks like the following:

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Notes

Here are some examples of our function at work.

The concept of a function is essential in mathematics. There are two common notations in use:
(a) f(x) = x2 + 2 ,
(b) f : x 7!x2 + 2 .
Part (a) is commonly used. Part (b) is interpreted as the function f maps x to x 2 + 2.

Example: If two functions are given as f(x) = 2x + 3, and g(x) = 3 x2, then
1. f(2) = 2 2+3=7

2. f( 3) = 2 ( 3) + 3 = 6 + 3 = 3
3. g(0) = 3 (0)2 = 3
4. g(4) = 3 (4)2 = 3 16 = 13

Example: Find the numbers which map to zero under the function
h : x 7! x2 9.

Solution:

The function can also be written as h(x) = x 2 9 and if x maps to zero then h(x) = 0, i.e.
x2 – 9 = 0
x2 = 9
since squaring both 3 and 3 gives the value 9.

6.1.1 General Characteristics of a Function

Functions can be classified into different categories according to the nature of their definition or
of symbolic expressions. To facilitate this, we first define the following general characteristics of
a function.
1. Increasing or Decreasing Function

Let y = f(x) be a function defined in an interval I and x1, x2 be two points of the interval such
that x1 < x2.

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If f(x2) > f(x1) when x1 < x2, then f(x) is increasing. Notes

If f(x2) < f(x1) when x1 < x2, then f(x) is decreasing.

If f(x2) = f(x1) for all values of x1 and x2 in I, then f(x) is constant.

If, however, the strict inequality holds in the above statements, then f(x) is strictly increasing
(or decreasing) function.
2. Monotonic Function

A function y = f(x) is said to be monotonic if y is either increasing or decreasing over its

domain, as x increases.
If the function is increasing (decreasing) over its domain, it is called monotonically increasing
(decreasing) function.

A monotonic function is also termed as a one to one function.

3. Implicit and Explicit Function

When a relationship between x and y is written as y = f(x), it is said to be an explicit

function. If the same relation is written as F(x, y) = 0, it is said to be an implicit function.
Production possibility function or the transformation function is often expressed as an
implicit function.
4. Inverse Function
If a function y = f(x) is such that for each element of the range we can associate a unique
element of the domain (i.e. one to one function), then the inverse of the function, denoted
as x = f–1(y) g(y), is obtained by solving y = f(x) for x in terms of y. The functions f(x) and g(y)
are said to be inverse of each other and can be written as either g[f(x)] = x or f[g(y)] = y. We
note here that an implicit function F(x, y) = 0, can be expressed as two explicit functions
that are inverse of each other.
5. Symmetry of a Function
Symmetry of a function is often helpful in sketching its graph. Following types of symmetry
are often useful:
(i) Symmetry about y-axis

A function y = f(x) is said to be symmetric about y-axis if f(–x) = f(x) for all x in its
domain. For example, the function y = x2 is symmetric about y-axis. Such a function
is also known as even function.

Similarly, if g(y) = g(–y), then the function x = g(y) is said to be symmetric about x-
axis.

(ii) Symmetry about the line x = h

A function y = f(x) is said to be symmetric about the line x = h if f(h – k) = f(h + k) for
all real value k.

(iii) Symmetry about origin

A function y = f(x) is said to be symmetric about origin if f(–x) = –f(x), for all values
of x in its domain. For example, the function y = x2 is symmetric about origin. Such
a function is also known as odd function.
(iv) Symmetry about the line y = x (45° line)
Two functions are said to be symmetrical about the line y = x (45° line), if the
interchange of x and y in one function gives the other function. This type of symmetry

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Notes implies that y as an explicit function of x is exactly of the same form as x as an explicit
function of y.

Notes:
(i) Two points with coordinates (a, b) and (b, a) are said to be reflections of one another
(or symmetrical) about the line y = x.

(ii) Since the in verse function x = g(y) is obtained simply by solving y = f(x) for x, the
graphs of these functions remain maltered. However, when we interchange the role
of x and y in the function x = g(y) and write as y = g(x), the graph of y = f(x) gets
reflected about the y = x line to get the graph of y = g(x).

1
To illustrate this, we consider y = f(x) = 2x + 5 and y = g(x) = ( x – 5) . Note that
2
(1, 7) is a point on the graph of y = 2x + 5 and (7, 1) is a point on the graph of
1
y= ( x – 5) . The graphs of these functions are shown in Figure 6.1.
2

Figure 6.1
5
2

0 5
1
2
(–5, –5)

(iii) The point of intersection of the two functions, that are symmetric about the 45° line,
occurs at this line.

(iv) An implicit function F(x, y) = 0 is said to be symmetric about the 45° line if an
interchange of x and y leaves the function unchanged. For example, the function xy
= a is symmetric about the 45° line.
6. Composite Function
If y is a function of u and u is a function of x, then y is said to be a composite function of x.
For example, if y = f(u) and u = g(x), then y = f[g(x)] is a composite function of x. A composite
function can also be written as y = (fog)(x), where fog is read as f of g.
The domain of f{g(x)} is the set of all real numbers x in the domain of g for which g(x) is in the
domain of x.

Note: The rules for the sum, difference, product and quotient of the functions f and g are defined
below:
(f ± g)(x) = f(x) ± g(x)

(fg)(x) = f(x)g(x)

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Notes
f f ( x)
(x) = , g(x) 0
g g( x )

The domain of each of the resultant function is given by the intersection of the domains of f and
g. In the case of quotient, the value of x at which g(x) = 0 must be excluded from the domain.

Example
Examine whether the following functions are even or odd.

1 1
(a) y = x2 (b) y (c) y = x3 (d) y
x2 x
Draw the graph of each function.

Solution:
(a) Let f(x) = x2, then f(–x) = (x)2 = x2 = f(x) y = x2 is an even function. This function is
symmetric about y-axis.
To draw graph, we note that when x = 0, then y = 0. Also y increases as x increases. The
graph of the function is shown in Figure 6.2.

Figure 6.2

2 0 2

1 1 1 1
(b) Let f ( x) then f ( x ) f ( x) y is an even function. This
x2 ( x )2 x2 x2
function is also symmetric about y-axis. When x = 0, the function is not defined. However,
for small values (positive or negative) of x, y approaches and as x becomes larger and
larger y becomes smaller and smaller, i.e. approaches zero, but is never equal to zero.
Note that y is positive for all values of x i.e. the whole curve lies above x-axis. Based on the
above features, we can draw a broad graph of the function as shown in Figure 6.3.

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Notes Figure 6.3

(c) Let f(x) = x2, then f(–x) = –x3 = –f(x) y = x3 is an odd function. This function is symmetric
about origin.
When x = 0, then y = 0, the graph of the function passes through origin. Further, y is
positive (negative) when x is positive (negative). Therefore the graph lies in I and III
Quadrants. Note that the values of y increases as x increases. Thus, the function is
monotonically increasing in its domain. Based on these features, the broad graph is shown
in Figure 6.4.

Figure 6.4

Figure 6.5

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Notes
1 1 1
(d) Let f ( x) , then f ( x ) f ( x) y is an odd function and symmetric
x x x
about origin.
This, function is not defined at x = 0. Also the graph of this function lies in I and III
Quadrants. When x > 0, then y approaches for small values of x and approaches zero as
x approaches .

Similarly, when x < 0, then y approaches – as x approaches zero and approaches zero as
x approaches – . The broad graph of the function is shown in Figure 6.5.

Example

Find inverse of the following functions and show that their graphs are symmetrical about the
line y = x.

1
(a) y x 2 (b) y = x2, x 0
3
Solution:
(a) To find inverse of the given function, we solve it for x.
x = 3(y – 2)
To draw graph, we take independent variable on x-axis and dependent variable on
y-axis, therefore we interchange x and y in the above equation to get y = 3(x – 2) = 3x – 6.

1
The graphs of the functions y x 2 and y = 3x – 6 are shown in Figure 6.6. These are
3
symmetric about the line y = x. Also note that their point of intersection (3, 3) also lies on
the line.

Figure 6.6

y = 1x + 2 (3, 3)
3 2

–6 0
–6
=3

–6

1
(b) Solving the given function for x, we get x y y 2 , x 0.

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Notes 1
As before interchanging y and x, we can write y x2
To draw the graph of the two functions, we note the following points:

Function y = x2 y = x 1/2
i. When x = 0 y = 0 the point lies on the y=0 the point lies on the
line y = x line y = x
ii. When 0 < x < 1 y < x graph lies below the y>x graph lies above the
line y = x line y = x
iii. When x = 1 y = x the point lies on the y=x the point lies on the
line y = x line y = x
iv. When x > 1 y > x graph lies above the y<x graph lies below
line y = x the line y = x

Based on the above, the two graphs are shown in Figure 6.7. Note that if (a, b), (where a and
b are + ve) is a point on y = x2, then (b, a) is a point on y = x1/2. Hence, the graphs of the two
functions are symmetric about the line y = x.

Figure 6.7

1/2
1

0 1

Example
Show that the function y = x2 – 6x – 3 is symmetric about the line x = 3. Draw a broad graph of the
function. What is the domain and of the function?
Solution:
A function y = f(x) is symmetric about the line x = 3 if f(3 + k) = f(3 – k) for all real values of k.

Now f(3 + k) = (3 + k)2 – 6(3 + k) – 3

= 9 + 6k + k2 – 18 – 6k – 3

= k2 – 12
f(3 – k) = (3 – k)2 – 6(3 – k) – 3

= 9 – 6k + k2 – 18 + 6k – 3
= k2 – 12.

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Figure 6.8 Notes

0
–3

–12

Thus, the function is symmetric about the line x = 3. To draw the graph, we note that when x = 3,
then y = 9 – 18 – 3 = –12 = f(k + 3) = f(k – 3), when k = 0. Also for large values of x, the behaviour of
y is given by the behaviour of x2 term.
As x approaches ± , y also approaches . Further, (0, –3) is a point on the curve. Based on this
information, the graph is shown in Figure 6.8. The domain, of the function is (– , ).

6.1.2 Types of Functions

These are names for functions of first, second and third order polynomial functions, respectively.
What this means is that the highest order of x (the variable) in the function is 1, 2 or 3.

The generalized form for a linear function (1 is highest power):

f(x) = ax + b, where a and b are constants, and a is not equal to 0.
The generalized form for a quadratic function (2 is highest power):
f(x) = ax2 + bx + c, where a, b and c are constants, and a is not equal to 0.
The generalized form for a cubic function (3 is highest power):
f(x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d,
where a, b, c and d are constants, and a is not equal to 0.

The roots of a function are defined as the points where the function f(x) = 0. For linear and
quadratic functions, this is fairly straight-forward, but the formula for a cubic is quite complicated
and higher powers get even more involved. We will see the derivation of the first two now will
go over the derivation of the first two now.
A linear equation is very simple to solve for f(x) = 0:

0 = ax + b

ax = b
x = b/( a) = b/a
where, a not equal to 0

The equation for the root of a quadratic is only slightly more complex. The idea is to isolate x by
putting the left side into the form (x + q)2 and then taking the square root. We do this by some
nifty algebra:

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Notes ax2 + bx + c = 0
x2 + (b/a)x + c/a = 0
Try to get (x+g)2 = x2 + (b/a)x + ??
[x2 + (b/a)x + b2/4a2] b2/4a2 + c/a = 0
[x + (b/2a)]2 ( b2/4a2 c/a) = 0
(x+(1/2)(b/a))2 = x2 + 2(1/2)(b/a)x +
[x + (b/2a)]2 = b2/4a2 c/a
(1/4)(b2/a2)
x+(b/2a) = ±sqrt(b2/4a2 4ac/4a2)
x = b/2a ±sqrt(b2 4ac)/2a
(x+b/2a)2 = x2 + (b/a)
x+(b/2a) = ±sqrt(b2/4a2 4ac/4a2)
x = (-b ±sqrt(b2 4ac))/2a

Even Function

Let f(x) be a real-valued function of a real variable. Then f is even if the following equation holds
for all x in the domain of f:

f(x) = f(–x)
Geometrically, the graph of an even function is symmetric with respect to the y-axis, meaning
that its graph remains unchanged after reflection about the y-axis.
Examples of even functions are |x|, x 2, x4, cos(x), and cosh(x).

Figure 6.9: Graph of Even Number

Odd Functions

Again, let f(x) is a real-valued function of a real variable. Then f is odd if the following equation
holds for all x in the domain of f:
f(x) = f ( x),

or f(x)+ f ( x) = 0
Geometrically, the graph of an odd function has rotational symmetry with respect to the origin,
meaning that its graph remains unchanged after rotation of 180 degrees about the origin.

Examples of odd functions are x, x 3, sin(x), sinh(x), and erf(x).

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6.1.3 Classification of Functions Notes

Depending upon the nature of their symbolic expressions, various functions can be classified
into the into different categories. A brief description of some common types of functions is
given in the following sections.

Polynomial Functions

A function of the form y = a0 + a1x + a2x2 + ..... + anxn, where n is a positive integer and ab an 0,
is called a polynomial function of degree n.
(i) If n = 0, we have y = a0, a constant function.

(ii) If n = 1, we have y = a0 + a1x, a linear function.1

(iii) If n = 2, we have y = a0 + a1x + a2x2, a quadratic or parabolic function.

(iv) If n = 3, we have y = a0 + a1x + a2x2 + a3x3, a cubic function etc.

Constant Functions

A function of the form y = f(x) = a0 for all real values of x, is a constant function. Graph of such a
function is a horizontal straight line with equation y = a0, as shown in Figure 6.10.

Figure 6.10

Linear Functions

y = a0 + a1x(a1 0) is a linear function. The graph of the linear function is a straight line. Here a0
is the value of y when x = 0, known as the intercept of the line on y-axis and a1 is the slope of the
line. If a1 > 0, the line slopes upward and when a1 < 0, the line slopes downward, as shown in
Figure 6.11 (a) and 6.11 (b) respectively.

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Notes Figure 6.11

1 0
1 0

0
0

0 0

(a) (b)

Alternatively, a linear function or the equation of a straight line can be written as:
(i) y = mx + c, where m is the slope and c is the intercept or
(ii) y – y1 = m(x – x1) is the equation of a line passing through the point (x1, y1) with slope m, or

y2 y1
(iii) y y1 ( x x1 ) is the equation of a line passing through two points (x1, y1) and
x2 x1
(x2, y2).

y2 y1
Note: is the slope of the line.
x2 x1

Linear Models in Economics

Linear relations are very frequently used in economic analysis very often even when a
relationship between economic variables is not linear, we use their linear approximation to
comprehend it better. Some applications of linear relations are illustrated in the following
examples.

Example

The population of a country was 80 crores in the year 2000 and it became 92 crores in the year
2008. Assuming that the population growth is linear;

(i) Find the relation between population and time.

(ii) Predict the population for the year 2010.

Solution:
(i) Assuming base year as 2000, we take x = 0 for the year 2000. Thus, x = 8 for 2008.

Let y denote population, thus

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When x = 0, y = 80 and when x = 8, y = 92. The equation of a line passing through the two Notes
92 80 3 3
points is y 80 ( x 0) . Thus, y 80 x or y x 80.
8 2 2
(ii) For the year 2010, x = 10.

3
y 10 80 95 crores will be the population in the year 2010.
2

Example

A cinema hall has 2000 seats and the revenue obtained from the sale of tickets in a particular
show was 62000. The price of two categories of seats were 25 and 40. Assuming that all the
seats were occupied, find the number of seats in each category.
Solution:

Let x be the number seats each with price 25, then 2000 – x will be the number of seats in the
other category. Thus, we can write
25x + 40(2000 – x) = 62000
15x = 80000 - 62000

18000
x= 1200
15
2000 – x = 2000 – 1200 = 800
Thus, the number of seats are 1200 with price 25 and 800 with price 40.

Example

An old photocopying machine can copy 10,000 pages in 5 hours. With the help of a new machine,
the job can be completed in 2 hours.
(i) How much time would the new machine require to do the job alone?
(ii) How many pages are copied by each machine when each machine is used for three hours?

Solution.

(i) Let x be the time needed for the new machine to complete the job.

1
Rate of work for the old machine units of work per hour.
5

1
Rate of work for the new machine units of work per hour
x

1 1
thus the work done by each macine in 2 hours is 2 and 2 respectively.
5 x

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Notes Hence, we can write

1 1
2 2=1
5 x
2x + 10 = 5x

10 1
or x = 3 hours.
3 3

1
Thus, the new machine will copy 10,000 papes in 3 hours.
3

1
(ii) Number of pages copied by old machine = 3 10000 6000.
5

3
Number of pages copied by new machine = 3 10000 9000.
10

Example

A retailer purchases two types of tea priced at 120 and 160 per kg. He wants to sell the mixture
of these two types of tea at a price of 150 per kg. How much of each should be used to produce
200 kgs of mixture so that there is no change in his revenue?
Solution:
Let x be the quantity of 120 per kg. tea used then 200 - x will be the quantity of 160 per kg tea.
120x + 160(200 – x) = 150 × 200
120x + 3200 – 160x = 30000
40x = 2000
x = 50

Thus, the retailer should use 50 kg of tea priced at 120 per kg and 150 kg of sugar priced at 160
kg.

Example

The total cost of manufacturing x units of a product is assumed to be linear. It consists of a fixed
cost plus a variable cost. If the total cost of manufacturing 200 units is 5,000 and total cost of
manufacturing 400 units is 8,000, find the cost function. What is the fixed cost of production?

Solution:
Let C be the total cost and x be the number of units manufactured. It is given that C = 5,000 when
x = 200 and C = 8,000 when x = 400.
Since the cost function is assumed to be linear, therefore we have to find the equation of a
straight line passing through the points (200, 5000) and (400, 8000).

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Notes
8000 5000
Thus, we have C - 5000 = x 200 15(x 200)
400 200
or C = 15x + 2000, is the required cost function.
Further, the fixed cost is 2,000.

Example

The demand and supply of a commodity are given by xd = 81000 – 160p and xs = –4500 + 125p,
where x denotes quantity and p denotes price. Find the equilibrium price and quantity.

Solution:
We know that xd x s in equilibrium
81000 – 160p = –4500 + 125p

Thus, 285p = 85500 or – t = 300

Also equilibrium quantity x = 81000 - 160 × 300 = 33000 units.

Example

When price of a commodity is 30 per unit, its demand and supply are 600 and 900 units
respectively. A price of 20 per unit changes the demand and supply to 1000 and 700 units
respectively. Assuming that the demand and supply equations are linear, find
(i) The demand equation
(ii) The supply equation
(iii) The equilibrium price and quantity
Solution:
Note: In both the situations of demand or supply, the price is an independent variable and the quantity a
dependent variable. However, while plotting them, price is taken on vertical axis and quantity on the
horizontal axis. This is an exception to the convention followed in most of the other topics of
economics as well as in other branches of science, where the independent variable is taken along
horizontal axis and the dependent variable along vertical axis.

(i) The demand equation is the equation of line passing through the points (600, 30) and
(1000, 20). Thus, we can write

30 20
p – 30 = ( xd – 600)
600 1000
On simplification, we get the demand equation as xd = 1800 – 40p.
(ii) The supply equation is the equation of a line passing through the points (900, 30) and
(700, 20). Thus, we can write

30 20
p – 30 = ( xs – 900)
900 700
On simplification, we get the supply equation as xs = 300 + 20p.

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Notes (iii) We have xs = xd in equilibrium

300 + 20p = 1800 – 40p

1500
or p= = 25 (equilibrium price)
60
Further, equilibrium quantity is x = 300 + 20 × 25 = 800 units.

Break-Even Point

Profit of a firm is given by the difference of its total revenue and total cost. Thus, profit = TR –
TC.

In general, when a firm starts the production of a commodity it operates at loss when its output
is below a certain level, say x, because the total revenue is not large enough to cover fixed costs.
However, as the level of output becomes greater than x, the firm starts getting profits. The level
of output x is termed as the break-even point. Thus, break-even point is the lowest level of output
at which the loss of the firm gets eliminated. It is given by the equation TR - TC = 0 (or TR = TC).

Example

A company decides to set up a small production plant for manufacturing electronic clocks. The
cost for initial set up is 9 lakhs. The additional cost for producing each clock is 300. Each clock
is sold at 750. During the first month, 1,500 clocks are produced and sold:
(i) Determine the total cost function C(x) for the production of x clocks.

(ii) Determine the revenue function R(x).

(iii) Determine the profit function P(x).
(iv) How much profit or loss the company incurs during the first month when all the 1,500
clocks are sold?
(v) Determine the break-even point.
Solution:
(i) We are given TFC = 9,00,000 and TVC(x) = 300x

Total cost function, C(x) = 9,00,000 + 300x

(ii) Total revenue function, R(x) = p.x = 750x
(iii) Profit function, P(x) = TR - TC = 750x - 9,00,000 - 300x

= 450x - 9,00,000

(iv) Profit when x = 1,500, is given as

P(1,500) = 450 × 1,500 - 9,00,000 = 6,75,000 - 9,00,000 = - 2,25000
Note that profit is negative. Thus, the company incurs a loss of 2,25,000 during first
month.
(v) We know that TR = TC, at the break-even point

750x = 9,00,000 + 300x

9, 00, 000
or 450x = 9,00,000 or x = = 2,000 clocks.
450

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Notes
Example

The total cost TC of producing x units of a commodity is given by TC = 2000 + 4x. If each unit is
sold at 20 per unit, find the level of output to make sure that the production breaks-even.
Solution:

We can write total revenue of producing x units as TR = 20x.

Profit p = TR - TC = 20x - 2000 - 4x = 16x - 2000

The break-even point is given by the level of output at which p = 0.

2000
Thus 16x – 2000 = 0 or x 125
16
Thus, at least 125 units should be produced to make sure that the firm does not incur losses.

6.1.4 Basic Properties

1. The only function which is both even and odd is the constant function which is identically
zero (i.e., f(x) = 0 for all x).

2. The sum of an even and odd function is neither even nor odd, unless one of the functions
is identically zero.
3. The sum of two even functions is even, and any constant multiple of an even function is
even.

4. The sum of two odd functions is odd, and any constant multiple of an odd function is odd.
5. The product of two even functions is an even function.
6. The product of two odd functions is an even function.
7. The product of an even function and an odd function is an odd function.
8. The quotient of two even functions is an even function.
9. The quotient of two odd functions is an even function.
10. The quotient of an even function and an odd function is an odd function.

11. The derivative of an even function is odd.

12. The derivative of an odd function is even.

13. The composition of two even functions is even, and the composition of two odd functions
is odd.

14. The composition of an even function and an odd function is even.

15. The composition of any function with an even function is even (but not vice-versa).
16. The integral of an odd function from A to +A is zero (where A is finite, and the function has
no vertical asymptotes between A and A).
17. The integral of an even function from A to +A is twice the integral from 0 to +A (where A
is finite, and the function has no vertical asymptotes between A and A).

18. Series
(a) The Maclaurin series of an even function includes only even powers.

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Notes (b) The Maclaurin series of an odd function includes only odd powers.
(c) The Fourier series of a periodic even function includes only cosine terms.

(d) The Fourier series of a periodic odd function includes only sine terms.

6.2 Rational Function

Rational functions and the properties of their graphs such as domain, vertical and horizontal
asymptotes, x and y intercepts are explored using an applet. The investigation of these functions
is carried out by changing parameters included in the formula of the function. Each parameter
can be changed continuously which allows a better understanding of the properties of the
graphs of these functions.

6.2.1 Definition and Domain of Rational Functions

A rational function is defined as the quotient of two polynomial functions.

f(x) = P(x) / Q(x)
Here are some examples of rational functions:
g(x) = (x2 + 1) / (x 1)
h(x) = (2x + 1) / (x + 3)
The rational functions to explored are of the form
f(x) = (ax + b)/(cx + d)
where a, b, c and d are parameters that may be changed, using sliders, to understand their effects
on the properties of the graphs of rational functions defined above.

6.2.2 Exponential Function

The function et.

The exponential function is denoted mathematically by et and in matlab by Exponent t. This

function is the solution to the world’s simplest, and perhaps most important, diferential equation,

y_ = ky

This equation is the basis for any mathematical model describing the time evolution of a quantity
with a rate of production that is proportional to the quantity itself.
Such models include populations, investments, feedback, and radioactivity. We are using t for
the independent variable, y for the dependent variable, k for the proportionality constant, and

dy
y
dt

for the rate of growth, or derivative, with respect to t. We are looking for a function that is
proportional to its own derivative.
Let’s start by examining the function

y = 2t
We know what 2 t means if t is an integer, 2 t is the t-th power of 2.

2 –1 = 1/2; 20 = 1; 21 = 1; 22 = 4

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We also know what 2 t means if t = p/q is a rational number, the ratio of two integers, 2 p/q is the Notes
qth root of the p th power of 2.

2 1/2 = 2 = 1.4142

Figure 6.12: Graphs of Exponents

Exponential graphs share these common features:

1. The graph will level out on the far right or the far left to some horizontal asymptote.

2. The graph “takes off” vertically, but it does not approach a vertical asymptote.
3. Rather, it simply becomes steeper and steeper.
4. The graph will have a characteristic “L” shape, if you zoom out enough.

Example: Graph y = 2x. Then use function shift rules to graph

y = 1 + 2x , y = 2(x – 3) , and y = 2–x.
If you simply calculate and plot some points for y = 2 x, you see that the graph levels out to the
horizontal axis and takes off vertically fairly quickly as shown below:

x 0 1 2 3 -1 -2
y 1 2 4 8 ½

Figure 6.13: Graph of y = 2 x

Now, to graph y = 1 + 2x, shift the graph up 1 unit and you get the graph shown below.
Notice that the graph levels out to the horizontal asymptote y = 1 instead of y = 0. Also, the
y-intercept (0,1) has been shifted up 1 to (0,2).

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Notes Figure 6.14: Graph of y = 1 + 2 x

To graph y = 2(x - 3), shift the graph right 3 unit and you get the graph shown below. The
y-intercept (0,1) has been shifted right 3 to (3,1).

To graph y = 2-x reflect the graph of y = 2X across the y-axis as shown below.

Figure 6.15: Graph of y = 2 (x - 3)

This graph, like y = 2 X, levels out to the horizontal asymptote y = 0, except on the right side
instead of the left.

Notes To graph exponential functions, you only need to find enough points to generate
the “L” shape of the graph. Also, use function shift rules if applicable to save a lot of time.
The Most Common Exponential Base – e

Many students assume that either 10 or 2 is the most common base, since those are the bases we
use. But, actually, the most common base is e, where e = 2.71828182846. . . , an irrational number.
Also, e is defined exactly as e = (1 + 1/m) m as m increases to infinity. You can see how this
definition produces e by inputting a large value of m like m = 10,000,000 to get (1 +
1/10000000)10000000 = 2.7182817 (rounded), which is very close to the actual n value.

Example: Graph y = eX
To graph this, you would input values much like you did to graph y = 2 X. The difference here is
that you will have to use a scientific calculator to find the function values. You will need to use
your eX function, which normally requires use of the 2nd function key.

X 0 1 2 3 1 2

Y 1 2.718 7.389 20.086 0.368 0.135

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Figure 6.16: Graph of y = 2 X

Notes

As you can see, the graph of y = e X is very similar to y = 2 X. The only difference is that the graph
levels off to y = 0 a bit quicker and it gets vertically steeper quicker.

Notes When graphing y = a X, the value of “a” determines how quickly the graph levels out
and takes off vertically. Otherwise, all of the graphs of this form will level out to y = 0 and
take off vertically forming an “L” shape.

6.3 Inverse Function

If two functions f(x) and g(x) are defined so that (f o g)(x) = x and (g o f)(x) = x we say that f(x) and
g(x) are inverse functions of each other.

6.3.1 Description of the Inverse Function

Functions f(x) and g(x) are inverses of each other if the operations of f(x) reverse all the operations
of g(x) in the reverse order and the operations of g(x) reverse all the operations of f(x) in the
reverse order.

Example: The function g(x) = 2x + 1 is the inverse of f(x) = (x - 1)/2 since the operation of
multiplying by 2 and adding 1 in g(x) reverses the operation of subtracting 1 and dividing by 2.
Likewise, the f(x) operations of subtracting 1 and dividing by 2 reverse the g(x) operations of
doubling and adding 1.
An invertible function is a function that can be inverted. An invertible function must satisfy the
condition that each element in the domain corresponds to one distinct element that no other
element in the domain corresponds to. That is, all of the elements in the domain and range are
paired-up in monogomous relationships - each element in the domain pairs to only one element
in the range and each element in the range pairs to only one element in the domain. Thus, the
inverse of a function is a function that looks at this relationship from the other viewpoint. So, for
all elements a in the domain of f(x), the inverse of f(x) (notation: f -1(x)) satisfies:

f(a) = b implies f-1(b) = a

And, if you do the slightest bit of manipulation, you find that:

f-1(f(a)) = a
Yielding the identity function for all inputs in the domain.

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Notes Figure 6.17: Functions and their Inverse

6.3.2 General Procedure for Finding the Inverse of a Function

Interchange the variables: First exchange the variables. Do this because to find the function that
goes the other way, by mapping the old range onto the old domain. So our new equation is
x = 2y 5.
Solution for y: The rest is simply solving for the new y, which gives us:
2y 5=x
2y= x + 5
y= (x + 5)/2
Hence, y-1(x)= (x + 5)/2
Find the inverse of the parabola by looking at the graph:

Figure 6.18: Graph of a Parabola showing the Inverse of Function

Because a parabola is not a one-to-one the inverse can’t exist because for various values of
x (all x > 0) f-1(x) has to take on two values. To solve this problem in taking inverses, in many
cases, people decide to simply limit the domain. For instance, by limiting the domain of the
parabola y = x2 to values of x > 0, we can say that the function’s inverse is y = +sqrt(x). Sqrt(x)
means the square root of x or x 1/2). This is done to let the trigonometric functions have
inverses.

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As you can see, we can’t take the inverse of sin(x) because it is not a one-to-one function. Notes
However, we can take the inverse of a subset of sin(x) with the domain of /2 to /2. The new
function inverse we get is called Sin -1(x) or Arc Sin(x).

Figure 6.19: Graphical Representation of Inverse of Sin(x)

Inverse Function Domain Range

Sin 1(x) {x: 1 x 1} /2 f(x) /2

Cos 1(x) {x: 1 x 1} 0 f(x)

Tan 1(x) {x: infinity x infinity} /2 f(x) /2

Cot 1(x) {x: infinity x infinity} 0 f(x)

Sec 1(x) {x: |x| 1} 0 f(x) , f(x) /2

Cosec 1(x) {x: |x| 1} 0 < |f(x)| /2

Another Method to Explain

(a) Consider the relation

This is a many-to-one function. Now let us find the inverse of this relation.
Pictorially, it can be represented as:

Clearly this relation does not represent a function.

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Notes (b) Now take another relation

It represents one-to-one onto function.

(c) Now let us find the inverse of this relation, which is represented pictorially as:

This does not represent a function, because element 6 of set B is not associated with any
element of A. Also note that the elements of B do not have a unique image.
(d) Let us take the following relation

It represent one-to-one into function.

(e) Graphical Representation of Functions

Since any function can be represented by ordered pairs, therefore, a graphical representation
of the function is always possible. For example, consider y = x 2.

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Notes

Does this represent a function?

Yes, this represent a function because corresponding to each value of x & $ a is unique value
of y.

Now consider the equation x2 + y2 = 25

x2 + y2 = 25

x 0 0 3 3 4 4 5 5 3 3 4 4

y 5 5 4 4 3 3 0 0 4 4 3 3

Consider the function f(x) = 2x + 1. We know how to evaluate f at 3, f(3) = 2*3 + 1 = 7. In this section
it helps to think of f as transforming a 3 into a 7, and f transforms a 5 into an 11, etc.

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Notes

Now that we think of f as “acting on” numbers and transforming them, we can define the inverse
of f as the function that “undoes” what f did. In other words, the inverse of f needs to take 7 back
to 3, and take -3 back to -2, etc.

Let g(x) = (x - 1)/2. Then g(7) = 3, g(-3) = -2, and g(11) = 5, so g seems to be undoing what f did, at
least for these three values. To prove that g is the inverse of f we must show that this is true for
any value of x in the domain of f. In other words, g must take f(x) back to x for all values of x in
the domain of f. So, g(f(x)) = x must hold for all x in the domain of f. The way to check this
condition is to see that the formula for g(f(x)) simplifies to x.
g(f(x)) = g(2x + 1) = (2x + 1 -1)/2 = 2x/2 = x.
This simplification shows that if we choose any number and let f act it, then applying g to the
result recovers our original number. We also need to see that this process works in reverse, or
that f also undoes what g does.

f(g(x)) = f((x - 1)/2) = 2(x - 1)/2 + 1 = x - 1 + 1 = x.

Letting f-1 denote the inverse of f, we have just shown that g = f -1.

6.3.3 Graphs of Inverse Functions

We have seen examples of reflections in the plane. The reflection of a point (a,b) about the x-axis
is (a, -b), and the reflection of (a, b) about the y-axis is (-a, b). Now we want to reflect about the
line y = x.
Figure 6.20: The Reflection of the point (a,b) about the line y = x is the point (b, a)

Let f(x) = x3 + 2. Then f(2) = 10 and the point (2, 10) is on the graph of f. The inverse of f must take
10 back to 2, i.e. f-1(10)=2, so the point (10, 2) is on the graph of f -1. The point (10, 2) is the reflection
in the line y = x of the point (2, 10). The same argument can be made for all points on the graphs
of f and f-1.

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Figure 6.21: The graph of f -1 is the reflection about the line y = x of the graph of f Notes

6.3.4 Existence of an Inverse

Some functions do not have inverse functions. For example, consider f(x) = x 2. There are two
numbers that f takes to 4, f(2) = 4 and f(-2) = 4. If f had an inverse, then the fact that f(2) = 4 would
imply that the inverse of f takes 4 back to 2. On the other hand, since f(-2) = 4, the inverse of f
would have to take 4 to -2. Therefore, there is no function that is the inverse of f.
Look at the same problem in terms of graphs. If f had an inverse, then its graph would be the
reflection of the graph of f about the line y = x. The graph of f and its reflection about y = x are
drawn below.

Note that the reflected graph does not pass the vertical line test, so it is not the graph of a
function.
This generalizes as follows: A function f has an inverse if and only if when its graph is reflected
about the line y = x, the result is the graph of a function (passes the vertical line test). But this can
be simplified. We can tell before we reflect the graph whether or not any vertical line will
intersect more than once by looking at how horizontal lines intersect the original graph!

6.3.5 Horizontal Line Test

Let f be a function.

If any horizontal line intersects the graph of f more than once, then f does not have an inverse.
If no horizontal line intersects the graph of f more than once, then f does have an inverse.

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Notes 6.3.6 Finding Inverses

Example: First consider a simple example f(x) = 3x + 2.

The graph of f is a line with slope 3, so it passes the horizontal line test and does have an inverse.

There are two steps required to evaluate f at a number x. First we multiply x by 3, then we
add 2.

Thinking of the inverse function as undoing what f did, we must undo these steps in reverse
order.
The steps required to evaluate f-1 are to first undo the adding of 2 by subtracting 2. Then we undo
multiplication by 3 by dividing by 3.

Therefore, f-1(x) = (x - 2)/3.

Steps for finding the inverse of a function f.

1. Replace f(x) by y in the equation describing the function.

2. Interchange x and y. In other words, replace every x by a y and vice-versa.

3. Solve for y.
4. Replace y by f-1(x).

6.4 Logarithmic Function

The logarithmic function is defined as the inverse of the exponential function.

Parameters included in the definition of the logarithmic function may be changed, using sliders,
to investigate its properties. The continuous (small increments) changes of these parameters
help in gaining a deep understanding of logarithmic functions. The function to be explored has
the form
f(x) = a*logB[ b (x+c) ] + d
a, b, c and d are coefficients and B is the base of the logarithm.
For B > 0 and B not equal to 1, y = Log B x is equivalent to x = By.

Notes The logarithm to the base e is written ln(x).

Example:
1. f(x) = log2x
2. g(x) = log4x
3. h(x) = log0.5x

Consider the function given below:

y = ex …(1)

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Figure 6.22: Graphical Representation of Logarithmic Functions Notes

We can write it equivalently as:

x = log ey

Thus, y = log ex …(2)

is the inverse function of y = ex
The base of the logarithm is not written if it is e and so log ex is usually written as log x.
As y = ex and y = log x are inverse functions, their graphs are also symmetric with respect to the
line
y = x
The graph of the function y = log x can be obtained from that of y = ex by reflecting it in the line
y = x.

Some more examples of logarithmic function are given below:

Example: f is a function given by

f (x) = log2 (x + 2)

1. Find the domain of f and range of f.

2. Find the vertical asymptote of the graph of f.

3. Find the x and y intercepts of the graph of f if there are any.

4. Sketch the graph of f.

Solution:
1. The domain of f is the set of all x values such that

x+2>0

or x > -2

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Notes The range of f is the interval (-inf , +inf).

2. The vertical asymptote is obtained by solving

x+2=0

which gives
x = -2

As x approaches -2 from the right (x > -2), f(x) decreases without bound. How do we know
this?
Let us take some values:

f(-1) = log2 (-1 + 2) = log2 (1) = 0

f(-1.5) = log2 (-1.5 + 2) = log2 (1/2) = -1

f(-1.99) = log2 (-1.99 + 2) = log2 (0.01) which is approximately equal to -6.64.

f(-1.999999) = log2 (-1.999999 + 2) = log 2 (0.000001) which is approximately equal
to -19.93.

3. To find the x intercept we need to solve the equation f(x) = 0

log2 (x + 2) = 0
Use properties of logarithmic and exponential functions to write the above equation as:
2log2 (x + 2) = 20
Then simplify
x+2 = 1
x = -1
The x intercept is at (-1, 0).
The y intercept is given by (0, f(0)) = (0, log 2 (0 + 2)) = (0, 1).
4. So far we have the domain, range, x and y intercepts and the vertical asymptote. We need
more points. Let us consider a point at x = -3/2 (half way between the x intercept and the
vertical asymptote) and another point at x = 2.

f(-3/2) = log2 (-3/2 + 2) = log2 (1/2) = log2 (2 - 1) = -1.

f(2) = log2 (2 + 2) = log2 (22) = 2.

We now have more information on how to graph f. The graph increases as x increases.
Close to the vertical asymptote x = -2, the graph of f decreases without bound as x approaches
-2 from the right. The graph never cuts the vertical asymptote. We now join the different
points by a smooth curve.

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Figure 6.23: Graph of f(x) = log2 (x + 2) Notes

6.5 Composition of Functions

Function is a relation on two sets by a rule. It is a special mapping between two sets. It emerges
that it is possible to combine two functions, provided co-domain of one function is domain of
another function. The composite function is a relation by a new rule between sets, which are not
common to the functions.
We can understand composition in terms of two functions. Let there be two functions defined as:
f:A B by f(x) for all x A

g:B C by g(x) for all x B

Observe that set “B” is common to two functions. The rules of the functions are given by “f(x)”
and “g(x)” respectively. Our objective here is to define a new function h: A C and its rule.
Thinking in terms of relation, “A” and “B” are the domain and co -domain of the function “f”.
It means that every element “x” of “A” has an image “f(x)” in “B”.
Similarly, thinking in terms of relation, “B” and “C” are the domain and co-domain of the
function “g”. In this function, “f(x)” - which was the image of pre-image “x” in “A” - is now
pre-image for the function “g”. There is a corresponding unique image in set “C”. Following the
symbolic notation, “f(x)” has image denoted by “g(f(x))” in “C”. The figure here depicts the
relationship among three sets via two functions (relations) and the combination function.

Figure 6.24: Composition Functions is a Special Relation

between sets not Common to two Functions

6.5.1 Composition of Two Functions

For every element, “x” in “A”, there exists an element f(x) in set “B”. This is the requirement of
function “f” by definition. For every element “f(x)” in “B”, there exists an element g(f(x)) in set

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Notes “B”. This is the requirement of function “g” by definition. It follows, then, that for every element
“x” in “A”, there exists an element g(f(x)) in set “C”. This concluding statement is definition of
a new function:

h:A C by g(f(x)) for all x A

By convention, we call this new function as “g o f” and is read as “g circle f” or “g composed with
f”. g o f(x) = g(f(x)) for all x A

The two symbolical representations are equivalent.

Example: Let two sets be defined as :

h:R Rby x2 for all x R

k:R Rby x + 1 for all x R

Determine “h o k” and “k o h”.

Solution:
According to definition,

h o k(x) = h(k(x))
h o k(x) = h(x + 1)

h o k(x) = (x + 1)2
Again, according to definition,
k o h(x) = k(h(x))
k o h(x) = k(x2)
k o h(x) = (x2 + 1)
Importantly note that h o k(x) k o h(x). It indicates that composition of functions is not
commutative.

6.5.2 Existence of Composition Set

In accordance with the definition of function, “f”, the range of “f” is a subset of its co-domain “B”.
But, set “B” is the domain of function “g” such that there exists image g(f(x)) in “C” for every “x”
in “A”. This means that range of “f” is subset of domain of “g”:

Range of “f” Domain of “g”.

Clearly, if this condition is met, then composition “g o f” exists. Following this conclusion,
“f o g” will exist, if
Range of “g” Domain of “f”

And, if both conditions are met simultaneously, then we can conclude that both “g o f” and “f o
g” exist. Such possibility is generally met when all sets involved are set of real numbers, “R”.

Example: Let two functions be defined as:

f = {(1,2),(2,3),(3,4),(4,5)}
g = {(2,4),(3,2),(4,3),(5,1)}

Check whether “g o f” and “f o g” exit for the given functions.

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Solution: Notes

Here,

Domain of “f” = {1,2,3,4}

Range of “f” = {2,3,4,5}

Domain of “g” = {2,3,4,5}

Range of “g” = {4,2,3,1} = {1,2,3,4}

Hence,

Range of “f” Domain of “g” and

Range of “g” Domain of “f”

It means that both compositions “g o f” and “f o g” exist for the given sets.

Another Method of Explanation

Consider the two functions given below:

y = 2x + 1, x {1,2,3}
z = y + 1, y {3,5,7}
Then z is the composition of two functions x and y because z is defined in terms of y and y in terms
of x.

Figure 6.25: Graphical Representation

The composition, say, g o f of function g and f is defined as function g of function f.

If f : A B and g : B C

then g o f : A to C
Let f(x) = 3x + 1 and g(x) = x2 + 2

Then f o g(x) = f(g(x))

= f(x2 + 2)

= 3(x2 + 2) + 1 = 3x2 + 7 …(1)

and (g o f) (x) = g(f(x) )

= g(3x + 1)
= (3x + 1)2 + 2 = 9x2 + 6x + 3 …(2)

Check from (1) and (2), if

fog = gof

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Notes Evidently, f o g # g o f
Similarly, (f o f) (x) = f(f(x) ) = f(3x + 1) [Read as function of function f ].

= 3(3x + 1) + 1

= 9x +3 + 1 = 9x + 4
(g o g)(x) = g(g(x)) = g(x2 + 2) [Read as function of function g]

= (x2 + 2)2 + 2
= x4 + 4x2 + 4 + 2

= x4 + 4x2 + 6

6.6 Summary

The sum of two odd functions is odd, and any constant multiple of an odd function is odd.
The product of two even functions is an even function.

The product of two odd functions is an even function.

The integral of an odd function from A to +A is zero (where A is finite, and the function has
no vertical asymptotes between A and A).
The integral of an even function from A to +A is twice the integral from 0 to +A (where A
is finite, and the function has no vertical asymptotes between A and A).
A rational function is defined as the quotient of two polynomial functions.
f(x) = P(x) / Q(x)

6.7 Keywords

Functions: Functions are mathematical ideas that take one or more variables and produce a
variable.
Logarithmic Function: It is defined as inverse of exponential functions.
Odd Function: The graph of an odd function has rotational symmetry with respect to origin.

Rational Funciton: It is defined as the quotient of two polynomial functions.

6.8 Self Assessment

1. The graph of even function is ………… with respect to y-axis, meaning that its graph
remain unchanged after reflection about y-axis.
2. The roots of a function are defined as the point where the function …………

3. The Investigation of ………… function is carried by changing parameter included in the

formula of the function.
4. The graph of an ………… function has rotational symmetry with respect to the origin.

5. ………… is denoted mathematicaly by et and in matlab by exp(t).

6. An invertible function is a function that can be …………

7. If f(x) be a real valued function of a real variable then f is even function is equals to …………

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8. The quotient of two odd function is ………… Notes

9. If f(x) is real valued function of a real variable then f is odd function if ………… equation
holds.
10. The Composition of an even function and an odd function is …………

6.9 Review Questions

1. Which of the following are exponential functions?

(a) f(x) = 3e-2 x

(b) g(x) = 2x/2

(c) h(x) = x3/2

(d) g(x) = 15/7x

2. What is the domain of an exponential function f(x) = kb x? What is the range? Describe the
shape of the graph for b > 1, and for b < 1. What happens to f(x) in each case when x becomes
very large (increases without bound) and as x becomes very small (decreases without
bound)? Are there any horizontal asymptotes?
3. Solve the following equations. You should not need to use logarithms for the first three.
(a) 2x = 32
(b) 5x = 1/125
(c) (1/3)2x = 243
(d) 45 = 53x
(e) 500 = 1000e-.75 x
(f) 56 = 14(1 + e.195 x)
4. The population of bacteria in a culture is growing exponentially. At 12:00 there were 80
bacteria present and by 4:00 PM there were 500 bacteria. Find an exponential function f(t)
= keat that models this growth, and use it to predict the size of the population at 8:00 PM.

5. The last nuclear test explosion was carried out by the French on an island in the south
Pacific in 1996. Immediately after the explosion, the level of strontium-90 on the island
was 100 times the level considered to be “safe” for human habitation. If the half -life of
Strontium-90 is 28 years, how long will it take for the island to once again be habitable?

6. Which of the following functions are onto function if f : R R

(a) f(x) = 115x + 49

(b) f(x) = |x|

7. Which of the following functions are one-to-one functions?

(a) f : {20,21,22} {40,42,44} defined as f(x) = 2x

(b) f : {7,8,9} {10} defined as f(x) = 10

(c) f:I R defined as f(x) = x3

(d) f:R R defined as f(x) = 2 + x4

(e) f:N N defined as f(x) = x2 + 2x

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Notes 8. Which of the following functions are many-to-one functions?

(a) f : { 2, 1,1,2} {2,5} defined as f(x) =x 2 + 1

(b) f : {0,1,2} {1} defined as f(x) = 1

(c)

(d) f:N N defined as f(x) = 5x + 7

9. Draw the graph of each of the following functions :

(a) y = 3x2
(b) y = x2
(c) y = x2 2
(d) y=5 x2
(e) y = 2x2 + 1
(f) y=1 2x2
10. Which of the following graphs represents a functions?

(a)

(b)

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Answers: Self Assessment Notes

1. Symmetric 2. f(x) = 0
3. Rational Function 4. Odd Function

5. Exponential Function 6. Inverted

7. f(x) = f(-x) 8. Even Function

9. -f(x) = f(-x) 10. Even Function

6.10 Further Readings

Books Husch, Lawrence S. Visual Calculus, University of Tennessee, 2001.

Smith and Minton, Calculus Early Trancendental, Third Edition, McGraw Hill 2008.

Online links http://www.suitcaseofdreams.net/Trigonometric_Functions.htm

http://library.thinkquest.org/20991/alg2/trigi.html
http://www.intmath.com/trigonometric functions/5 signs of trigonometric
functions.php

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Notes Unit 7: Limits

CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
7.1 Limits and Function Values
7.1.1 Properties of Limits
7.1.2 Limit of a Difference Quotient
7.1.3 Laws of Limits
7.2 Limits of a Function
7.2.1 Limits of Left and Right Hand
7.3 Tangents and Limits
7.4 The Pinching or Sandwich Theorem
7.5 Infinite Limits
7.6 Basic Theorems of Limits
7.6.1 Limits of Important Functions
7.7 Summary
7.8 Keywords
7.9 Self Assessment
7.10 Review Questions
7.11 Further Readings

Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
Discuss limits of a function
Explain how to use the basic theorems on limits

Introduction
In the last unit you have studied about functions. In this unit you are going to study limits and
continuity. Let f be a function and let c be a real number such that f(x) is defined for all values
of x near x = c, except possibly at x = c itself. Suppose that whenever x takes values closer and
closer but not equal to c (on both sides of c), the corresponding values of f(x) get very close to and
possibly equal to the same real number L. The values of f(x) can be made arbitrarily close to L by
taking values of x close enough to c, but not equal to c.
The limit of the function f(x) as x approaches c is the number L.

=L

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7.1 Limits and Function Values Notes

If the limit of a function f as x approaches c exists, this limit may not be equal to f(c). In fact, f(c)
may not even be defined.

Non-existence of Limits

The limit of a function f as x approaches c may fail to exist if:

f(x) becomes infinitely large or infinitely small as x approaches c from either side.
f(x) approaches L as x approaches c from the right and f(x) approaches M, M L, as x
approaches c from the left.
f(x) oscillates infinitely many times between two numbers as x approaches c from either side.
Limit of a Constant
If d is a constant, then = d.

Limit of the Identity Function

For every real number c, =c

7.1.1 Properties of Limits

If f and g are functions and c, L, and M are numbers such that and then
=

=L+M
=

=L–M
=

=L∙M
=

= L/M, M 0
= f(x) 0 for all x near c.

Limits of Polynomial Functions

If f(x)is a polynomial function and c is any real number, then f(x) = f(c). In other words, the

limit is the value of the polynomial function f at x = c.

Limits of Rational Functions

Let f(x) be a rational function and let c be a real number such that f(c) is defined. Then f(x)
= f(c).

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Notes 7.1.2 Limit of a Difference Quotient

Example: Difference quotient of a function f is given by

If f(x) = x2, find .

Solution:

7.1.3 Laws of Limits

Calculating limits using graphs and tables takes a lot of unnecessary time and work. Using the
limit laws listed below, limits can be calculated much more quickly and easily.
Let and exist and let c be a constant.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

The following properties are special limit laws:

7.

8.

From the limit laws above, comes the property of direct substitution. This property makes it
possible to solve most rational and polynomial functions. The property of direct substitution
states: For any rational or polynomial function f, if a is in the domain of f then

= f(a)

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Often, the method of direct substitution cannot be used because a is not in the domain of f. In Notes
these cases, it is sometimes possible to factor the function and eliminate terms so that the function
is defined at the point a.

Consider the function f(x)=

You can see that the function f(x) is not defined at x = 1 as x–1 is in the denominator. Take
the value of x very nearly equal to but not equal to 1 as given in the tables below. In this case
x–1 0 as x 1.

We can write f(x) = = = x + 1, because x–1 0 and so division by

(x – 1) is possible.

x f(x) x f(x)
0.5 1.5 1.9 2.9
0.6 1.6 1.8 2.8
0.7 1.7 1.7 2.7
0.8 1.8 1.6 2.6
0.9 1.9 1.5 2.5
0.91 1.91 : :
: : : :
: : 1.1 2.1
0.99 1.99 1.01 2.01
: : 1.001 2.001
: : : :
0.9999 1.9999 : :
1.00001 2.00001
In the above tables, you can see that as x gets closer to 1, the corresponding value of f (x) also gets
closer to 2.
However, in this case f(x) is not defined at x = 1. The idea can be expressed by saying that the
limiting value of f(x) is 2 when x approaches to 1.
Let us consider another function f (x) = 2x. Here, we are interested to see its behavior near the
point 1 and at x = 1. We find that as x gets nearer to 1, the corresponding value of f (x) gets closer
to 2 at x = 1 and the value of f (x) is also 2.
So from the above findings, what more can we say about the behaviour of the function near
x = 2 and at x = 2 ?
In this unit we propose to study the behaviour of a function near and at a particular point where
the function may or may not be defined.

7.2 Limits of a Function

In the introduction, we considered the function f(x) = We have seen that as x approaches l,
f (x) approaches 2. In general, if a function f (x) approaches L when x approaches ‘a’, we say that
L is the limiting value of f (x).
Symbolically it is written as
=L

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Notes Now let us find the limiting value of the function (5x–3) when x approaches 0.

i.e.
For finding this limit, we assign values to x from left and also from right of 0.
x –0.1 –0.01 –0.001 –0.0001..........
5x – 3 –3.5 –3.05 –3.005 –3.0005..........
x –0.1 –0.01 –0.001 –0.0001..........
5x – 3 –2.5 –2.95 –2.995 –2.9995..........
It is clear from the above that the limit of (5x–3) as x 0 is –3
= –3
i.e.,
This is illustrated graphically in the Figure 7.1.

Figure 7.1

The method of finding limiting values of a function at a given point by putting the values of the
variable very close to that point may not always be convenient.
We, therefore, need other methods for calculating the limits of a function as x (independent
variable) ends to a finite quantity.

Consider an example: Find

We can solve it by the method of substitution. Steps of which are as follows:

Step 1: We consider a value of x close to a say x For f(x) = we write x = 3 + h, so that

= a + h, where h is a very small positive
number. Clearly, as x a, h 0 as x 3, h 0

Step 2: Simplify f(x) = f(a + h) Now f(x) = f(3+h)

= h+6
Contd...

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= Notes
Step 3: Put h = 0 and get the required result

As x 0, h 0
Thus, =6+0=6

by putting h=0

Consider the example:

Find , where f(x) =

Here, for x 1, f(x) =

It shows that if f(x) is of the form , then we may be able to solve it by the method of factors .

In such case, we follow the following steps:

Step 1: Factorise g(x) and h (x)

Sol. f(x) =

(Q x 1. x–1 0 and as such can be cancelled)

Step 2: Simplify f(x)

f(x) =

Step 3: Putting the value of

x, we get the required =
limit
Also f(1) = 1(given)
In this case,

Thus, the limit of a function f (x) as x a may be different from the value of the function at
x = a.
Now, we take an example which cannot be solved by the method of substitutions or method of
factors.

Evaluate

Here, we do the following steps:

Step 1: Rationalise the factor containing square root.
Step 2: Simplify.

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Notes Step 3: Put the value of x and get the required result.
Solution

=
[Q x 0, \ It can be cancelled]

Evaluate the following:

1. 2.

3. 4.

7.2.1 Limits of Left and Right Hand

You have already seen that x a means x takes values which are very close to ‘a’, i.e. either the
value is greater than ‘a’ or less than ‘a’.
In case x takes only those values which are less than ‘a’ and very close to ‘a’ then we say x is
approaches ‘a’ from the left and we write it as x a–. Similarly, if x takes values which are greater
than ‘a’ and very close to ‘a’ then we say x is approaching ‘a’ from the right and we write it as x
a+.
Thus, if a function f(x) approaches a limit l 1, as x approaches ‘a’ from left, we say that the left
hand limit of f(x) as x a is l 1.

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We denote it by writing Notes

or

Similarly, if f(x) approaches the limit l 2, as x approaches ‘a’ from right we say, that the right hand
limit of f(x) as x a is l 2.
We denote it by writing
or

Working Rules
Finding the right hand limit i.e., Finding the left hand limit, i.e.,

Put x = a+h Put x=a – h

Find Find

Limits of a function Y = f(x) at x = a

Example: Find where f(x) = x2 + 5x +3

Here =

= 1+5+3=9 ....(i)
and =

= 1+5+3=9 ....(ii)
From (i) and (ii), =

Example: Evaluate:

Here =

= (as h>0, so|h|= h)

= 1 ...(iii)

and =

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Notes
=

= (as h>0, so|–h|=h)

= –1 ...(iv)

From (iii) and (iv),

Thus, in the first example right hand limit = left hand limit whereas in the second example right
hand limit left hand limit.
Hence the left hand and the right hand limits may not always be equal.
We may conclude that

exists (which is equal to 9) and does not exist.

7.3 Tangents and Limits

A tangent to a curve is a straight line that touches the curve at a single point but does not intersect
it at that point. For example, in the figure to the right, the y­axis would not be considered a
tangent line because it intersects the curve at the origin. A secant to a curve is a straight line that
intersects the curve at two or more points.

In the figure given below, the tangent line intersects the curve at a single point P but does not
intersect the curve at P. The secant line intersects the curve at points P and Q.

The concept of limits begins with the tangent line problem. We want to find the equation of the
tangent line to the curve at the point P. To find this equation, we will need the slope of the tangent
line. But how can we find the slope when we only know one point on the line? The answer is to
look at the slope of the secant line. It’s slope can be determined quite easily since there are two
known points P and Q. As you slide the point Q along the curve, towards the point P, the slope of
the secant line will become closer to the slope of the tangent line. Eventually, the point Q will be
so close to P, that the slopes of the tangent and secant lines will be approximately equal.
A limit of a function is written as:
=L

We want to find the limit of f(x) as x approaches a. To do this, we try to make the values of
f(x) close to the limit L, by taking x values that are close to, but not equal to, a. In short, f(x)
approaches L as x approaches a.

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Notes

As explained a tangent to a curve is a line that touches the curve at a single point, P (a,f(a)). The
tangent line T is the line through the point P with the slope:

m=

given that this limit exists. The graph to the right illustrates how the slope of the tangent line is
derived. The slope of the secant line PQ is given by f(x)–f(a)/x–a. As x approaches a, the slope of
PQ becomes closer to the slope of the tangent line T. If we take the limit of the slope of the secant
line as x approaches a, it will be equal to the slope of the tangent line T.

The slope of the tangent line becomes much easier to calculate if we consider the following
conditions. If we let the distance between x and a be h, so that x= a h, and substitute that
equality for x in the slope formula, we get:

m=

Either of the limit formulas above can be used to find the slope. You will obtain the
same answer using either formula.

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Notes These formulas have many practical applications. They can be used to find the instantaneous
rates of change of variables. For example, if we use the formula above, the instantaneous velocity
at time t = a is equal to the limit of f(a h) – f(a)/h as h approaches 0.

Example: Find the equation of the tangent line to the curve at the point (2, 3).
Solution:

We are given that a = 2 and f(x) = Substituting these values into the slope of a tangent
line formula, we have
m =

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Notes
Give that the slope of the line is and is passes through the point (2, 3), we can find the equation

of the tangent line using the point­slope formula.

y – y1 = m(x – m1)

y–3 =

3y – 9 = x – 2
x – 3y + 7 = 0

The equation of the tangent line to the curve at the point (2, 3) is
x – 3y + 7 = 0.

7.4 The Pinching or Sandwich Theorem

As a motivation let us consider the function

f(x) =

When x get closer to 0, the function fails to have a limit. So we are not able to use the

basic properties discussed in the previous pages. But we know that this function is
bounded below by –1 and above by 1, i.e.

for any real number x. Since x2 0, we get

Hence when x get closer to 0, x2 and –x2 become very small in magnitude. Therefore any number
in between will also be very small in magnitude. In other words, we have

This is an example for the following general result:

Theorem: The “Pinching” or “Sandwich” Theorem
Assume that
h(x) f(x) g(x)
for any x in an interval around the point a. If

then

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Notes
Example: Let f(x) be a function such that |f(x)| M, for any x 0. The Sandwich Theorem
implies

Indeed, we have
|x f(x)| M|x|
which implies
–M |x| x f(x) M|x|
for any x 0. Since

then the Sandwich Theorem implies

Example: Use the Sandwich Theorem to prove that

for any a > 0.

Solution:
For any x > 0, we have

Hence

because for any x > 0. In particular, we have

Since

the Sandwich Theorem implies

or equivalently

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Notes
Example: Use the Sandwich Theorem to prove that

Solution:
For any x 0, we have

Hence

Since

then the Sandwich Theorem implies

Example: Consider the function

Use the Sandwich Theorem to prove that

Solution:
Since we are considering the limit when x gets closer to 0, then we may assume that |x| 1. In
this case, we have x4 x2 2x2. Hence for any x, we have
1 f(x) 1 + 2x2.
Since then the Sandwich Theorem implies

7.5 Infinite Limits

Some functions “take off” in the positive or negative direction (increase or decrease without
bound) near certain values for the independent variable. When this occurs, the function is said to
have an infinite limit; hence, you write Note also that the function
has a vertical asymptote at x = c if either of the above limits hold true.
In general, a fractional function will have an infinite limit if the limit of the denominator is zero
and the limit of the numerator is not zero. The sign of the infinite limit is determined by the sign
of the quotient of the numerator and the denominator at values close to the number that the
independent variable is approaching.

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Notes
Example: Evaluate
As x approaches 0, the numerator is always positive and the denominator approaches 0 and is

always positive; hence, the function increases without bound and The function has
a vertical asymptote at x = 0 (see Figure 7.2).
Figure 7.2: The Graph of y = 1/ x2

Example: Evaluate
As x approaches 2 from the left, the numerator approaches 5, and the denominator approaches 0
through negative values; hence, the function decreases without bound and (x + 3)/(x – 2) = – .
The function has a vertical asymptote at x = 2.

Example: Evaluate
Rewriting 1/ x2 1/ x3 as an equivalent fractional expression ( x 1)/ x3, the numerator approaches
−1, and the denominator approaches 0 through positive values as x approaches 0 from the right;
hence, the function decreases without bound and The function has a
vertical asymptote at x = 0.
A word of caution: Do not evaluate the limits individually and subtract because ∞ are not real
numbers. Using this example,

1. Find each of the following limits if it exists. Specify any horizontal or vertical asymptotes
of the graphs of the functions.
(a)

(b)

Solution

(a) There are no horizontal asymptotes. Since –x2 is defined everywhere,

there are no vertical asymptotes.
(b) There are no horizontal asymptotes. Since x – x2 is

defined for every x, there are no vertical asymptotes.

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2. Find the following limit if it exists. Specify any horizontal or vertical asymptotes of the Notes
graph of the function.

Solution
As x – , cos x keeps ocillating between 1 and –1, so cos 2 x keeps oscillating between
0 and 1, thus cos2 x + 1 keeps oscillating between 1 and 2. Consequently,

doesn’t exist. There are no horizontal asymptotes. As cos2 x + 1 is defined everywhere, there
are no vertical asymptotes.

3. Let

Determine:

Specify horizontal and vertical asymptotes if any.

Solution
As x , cos2 x + 1 keeps oscillating between 1 and 2. So:

Also:

Thus doesn’t exist.

The horizontal asymptote is the x­axis. The vertical asymptote is the y­axis.

4. Let

Determine:

Specify horizontal and vertical asymptotes if any.

Solution

When x –7+, we have 2x – 1 –15 < 0 and x + 7 0 and x + 7 > 0, so:

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Notes When x –7–, we have 2x – 1 –15 < 0 and x + 7 0 and x + 7 < 0, so:

Thus doesn’t exist.

The line y = 2 is the horizontal asymptote. The line x = –7 is a vertical asymptote.

5. Find any horizontal and vertical asymptotes of each of the following functions.

(a) for all x > 2.

(b) for all x > 2.

(c) for all x 2

Solution

(a)
the horizontal asymptote of f is the x­axis.

the vertical asymptote of f is the line x = 2.

(b)

the horizontal asymptote of g is the x­axis.

the vertical asymptote of g is the line x = 2.

(c)

a horizontal asymptote of h is the x­axis;

7.6 Basic Theorems of Limits

1.

To verify this, consider the function f(x) = 5x.

We observe that in , 5 being a constant is not affected by the limit.

where g(x), h(x), P(x), ..... are any function.

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3. Notes

To verify this, consider

f(x) = 5x2 + 2x + 3
and g(x) = x + 2
Then =

...(i)

Again =

= 6 ...(ii)
From (i) and (ii),
=

4.

We have = (–1)2 + 5 (–1) + 6

= 1– 5 + 6
=2
and = –1 + 2

=1

= ....(i)

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Notes = –1+3 = 2 ....(ii)

From (i) and (ii),

We have seen above that there are many ways that two given functions may be combined to form
a new function. The limit of the combined function as x a can be calculated from the limits of
the given functions. To sum up, we state below some basic results on limits, which can be used
to find the limit of the functions combined with basic operations.

(i)

(ii)

(iii)

(iv)

The above results can be easily extended in case of more than two functions.

Example: Find , where

f(x) =

Solution:

f(x) =

= (x + 1) [Q x 1]
=

= 1+1=2

1. Show that f(x) = is a continuous function.

2. Show that f(x) = is a continuous function.

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7.6.1 Limits of Important Functions Notes

(i) Prove that where n is a positive integer.

Proof: =

= n ∙ an–1

(ii) Prove that

(a) and (b)

Proof: Consider a unit circle with centre B, in which C is a right angle and C = x radians.

Now sinx = A C and cosx =BC

As x decreases, A goes on coming nearer and nearer to C.
i.e., when x C
or when x C 0
and BC AB i.e., BC 1
When x 0 sinx 0 and cosx 1

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Notes Thus we have

(iii) Prove that

Proof: Draw a circle of radius 1 unit and with centre at the origin O. Let B (1,0) be a point on the
circle. Let A be any other point on the circle. Draw AC OX.

Let AOX = x radians, where 0 < x <

Draw a tangent to the circle at B meeting OA produced at D. Then BD OX.

Area of AOC< area of sector OBA< area of OBD.

or OC AC < x(1)2 < OB BD

cos x sin x < x< ∙ 1 ∙ tan x

i.e.,

or

or

i.e.,

Taking limit as x 0, we get

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Notes
or

Thus,

(iv) Prove that

Proof: By Binomial theorem, when |x|<1, we get

= e (By definition)

Thus

(v) Prove that

= log e

= 1

(vi) Prove that

Proof: We know that

e =

ex – 1 =

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Notes [Dividing throughout by x]

Ê x x2 ˆ
xÁ1 + + + ..........˜
= Ë 2 ! 3 ! ¯
x

= Ê 1 + x + x + ..........ˆ
2

ÁË 2! 3! ˜¯

e x -e1x - 1 Ê Ê x xx 2 x 2 ˆ ˆ
\ limlim == = lim
lim 1 + 1 ++ + + ..........
+ ..........
x Æ 0 x Æ 0x x xÆ 0 xÁËÆ 0 ÁË 2 ! 2 !3 ! 3 ! ˜¯ ˜¯

= 1 + 0 + 0 + ...... = 1

Thus, e x - 1 = 1
lim
xÆ 0 x

Example 6:
Examine the behaviour of the function in each of the following:

(i) when x → 2, x → – ∞ and x → ∞

(ii) when x → 1, x → – ∞ and x → ∞

(iii) when x → + ∞

Show the behaviour by sketching graph, indicating the asymptotes of the function.
Solution:
Note that y is not defined in each of the above cases.

(i) LHL

RHL

Also

and

Note that there is a vertical asymptote at x = 2 and a horizontal asymptote to the

function.

The behaviour of the function is shown in Fig. 7.3.

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Notes
Figure 7.3 Figure 7.4

y y

0 (0, 1)
x′ x
 3
 2, 
2

0 x=1 x
x′
y′

(ii) LHL

RHL

Further and

Thus function has x-axis as a horizontal asymptote and x = 1 is the vertical asymptote.
The graph of the function is shown in Figure 7.4.

(iii) Let This function implies that

y = when

= when

Hence (Horizontal asymptote).

Example 7:
A right-angled triangle has two equal sides of 1 inch. One of these sides, drawn horizontally, is
divided into (n + 1) equal portions. On each of the portion after the first a rectangle is formed with
height equal to the vertical distance from the left-hand end of the portion to the hypotenuse of the
triangle. Find an expression for the sum of rectangle areas and evaluate the limit of the sum as
n → ∞. What is the meaning of the limiting value?

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Notes Figure 7.5

3
2
1

A B

Solution:
ABC is a right-angled triangle which is right angled at B and AB = BC = 1 inch. AB can be divided
into (n + 1) parts by marking n points on it. We form a rectangle on each part after the first. The

width of each rectangle will be while the length of first, second, ..., nth rectangle will be

respectively. The number of such rectangles is n. Let S be the sum of

areas of these rectangles.

and

This limiting value represents the area of the triangle.

Example 8.

Examine the demand curve where a and b are positive constants. Show that demand

increases from zero to indefinitely large amounts as the price falls. What type of curve is the total
revenue curve? Show that total revenue increases to a limiting value. Draw the graphs of demand
and total revenue curves to support your argument.

Solution:

Since we have to examine the behaviour of demand as price changes, we write

or The demand equals zero when and for small prices it is given by

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On combining the results of these two limits, we can say that demand increases from zero to Notes
infinitely large amount as the price falls.

We can write total revenue as

Further,

which implies that total revenue increases to a limiting value a.

To draw the graph of demand curve, we note that this is a rectangular hyperbola with centre at
(–b, 0) and asymptotes parallel to the axes. Since a > 0, the two parts of the curve lie in first and
third quadrants, formed by the asymptotes. The part AB of the curve, where x and p are both
positive is the relevant demand curve, as shown in Figure 7.6.
We can write the total revenue function as
TR(x + b) – ax = 0
or TR(x + b) – a(x + b) = – ab
or (x + b) (TR – a) = – ab

Figure 7.6

p TR
(–b, a)

A
x′ 0 x

(–b, 0) B

x′ 0 x

This is the equation of a rectangular hyperbola with centre at (–b, a) and asymptotes parallel to
axes. Since right hand side of the above equation is negative, the two parts of the curve lies in
second and fourth quadrants, formed by the asymptotes. The relevant total revenue curve is
where TR and x are both positive, as shown in Figure 7.6.

7.7 Summary
zz If a function f(x) approaches l when x approaches a, we say that l is the limit of symbolically,
it is written as
lim f(x) = l
xÆ a

zz If lim f(x) = l and lim g(x) = m , then

xÆ a xÆ a

™™ lim kf(x) = k lim f(x) = kl

xÆ a xÆ a

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Notes ™™ lim ÈÎf(x) ± g(x)˘˚ = lim f(x) ± lim g(x) = l ± m

xÆ a xÆ a xÆ a

™™ lim ÈÎf(x)g(x)˘˚ = lim f(x)lim g(x) = lm

xÆ a xÆ a xÆ a

f(x) lim f ( x) l
™™ lim = xÆ a = , Pr ovided lim g(x) π 0
xÆ a g(x) lim g(x) m xÆ a
xÆ a

7.8 Keywords
Limits and Function Values: If the limit of a function f as x approaches c exists, this limit may not
be equal to f(c). In fact, f(c) may not even be defined.
Polynomial Functions: If f(x)is a polynomial function and c is any real number, then lim f(x) =
x→ c
f(c). In other words, the limit is the value of the polynomial function f at x = c.

7.9 Self Assessment

1. If f(x) = x2 + 5x + 3, lim then value of f(x) is
h→ 0

(a) 0 (b) 1
(c) 3 (d) 9

 ( x − 3) 
2. Value of lim  is equal to
x→3  x − 3  
(a) ∞ (b) 1
(c) –2 (d) –∞

 1
3. lim x 2 sin   is equal to
x→0  x
(a) 0 (b) –1
(c) –∞ (d) ∞
2
1 + 2 x If x is rational
4. If f ( x ) =  4 then f(x) will be
1 + x If x is rational
(a) 1/2 (b) –1/2
(c) 1 (d) –1

 1
5. lim x cos   is equal to
x→0  x
(a) ∞ (b) –∞
(c) –1/2 (d) 0

6. lim (− x 2 ) euqal to
x →∞

(a) ∞ (b) –∞
(c) ∞2 (d) –∞2
7. f(x) = x2 – 2 of x < 1 lim f(x) is equal to
(a) 1 (b) 2
(c) –1 (d) –2

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7.10 Review Questions Notes

1. Give the properties of Functions in relation to limits.

2. (a) Show that f(x) = e 5 x is a continuous function.

(d) Show that f(x) = e -2 x + 5 is a continuous function.

3. By means of graph, examine the continuity of each of the following functions:

(a) f(x) = x + 1 (b) x+2

f ( x) =
x-2

(c) x2 - 9 (d) x 2 - 16
f ( x) = f ( x) =
x+3 x-4

4. Evaluate the following limits:

(a) lim 5 (b) lim 2
xÆ1 xÆ0

(c) 4x5 + 9x + 7 (d) x2 + 2x

lim lim
x Æ1 3x6 + x3 + 1 x Æ-2 x + x2 - 2x
3

(x + k )4 - x 4 1+ x - 1- x
(e) lim (f) lim
xÆ 0 k( k + 2 x ) xÆ 0 x

(g) È 1 2 ˘ (h) ( 2 x - 3) x - 1
lim Í + 2 lim
Î x + 1 x - 1 ˙˚
x Æ-1 x Æ1 (2 x + 3)(x - 1)

(i) x2 - 4 (j) È 1 2 ˘
lim lim Í - 2
xÆ 2 x + 2 - 3x - 2 x Æ1 Î x - 1 x - 1 ˙˚

(k) sin x (l) x 2 - (a + 1)x + a 2

lim lim
xÆ p p-x xÆ a x2 - a2

5. Find the left hand and right hand limits of the following functions:

(a) Ï -2 x + 3 if x £ 1
f ( x) = Ì as x Æ 1
Ó 3 x - 5 if x > 1

(b) x2 - 1
f ( x) = as x Æ 1
x+1

Answers: Self Assessment

1. (d) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (c)

5. (d) 6. (b) 7. (c)

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Notes Answers: Self Assessment

1. (d) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (c)

5. (d) 6. (b) 7. (c)

7.11 Further Readings

Husch, Lawrence S. , 2001.

Smith and Minton, Third Edition, McGraw Hill,
2008.

www.en.wikipedia.org
www.web-source.net
www.webopedia.com

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Unit 8: Continuity Notes

CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
8.1 Continuity at a Point
8.1.1 Continuity of Special Functions
8.1.2 Continuity from the Left and Right
8.1.3 Continuity at an End Point
8.1.4 Continuity on an Interval
8.1.5 Properties of Continuous Functions
8.1.6 Properties of Composite Functions
8.2 The Intermediate Value Theorem
8.2.1 Continuous Functions
8.2.2 Discontinuous Functions
8.2.3 Removing Discontinuous Function
8.3 Bisection Method
8.4 Function at a Point
8.4.1 Properties of Continuos Function

8.4.2 Important Result of Constant Function

8.5 Summary
8.6 Keywords
8.7 Self Assessment
8.8 Review Questions
8.9 Further Readings

Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
Describe the continuity of a function in an interval.
Explain how to use the theorem of continuity of function with the help of different
examples.

Introduction
Let f be a function that is defined for all x in some open interval containing c. Then f is said to be
continuous at x = c under the following conditions:
1. f(c) is defined.

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Notes 2. exists.

3. = f(c).

8.1 Continuity at a Point

Example: Show that the function is continuous at x = –3.

1. = f(c) is defined.

= limit of a quotient

2. limit of a root exists.

Therefore, and f is continuous at x = –3.

8.1.1 Continuity of Special Functions

Every polynomial function is continuous at every real number.

Every rational function is continuous at every real number in its domain.
Every exponential function is continuous at every real number.
Every logarithmic function is continuous at every positive real number.
f(x) = sin x and g(x) = cos x are continuous at every real number.
h(x) = tan x is continuous at every real number in its domain.

8.1.2 Continuity from the Left and Right

A function f is continuous from the right at x = a provided that

A function f is continuous from the right at x = b provided that

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8.1.3 Continuity at an End Point Notes

Example: Show that is continuous from the right at x = 0.

8.1.4 Continuity on an Interval

A function f is said to be continuous on an open interval (a, b) provided that f is continuous

at every value in the interval.
A function f is said to be continuous on a closed interval [a, b] provided that f is continuous
from the right at x = a, continuous from the left at x = b, and continuous at every value in
the open interval (a, b).

8.1.5 Properties of Continuous Functions

If the functions f and g are continuous at x = c, then each of the following functions is also
continuous at x = c:
The sum function f g
The difference function f – g
The product function fg
The quotient function f/g, g(c) 0

8.1.6 Properties of Composite Functions

If the function f is continuous at x = c and the function g is continuous at x = f(c), then the
composite function g o f is continuous at x = c.

Example: Show that is continuous at x = 2.

Solution:

f is continuous at x = 2 and f(2) = 23 – 3 ∙ 22 + 2 + 7 = 5

g is continuous at 5 since

Therefore, g o f(x) is also continuous at x = 2.

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Notes
Example: Consider the function

f(x) =

The details are left to the reader to see

=

and
=

So we have
= 10.

Since f(2) = 5, then f(x) is not continuous at 2.

Example: Find A which makes the function

f(x) =

continuous at x=1.
Solution:
We have
=

and
=

So f(x) is continuous at 1 if
A – 4 = –1 or equivalently if A = 3.

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Notes

Definition: For a function f(x) defined on a set S, we say that f(x) is continuous on S if f(x) is
continuous for all a S.

Example: We have seen that polynomial functions are continuous on the entire set of real
numbers. The same result holds for the trigonometric functions sin(x) and cos(x).
The following two exercises discuss a type of functions hard to visualize. But still one can study
their continuity properties.

Example: Discuss the continuity of

f(x) =

Solution:
Let us show that for any number a, the limit does not exist. Indeed, assume otherwise

that
= L.

Then from the definition of the limit implies that for any > 0, there exists > 0, such that
|x – a|< |f(x) – L|< .

Set Then exists > 0, such that

|x – a|<

or equivalently

a– <x<a–<

Since any open interval contains a rational and an irrational numbers, then we should have

Combining the two inequalities we get

which leads to an obvious contradiction. Thus, the function is discontinuous at every point a.

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Notes 8.2 The Intermediate Value Theorem

Let f (x) be a continuous function on the interval [a, b]. If d [f (a), f (b)], then there is a c [a, b]
such that f (c) = d.

In the case where f (a) > f (b), [f (a), f (b)] is meant to be the same as [f (b), f (a)]. Another way
to state the Intermediate Value Theorem is to say that the image of a closed interval under a
continuous function is a closed interval.
Here is a classical consequence of the Intermediate Value Theorem:

Example: Every polynomial of odd degree has at least one real root.
We want to show that if P(x) = anxn an – 1 xn – 1 ... a1 x a0 is a polynomial with n odd and
an 0, then there is a real number c, such that P(c) = 0.
First let me remind you that it follows from the results in previous pages that every polynomial
is continuous on the real line. There you also learned that

Consequently for | x| large enough, P(x) and anxn have the same sign. But anxn has opposite
signs for positive x and negative x. Thus it follows that if an > 0, there are real numbers x0 <
x1 such that P(x0) < 0 and P(x1) > 0. Similarly if an < 0, we can find x 0 < x1 such that P(x0) > 0
and P(x1) < 0. In either case, it now follows directly from the Intermediate Value Theorem that
(for d = 0) there is a real number c [x0, x1] with P(c) = 0.
The natural question arises whether every function which satisfies the conclusion of the
Intermediate Value Theorem must be continuous. Unfortunately, the answer is no and
counterexamples are quite messy. The easiest counterexample is the function:

f(x) =

As we found this function fails to be continuous at x = 0. On the other hand, it is not too hard to
see that f (x) has the “Intermediate Value Property” even on closed intervals containing x = 0.

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8.2.1 Continuous Functions Notes

A function is continuous if it has no breaks. On this page we’ll first look at some common
continuous functions, and then show you the discontinuous ones that you’re likely to come
across in high school mathematics.

The three functions above are all ones you have seen before: a linear, a quadratic, and a cubic
function. The domain of all three is the entire set of Real numbers, and all three functions continue
left to right, in both directions, to infinity, without a gap anywhere.
‘Continuous’ means ‘no gaps’, or being able to put your finger on the curve and follow it across
the grid without having to lift and move your finger.
On the left is a function you may not have seen before ... it’s asymptotic to the x-axis, and has a
maximum y-value of 4. This function is also continuous ... there are no gaps. (Incidentally, notice
that despite the x in the denominator, this Rational expression has no undefined values ... the
denominator can never equal zero. Can you see why not?

8.2.2 Discontinuous Functions

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Notes This is probably the first discontinuous function you learned about. It’s called a step function,
and its domain is still the entire set of Real numbers. (The open circles mean that, for example, at
x=2, the y-value is no longer 1, but 2).
There are clearly gaps when the function jumps to each new value. You can’t run your finger
along the graph without lifting it to move to the next portion. This function is discontinuous.

The next example, at the right, is a Rational expression function where there is an undefined
value of x. The value of x can never equal zero, since division by zero is not defined.
As a result, there is an asymptote at x=0; the graph has a break there. On either side of this gap
the graph approaches infinity.
You can’t run your finger along the graph without lifting it to move to the next portion. This
function is discontinuous.

The graph on the left is one you may have come across before. It is very mysterious ... the graph
all by itself looks like the simple linear function y = x 2.
If you examine this function’s actual equation, you will notice that it’s a Rational expression. The
x-value of –3 is undefined. This means there must be a gap at –3, even though you can’t see it!
The values of x have corresponding points on the graph right up to –3 on either side, but there is
no value for x = –3 itself. This one missing point can’t be seen, so although there is a gap, it isn’t
visible! This function is discontinuous.

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Notes

There are many types of discontinuous functions, all of which exhibit one common feature ...

there is always a gap.

At the right is a graph made from two different equations:

Again notice that the domain is all Real numbers, but there is still a gap. This function is also
discontinuous.

8.2.3 Removing Discontinuous Function

The first way that a function can fail to be continuous at a point a is that
= L exists (and is finite)

but f(a) is not defined or f(a) L.

Discontinuities for which the limit of f(x) exists and is finite are called removable discontinuities
for reasons explained below:
f(a) is not defined.
If f(a) is not defined, the graph has a “hole” at (a, f(a)). This hole can be filled by extending the
domain of f(x) to include the point x = a and defining
f(a) =

This has the effect of removing the discontinuity.

As an example, consider the function g(x) = (x2 – 1)/(x – 1). Then g(x) = x 1 for all real numbers
except x = 1. Since g(x) and x 1 agree at all points other than the objective,
=

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Notes
If but f(a) is not defined then the discontinuity at x=a can be removed by defining

f(a)=L.

Graph of (x2 – 1)/(x – 1) If but f(a) L

We can “remove” the discontinuity by filling the hole. The domain of g(x) may be extended
to include x = 1 by declaring that g(1) = 2. This makes g(x) continuous at x = 1. Since g(x) is
continuous at all other points (as evidenced, for example, by the graph), defining g(x) = 2 turns
g into a continuous function.
The limit and the value of the function are different.
If the limit as x approaches a exists and is finite and f(a) is defined but not equal to this limit, then
the graph has a hole with a point misplaced above or below the hole. This discontinuity can be
removed by re-defining the function value f(a) to be the value of the limit.
Then the discontinuity at x = a can be removed by re-defining f(a) = L.
As an example, the piecewise function in the second equipment was given by

h(x) =

Portion of the graph of h(x)

We can remove the discontinuity by re-defining the function so as to fill the hole. In this case we
re-define h(.5) = 1.5 1/(.75) = 17/6.

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8.3 Bisection Method Notes

Let f(x) be a continuous function on the interval [a, b]. If d [f(a), f(b)], then there is a c [a, b]
such that f(c) = d.
By replacing f(x) by f(x) – d, we may assume that d = 0; it then suffices to obtain the following
version: Let f(x) be a continuous function on the interval [a, b]. If f(a) and f(b) have opposite signs,
then there is a c [a, b] such that f(c) = 0.
Here is an outline of its proof: Let’s assume that f(a) < 0, while f(b) > 0, the other case being
handled similarly. Set a0 = a and b0 = b.

Now consider the midpoint m0 = and evaluate f(m0). If f(m0) < 0, set a1 = m0 and b1 = b0.

If f(m0) > 0, set a1 = a0 and b1 = m0. (If f(m0) = 0, you’re already done.) What situation are we in
now? f(a1) and f(b1) still have opposite signs, but the length of the interval [a1, b1] is only half of
the length of the original interval [a0, b0]. Note also that a0 a1 and that b0 b1.
You probably guess this by now: we will do this procedure again and again.

Here is the second step: Consider the midpoint m 1 = and evaluate f(m1). If f(m1) < 0, set

a2 = m1 and b2 = b1. If f(m1) > 0, set a2 = a1 and b2 = m1. (If f(m1) = 0, you’re already done.) What
situation are we in now? f(a2) and f(b2) still have opposite signs, but the length of the interval [a2,
b2] is only a quarter of the length of the original interval [a0, b0]. Note also that a0 a1 a2 and that
b0 b1 b2.

The red line shows the interval [an, bn].

Continuing in this fashion we construct by induction two sequences:

(an)n = 1 and (bn)n = 1
with the following properties:
1. (an) is an increasing sequence, (bn) is a decreasing sequence.
2. an bn for all n.
3. f(an) < 0 for all n, f(bn) > 0 for all n.
4. bn – an = 2–n(b – a) for all n.
It follows from the first two properties that the sequences (an) and (bn) converge; set
=

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Notes The third property and the continuity of the function f(x) imply that f(a) 0 and that f(b) 0.
The crucial observation is the fact that the fourth property implies that a = b. Consequently, f (a)
= f (b) = 0, and we are done.

Example: Let’s compute numerical approximations for the with the help of the
bisection method. We set f(x) = x2 – 2. Let us start with an interval of length one: a0 = 1 and b1 =
2. Note that f(a0) = f(1) = –1 < 0, and f(b0) = f(2) = 2 > 0. Here are the first 20 applications of the
bisection algorithm:

Bisection is the division of a given curve, figure, or interval into two equal parts
(halves).

A simple bisection procedure for iteratively converging on a solution which is known to lie inside
some interval [a, b] proceeds by evaluating the function in question at the midpoint of the original
interval x = (a + b)/2 and testing to see in which of the subintervals [a, (a + b)/2] or [(a + b)/2,
b] the solution lies. The procedure is then repeated with the new interval as often as needed to
locate the solution to the desired accuracy.
Let an and bn be the endpoints at the nth iteration (with a1 = a and b1 = b) and let rn be the nth
approximate solution. Then the number of iterations required obtaining an error smaller than
is found by noting that

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Notes
bn – a n = …(i)

and that rn is defined by

rn = …(ii)

In order for the error to be smaller than ,

= 2–n (b – a) < …(iii)

Taking the natural logarithm of both sides then gives

–n ln2 < ln – ln (b – a), …(iv)
so from 1,2,3 and 4 the result is

8.4 Function at a Point

So far, we have considered only those functions which are continuous. Now we shall discuss
some examples of functions which may or may not be continuous.

Example: Show that the function f(x) = ex is a continuous function.

Solution:
Domain of ex is R. Let a R. where ‘a’ is arbitrary.
=

=
…(i)

= …(ii)
f(a) =
From (i) and (ii),

f(x) is continuous at x = a
Since a is arbitary, ex is a continuous function.

8.4.1 Properties of Continuos Function

1. Consider the function f (x) = 4. Graph of the function f (x) = 4 is shown in the Figure 8.1.
From the graph, we see that the function is continuous. In general, all constant functions are
continuous.

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Notes 2. If a function is continuous then the constant multiple of that function is also continuous.
Figure 8.1

Consider the function f(x) = . We know that x is a constant function. Let ‘a’ be an

arbitrary real number.

=

= …(i)

Also f(a) = …(ii)

From (i) and (ii),

= f(a)

f(x) = is continuous at x = a.

As is constant, and x is continuous function at x = a, is also a continuous function at

x = a.
3. Consider the function f(x) = x2 + 2x. We know that the function x2 and 2x are continuous.
Now =

= a2 + 2a …(i)
2
Also f(a) = a + 2a …(ii)
From (i) and (ii), f(a)

f(x) is continuous at x = a.

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2
Thus we can say that if x and 2x are two continuous functions at x = a then (x2 + 2x) is also Notes
continuous at x = a.
4. Consider the function f(x) = (x2 + 1)(x +2). We know that (x2 + 1) and (x + 2) are two
continuous functions.
Also f(x) = (x2 + 1)(x + 2)
= x3 + 2x3 + x + 2
As x3, 2x2, x and 2 are continuous functions, therefore.
x3 + 2x2 + x + 2 is also a continuous function.
We can say that if (x2 + 1) and (x + 2) are two continuous functions then (x2 + 1)(x + 2) is also
a continuous function.

5. Consider the function f(x) = at x = 2. We know that (x2 – 4) is continuous at x = 2. Also

(x + 2) is continuous at x = 2.

Again =

= 2–2=0

Also f(2) =

= =0

f(x) = f(2). Thus f(x) is continuous at x = 2.

If (x2 – 4) and x + 2 are two continuous functions at x = 2, then is also continuous.

6. Consider the function f(x) =|x – 2|. The function can be written as:

f(x) =

= 2–2=0
=
…(i)
=

= 2–2=0 …(ii)
Also f(2) = (2 – 2) = 0 …(iii)
From (i), (ii) and (iii),

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Notes Thus, |x – 2| is continuous at x = 2

After considering the above results, we state below some properties of continuous functions.
If f (x) and g (x) are two functions which are continuous at a point x = a, then,
(a) C f(x) is continuous at x = a, where C is a constant.
(b) f(x) g(x) is continuous at x = a.
(c) f(x) . g(x) is continuous at x = a.
(d) f (x)/g (x) is continuous at x = a, provided g (a) 0.
(e) |f(x)| is continuous at x = a.
Thus every constant function is a continues function

1. Prove that tan x is continuous when

2. Let f (x) = Show that f is continuous at 1.

8.4.2 Important Result of Constant Function

By using the properties mentioned above, we shall now discuss some important results on
continuity.
1. Consider the function f(x) = px + q, x R
The domain of this functions is the set of real numbers. Let a be any arbitary real number.
Taking limit of both sides of (i), we have

px + q is continuous at x = a.
Similarly, if we consider f(x) = 5x2 + 2x + 3, we can show that it is a continuous function.
In general

where a0 + a1 + a2 … an are constants and n is a non-negative integer,

we can show that are all continuos at a point x = c (where c is any
real number) and by property 2, their sum is also continuous at x = c.
f (x) is continuous at any point c.
Hence every polynomial function is continuous at every point.

2. Consider a function f(x) = , f(x) is not defined when x – 5 = 0 i.e, at x = 5.

Since (x + 1) and (x + 3) are both continuous, we can say that (x + 1) (x + 3) is also continuous.
[Using property 3]
Denominator of the function f (x), i.e., (x – 5) is also continuous.

Using the property 4, we can say that the function is continuous at all
points except at x = 5.

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Notes
In general if , where p(x) and q(x) are polynomial function and q(x) then f(x)

is continuous if p(x) and q(x) both are continuous.

Example: Examine the continuity of the following function at x = 2.

Solution:
Since f (x) is defined as the polynomial function 3x – 2 on the left hand side of the point x = 2 and
by another polynomial function x + 2 on the right hand side of x = 2, we shall find the left hand
limit and right hand limit of the function at x = 2 separately.
Figure 8.2

Left hand limit =

= 3 2–2=4
Right hand limit at x = 2;

Since the left hand limit and the right hand limit
. at x = 2 are equal, the limit of the function f (x)
exists at x =2 and is equal to 4 i.e.,
Also f(x) is defined by (x + 2) at x = 2
f(2) = 2 + 2 = 4.
Thus, = f(2)

Hence f(x) is continuous at x = 2.

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Notes

1. If find whether the function f is continuous at x = 2.

2. Determine whether f(x) is continuous at x = 2, where

3. Examine the continuity of f(x) at x = 1, where

4. Determine the values of k so that the function

is continuous at x = 2.

Example
A travel agency charges Rs 10 per km for travelling upto 300 kms. The agency gives a discount
of Rs 2 per km, in revenue, for distance covered in excess of 300 kms. Express the revenue of
the company as a function of the distance covered and examine its continuity when distance
travelled is 300 kms.
Solution:
Let be the distance covered in kms and ( ) be the revenue.

R(x) =

R(x) =

Now R(300) = 10 × 300 = 3000

LHL = 10 × 300 = 3000
RHL = 8 × 300 + 600 = 3000
Since LHL = RHL = R(300)
The function is continuous at x = 300.

Example
A wholesaler of pencils charges 30 per dozen on orders of 50 dozens or less. For orders in excess
of 50 dozens, the price charged is 29. If denote the no. of dozens of pencils, express the revenue
function of the wholesaler as a function of . Is this function continuous everywhere?
Solution:
We can write the revenue function as

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First we examine continuity at x = 50 Notes

LHL = 30 × 50 = 1500
RHL = 29 × 50 = 1450.
Since LHL RHL, the function is discontinous at = 50.
At other values of the function is a polynomial which is continuous.

8.5 Summary
Every polynomial function is continuous at every real number.
Every rational function is continuous at every real number in its domain.
Every exponential function is continuous at every real number.
Every logarithmi-c function is continuous at every positive real number.
f(x) = sin x and g(x) = cos x are continuous at every real number.
h(x) = tan x is continuous at every real number in its domain.
A function f is continuous from the right at x = a provided that

A function f is continuous from the right at x = b provided that

Let f (x) be a continuous function on the interval [a, b]. If d [f (a), f (b)], then there is a c
[a, b] such that f (c) = d.

8.6 Keywords
Continuity on an Interval: A function f is said to be continuous on an open interval (a, b) provided
that f is continuous at every value in the interval.
Infinite Limits: The sign of the infinite limit is determined by the sign of the quotient of the
numerator and the denominator at values close to the number that the independent variable is
approaching.

8.7 Self Assessment

1. If f(x) = Ax – 4 of 1 4 then value of f(x) is
(a) A–2
(b) A+2
(c) A–4
(d) A+4

2. find value of when

(a) 0
(b) –
(c)
(d) 1

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Notes
3. If is continuous at x = –3 then value of f(x) is

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

8.8 Review Questions

1. Find whether the function f(x) = [x] is continuous at
(a) (b) x=3

(c) x = –1 (d)

2. Evaluate the following limits:

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d) If , prove that through f(0) is not defined.

(e) Find k so that may exist where

(f)

(g)

3. Examine the continuous of the following functions:

(a) f(x) = |x – 2| at x = 2
(b) f(x)= |x + 5| at x = –5
(c) f(x)= |a – x| at x = a
4. Find whether f(x) is continuous at x = 0 or not, where

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Notes

5. Examine the continuity of the following function at x = 2.

Answers: Self Assessment

1. (c) 2. (a) 3. (a)

8.9 Further Readings

Husch, Lawrence S. , 2001.

Smith and Minton, Third Edition, McGraw Hill,
2008.

www.en.wikipedia.org
www.web-source.net
www.webopedia.com

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Notes
Unit 9: Differential Calculus

CONTENTS

Objectives

Introduction

9.1 Differentiation

9.1.1 Derivative of a Function - Method of First Principles

9.2 General Theorems on Derivatives: (Without Proof)

9.3 Derivatives of Standard Functions

9.4 Function of a Function (or Composite Function)

9.5 Implicit Functions

9.6 Summary

9.7 Keywords

9.8 Self Assessment

9.9 Review Questions

9.10 Further Readings

Objectives

After studying this unit, you will be able to:

Discuss the derivative of a function
Explain the certain basic rules that can be used to find the derivatives of various types of
composite functions

Introduction

Given a function, we are often interested to know how the change in one variable corresponds
to changes in the other. The questions relating to rates of changes require the introduction to the
concept of derivatives. The maxima and minima of functions, an important application of
derivatives, will also be discussed in this unit.
In this unit, we study various methods of differentiation and its application. It deals with the
study of change.

9.1 Differentiation

f ( x ) f ( a)
A function f(x) is said to be differentiable at x = a if lim exists. This limit is denoted by
x a x a
f (a) and

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f ( x ) f ( a) Notes
f ( a) lim
x a x a

f ( x ) f ( a)
Notes f (a) exists if the lim exists as x a through values < a (left hand limit)
x a x a
f ( x ) f ( a)
and lim through values > a (right hand limit) exist and further they are equal.
x a x a

9.1.1 Derivative of a Function - Method of First Principles

If y f ( x ) is a function then as x changes y also changes.

A change in x is called the increment in x and is denoted by x. Corresponding change in y is

called increment in y and is denoted by y.
as x changes to x + x, y changes to y + y.

First Principles

Let y = f(x) ...(i)

y y f (x x) ...(ii)

Subtracting (i) from (ii), we get

y f (x x) f (x )

Divide both sides by x

y f (x x) f (x)
x x

Taking limits as x 0 , we get

y f (x x) f (x)
lim lim
x 0 x x 0 x

dy
If this limit exists then it is called the derivative of y w.r.t., x and is denoted by .
dx

y dy f (x x) f ( x)
lim lim
x 0 x dx x 0 x
dy
is also called the differential coefficient of y w.r.t., x.
dx

dy
Notes should not be read as the product of d and y divided by the product of d and x.
dx
d
In fact, is the symbol for the derivative w.r.t. x or differential coefficient w.r.t. x.
dx

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Notes 9.2 General Theorems on Derivatives : (Without Proof)

d( k )
Theorem 1: 0 where k is a constant.
dx
d d
Theorem 2: kf ( x ) k f ( x ) where k is a constant and f ( x ) is a function of x.
dx dx
or
d du
ku k
dx dx
d d d
Theorem 3: f ( x ) g( x ) f (x) g( x )
dx dx dx
or
d du dv
(u v)
dx dx dx
d d d
Theorem 4: f ( x ) g( x ) f (x) g( x )
dx dx dx
or
d du dv
u v
dx dx dx
d d d
Theorem 5: f ( x ) g( x ) f (x) g( x ) g( x ) f (x)
dx dx dx
This is called the product rule.

d dv du
or (uv) u v
dx dx dx
This can be remembered as

d
I function II function
dx
d d
I function II function II function I function
dx dx

d dw dv du
(uvw ) uv uw vw
Notes dx dx dx dx
d d
g( x ) f (x) f (x) g( x )
d f (x) dx dx
Theorem 6: 2
dx g( x ) g( x )
This is called the Quotient Rule.

du dv
v u
d u dx dx
or
dx v v2

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This can be remembered as Notes

d d
Dr Nr Nr Dr
d Nr dx dx
2
dx Dr Dr

where Nr Numerator, Dr Denominator

Notes (1) While doing problems on differentiation, the above theorems should be
strictly followed.
(2) The above theorems can be proved using the method of first principles. Since
there is no mention of proofs of the theorems in the syllabus, the proofs are
not given here. Only Statements are given because they have to be used in the
problems.

9.3 Derivatives of Standard Functions

d n 1
(1) x nx n
dx
d
(2) x 1
dx
d 1 1
(3)
dx x x2
d 1
(4) x
dx 2 x
d x
(5) e ex
dx
d x
(6) a ax log e a where a 0 and a 1
dx
d 1
(7) log e x where x 0
dx x
d 1
(8) log a x
dx x log e a

d n n 1
(9) ax b na ax b
dx
d 1 1 1
(10) dx ax b a 2
ax b

d ax b
(11) e ae ax b

dx
d 1
(12) log e ax b a
dx ax b

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Notes
Example: Solve x100

d 100
Solution: x 100x 100 1
100x 99
dx

Example: Solve (2x + 3)2

d 2 d d 2 d d
Solution: 2x 3 4x 2 12 x 9 4 x 12 (x ) (9)
dx dx dx dx dx
4(2 x ) 12(1) 0 8x 12

Example: Solve (x + 1)3

d 3 d 3
Solution: x 1 x 3x 2 3x 1
dx dx
d 3 d d d
x 3 (x 2 ) 3 (x) (1)
dx dx dx dx
3x 3 1 3(2 x ) 3(1) 0
3x 2 6x 3

x 2 – 5x 1
Example: Solve
x

d x2 5x 1 d x2 5x 1
Solution:
dx x dx x x x
1 1 1
d 2
2
1
x 5x 2
x 2
dx
3 1 1
d
x2 5x 2 x 2
dx

d 23 d 1
d 1
(x ) 5 (x 2 ) (x 2 )
dx dx dx
3 23 1 1 21 1 1 1
1
x 5 x x 2
2 2 2

3 21 5 1
2
1 3
2
x x x
2 2 2

Task Differentiate w.r.t.

(1) e3x (2) loge(2x + 3)

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Notes
Example: Solve log 10x

d d log e x
Solution: log 10 x (using change of base in logarithms)
dx dx log e 10
1 d
log e x
log e 10 dx

1 1 1
log e 10 x x log e 10

Example: Solve xex

d d x d
Solution: xex x e ex x (product rule)
dx dx dx
xe x e x (1)

( x 1)e x

Example: Solve x2 log x

d 2 d d 2
Solution: x log x x2 log x log x x (product rule)
dx dx dx
1
x2 log x 2 x
x
x 2 x log x
x 1
Example: Solve
x–1
d d
x 1 ( x 1) x 1 ( x 1)
d x 1 dx dx
Solution: 2
(Quotient rule)
dx x 1 x 1

x 1 1 0 x 1 1 0
( x 1)2
x 1 x 1
2
x 1
2
2
x 1

2x 3
Task Difference
x–7

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Notes
x2 x 1
Example: Solve
x2 – x 1
d x2 x 1
Solution:
dx x 2 x 1

d 2 d 2
x2 x 1 x x 1 x2 x 1 x x 1
dx dx
2
x2 x 1

x2 x 1 2x 1 x2 x 1 (2 x 1)
2
x2 x 1

2x3 2x2 2x x2 x 1 2x3 2x2 2x x2 x 1

2 2
x x 1

2x2 2 2 x2 1
2 2
x2 x 1 x2 x 1
ex 1
Example: Solve
ex – 1
d x d x
ex 1 e 1 ex 1 e 1
d ex 1 dx dx
Solution: dx x 2
e 1 ex 1

ex 1 ex ex 1 ex
2
ex 1

e2 x ex e2 x ex
2
ex 1

2 ex
2
ex 1
ex
Example: Solve
1 – x2
d x d
1 x2 e ex 1 x2
d ex dx dx
Solution: dx
1 x2 1 x2
2

1 x2 ex ex 2x
2 2
1 x

ex 1 x2 2x
2 2
1 x

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1 Notes
Example: Solve
x3
d 1 d 3
Solution: x
dx x 3 dx
3 1 4
3 x 3x
1
3
x4
3
x4

Example: Solve (x2 + 1) (x2 – 1)

d d 4
Solution: x2 1 x2 1 x 1 (on multiplication)
dx dx
d 4 d
x 1
dx dx

4x 3 0 4x 3

Example: Solve ex(x – 5)logx

d x
Solution: e x 5 log x
dx
d d d x
ex x 5 log x e x log x x 5 x 5 log x e
dx dx dx
1
ex x 5 e x log x 1 x 5 log x e x
x
5
ex 1 log x x log x 5 log x
x
5
ex 1 log x x log x 5 log x
x
5
ex 1 4 log x x log x
x

e x log x
Solve
Task 1 x2

dy 2x 1
Example: Find , if, y
dx 1 x2
Solution:

d d
1 x2 2x 1 2x 1 1 x2
dy dx dx
2
dx 1 x2

1 x2 2 2x 1 2x
2
1 x2

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Notes
2 2x2 4x 2 2x
2 2
1 x

2 2x 2x2
2
1 x2

dy x3 2x
Example: Find , if, y
dx x 2
Solution:

d 3 d
x 2 x 2x x3 2x x 2
dy dx dx
2
dx x 2

x 2 3x 2 2 x3 2x 1 0
2
x 2

3x 3 6 x 2 2x 4 x3 2x
2
x 2

2 x 3 6x 2 4
2
x 2

dy x 1 x 2
Example: Find , if, y
dx x 3
Solution:

d d
x 3 x 1 x 2 x 1 x 2 x 3
dy dx dx
2
dx x 3

d d
x 3 x 1 x 2 x 2 x 1 x 1 x 2 1
dx dx
2
x 3

x 3 x 1 1 x 2 1 x 1 x 2
2
x 3

x 3 2x 3 x 1 x 2
2
x 3

2x2 9 x 9 x 2 3x 2
2
x 3

x2 6x 7
2
x 3

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Notes
dy x 1
Example: Find , if, y
dx x 1
Solution:

d d
x 1 x 1 x 1 x 1
dy dx dx
2
dx x 1

x 1 1 0 x 1 1 0
2
x 1

x 1 x 1
2
x 1

2
2
x 1
dy
Example: Find , if, y x2 1 ex
dx
Solution:

dy d x d 2
x2 1 e ex x 1
dx dx dx

x2 1 ex ex 2 x

ex x 2 1 2x

2
ex x 1

dy x 1 x 2
Example: Find , if, y
dx x 3 x 4
Solution:

x 2 3x dy2
x 2 7 x dx12
d 2 d 2
dy x2 7 x 12 x 3x 2 x2 3x 2 x 7 x 12
dx dx
dx 2
x2 7 x 12

x2 7 x 12 2 x 3 x2 3x 2 2 x 7
2
x2 7 x 12

2 x 3 14x 2 24x 3x 2 21x 36 2 x 3 6x 2 4x 7 x 2 21x 14

2 2
x 7 x 12

2x3 6x 2 4x 7 x 2 21x 14
2 2
x 7 x 12

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Notes
4x 2 20x 22
2
x 2 7 x 12

dy
Example: Find , if, y x2 1 e x log x
dx
Solution:

dy d d x d 2
x2 1 ex log x x2 1 log x e e x log x x 1
dx dx dx dx
1
x2 1 ex x2 1 log x e x e x log x 2 x
x
1
ex x x2 1 log x 2 x log x
x

dy ex x 2
Example: Find , if, y
dx 1 log x
Solution:

d x d
1 log x e x2 ex x2 1 log x
dy dx dx
2
dx 1 log x

1
(1 log x ) ( e x 2x) (e x x2 ) 0
x
(1 log x ) 2

ex
e x 1 log x 2 x 1 log x x
x
2
1 log x

1
e x 1 log x x 2 x log x
x
2
1 log x

dy x5 4x 2 1
Example: Find , if, y
dx x3 1
Solution:

d 5 d 3
( x 3 1) (x 4x 2 1) ( x 5 4x 2 1) ( x 1)
dy dx dx
dx ( x 3 1) 2

(x 3 1)( 5x 4 8x ) ( x 5 4 x 2 1)( 3x 2 )
( x 3 1) 2

5x 7 5x 4 8x 4 8x 3x 7 12 x 4 3x 2
( x 3 1) 2

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2x 7 x 4 3x 2 8x Notes
( x 3 1) 2

dy (x 2 1) log x
Example: Find , if, y
dx x2 ex
Solution:
d d 2 x
x 2 ex x2 1 log x x2 1 log x x e
dy dx dx
2
dx x 2 ex

1
x 2 ex x2 1 log x 2 x x2 1 log x x 2 e x ex 2 x
x
2
x 2 ex

1
x 2 ex x 2 x 3 e x log x x 2 x 2 1 e x log x e x 2x 3 2x
x
x 4 e2 x

x 2 ex ex 2 x 2 e x log x x x 2 1 e x log x
x 3 e2 x

9.4 Function of a Function (or Composite Function)

If a function is made up of more than one function then it is called a composite function. A
composite function is denoted by the symbol f(g(x)), f(g(h(x))) etc.

To Find the Derivative of a Composite Function

Chain Rule

To find the derivative of f(g(x)), we use a rule called chain rule.

Let y f ( g( x )) , u g( x )

y f (u)and u g( x )

dy du
By differentiating y w.r.t. u, we get and by differentiating u w.r.t. x, we get .
du dx
dy dy du
dx du dx
This is called the chain rule.

Similarly, let y f ( g( h( x ))) , u g( h( x )), v h( x )

y f (u), u g( v ), v h( x )

dy du
By differentiating y w.r.t. u, we get , by differentiating u w.r.t. v, we get and by
du dv

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Notes dv
differentiating v w.r.t. x, we get .
dx
dy dy du dv
. . which is chain rule.
dx du dv dx

Notes General Rules

d n n 1 d
1. f (x) n f x f (x)
dx dx
d f (x) d
2. e e f (x) f (x )
dx dx
d 1 d
3. log e f (x ) f x etc.
dx f ( x) dx

Example: Differentiate the following functions w.r.t. x:

1. x2 1

Solution: Let y x2 1

dy 1 d 2
x 1
dx 2 x 2
1 dx

1
2x
2 x2 1
x
2
x 1
5
2. ax 2 bx c
5
Solution: Let y ax 2 bx c

dy 5 1 d
5 ax 2 bx c ax 2 bx c
dx dx
4
5 ax 2 bx x 2 ax b

3. e2 x 3

Solution: Let y e2 x 3

dy d
e2 x 3
2x 3
dx dx
e2 x 3
(2)
2x 3
2e

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log 2 x 2 5x 7 Notes
4.

Solution: Let y log 2 x 2 5x 7

dy 1 d
2
2x2 5x 7
dx 2x 5x 7 dx
1
2
.( 4x 5)
2x 5x 7
1
5. x log x 5

1
Solution: Let y x log x 5

1
dy 1 1 d
x log x 5 x log x
dx 5 dx
4
1 1
x log x 5 x log x 1
5 x
4
1
x log x 5 1 log x
5
2
6. x 2 ex
2
Solution: Let y x 2 ex

dy 2 1 d 2 x
( 2)(xe x ) . (x e )
dx dx
3
2 x 2 ex x 2 ex ex 2x
3
2 x 2 ex ex x2 2x

2 x 6e 3x
ex x2 2x

2x 4 5
2e x 2x

x2 1
7.
x2 1

x2 1
Solution: Let y
x2 1

dy 1 d x2 1
2
dx x2 1 dx x 1
2
x2 1

1 x2 1 2x x2 1 2x
2 2 2
x 1 x 1
2
x2 1

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Notes
x2 1 4x
2 2 2
2 x 1 x 1 x 1 x2 1

2x
2 2
x 1 x 1 x2 1

2x
2 2
x 1 x 1 x2 1

2x
2
x 1 x4 1

2 3x
8. log
2 3x

2 3x
Solution: Let y log
2 3x

dy 1 2 3x 3 2 3x 3
2
dx 2 3x 2 3x
2 3x

2 3x 12
2
2 3x 2 3x

12
2 3x 2 3x

12
4 9x 2
9. log(log x )

Solution: Let y log(log x )

dy 1 d
log x
dx log x dx

1 1 1
log x x x log x

10. 3
2 3x
3
Solution: Let y 2 3x
1
y 2x 3 3

dy 1 1
1 d
2 3x 3 2 3x
dx 3 dx

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1 2 Notes
2 3x 3 3
3
1
2
3
2 3x

11. log x 1 x2

Solution: Let y log x 1 x2

dy 1 d
. x 1 x2
dx x 1 x 2 dx

1 1 d
. 1 . 1 x2
x 1 x 2
2 1 x 2 dx

1 1
. 1 . 2x
2
x 1 x 2 1 x2

1 x
. 1
2
x 1 x 1 x2

1 1 x2 x
.
2 2
x 1 x 1 x

x 1 x2

x 1 x2 1 x2

1
1 x2

Task Differentiate following functions w.r.t. x

(1) log(log(log x))

1 x2
(2) log
1 – x2

Example

A spherical balloon is being inflated at the rate of 5 cubic feet per second. How fast is the radius
of the balloon increasing 15 seconds after the start?
Solution:
Let v denote volume and r denote radius of the balloon. Since v is changing with time, r will also
4 3
change. Volume of a spherical balloon v r . Here v is a function of r and r is a function of
3

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Notes dv dv dr dr dv dv
t. Using chain rule, we can write or .
dt dr dt dt dt dr
dv dv
Note that 5. Also 4 r 2 , which can be determined if r is known. To find r, we note
dt dr
4 3
that volume becomes 15 ´ 5 = 75 cubic feet, after 15 seconds, therefore, we have r 75 or
3
1/3
225
r .
4

2/3
dr 5 4
Thus, = 0.058 ft/sec.
dt 4 225

Rule 5.
Inverse function Rule
If y = f(x) and x = g(y) are inverse functions which are differentiable, then we can write g[f(x)] = x.
Differentiating both sides w.r.t. x we have
g¢[f(x)] × f¢(x) = 1

1
or g¢(y) =
f ( x)

dx 1
or = .
dy dy
dx

Example

Find the equation of a tangent at the point (2, 3) to the rectangular hyperbola xy = 6. Show that
(2, 3) is middle point of the segment of tangent line intercepted between the two axes. What are
its intercepts on the two axes?
Solution:

6 dy 6 6
We can write y or = = -1.5
x dx x2 4
Equation of tangent is (y – 3) = –1.5(x – 2) or y = 6 - 1.5x.
The point of intersection of the tangent with y-axis is obtained by substituting x = 0 in the above
equation. This point is (0, 6). Similarly (4, 0) is a point of intersection of the tangent with x-axis.
Since (2, 3) is the middle point of the line joining the points (0, 6) and (4, 0), hence the result.

Intercepts of the tangent on x and y axes, are 4 and 6 respectively.

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9.5 Implicit Functions Notes

If a function is in the form y = f(x), then the function is said to be in the explicit form. Instead of
this, if the variables x and y are related by means of an equation, then the function is said to be
in the implicit form. In general an implicit function is given by f(x, y) = c where c is a constant.

x2 y2
e.g., y 2 4 ax , x 2 y 2 a2 , 1
x2 b2

To find the derivative of the Implicit Function f(x, y) = c

dy
Differentiate f(x, y) = c using the rules of differentiation. Collect all the terms containing
on
dx
dy
the left hand side and the remaining terms on the right hand side. Take the common factor
dx
dy dy
on the left hand side. Divide both sides by the coefficient of to get .
dx dx

dy
Example: Find , if, y 2 4 ax
dx
Solution: Differentiate both sides w.r.t. x

dy
2y 4a 1
dx
dy 4 a dy 2a
i.e.,
dx 2 y dx y

dy
Example: Find , if, x 2 y2 2 xy
dx
Solution: Differentiate w.r.t. x

dy dy
2x 2 y 2 x y
dx dx
Cancelling 2 on both sides, we get

dy dy
x y x y
dx dx
dy dy
y xy x
dx dx
dy
y x y x
dx
dy y x
dx y x
dy
1
dx

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Notes
dy
Example: Find , if, x 2 y2 a2
dx
Solution: Differentiate w.r.t. x

dy
2x 2 y 0
dx
dy
2y 2x
dx
dy 2x
dx 2y

dy x
dx y

dy
Example: Find , if, x 2 y2 2x 4y 6 0
dx
Solution: Differentiate w.r.t. x

dy dy
2x 2 y 2 4 0
dx dx
Cancelling 2, we get

dy dy
x y 1 2 0
dx dx
dy
y 2 x 1
dx
dy x 1
dx y 2

dy
Example: Find , if, e x y
ex
dx
Solution: Differentiate w.r.t. x

d
ex y
x y ex
dx
dy
i.e., e x y
1 ex
dx

dy ex 1
1
dx ex y ey
dy 1 ey
i.e.,
dx ey

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Notes
dy
Example: Find , if, x 2 /3 y 2 /3
a 2 /3
dx
Solution: Differentiate w.r.t. x

2 23 1 2 23 1 dy
x y 0
3 3 dx

2
Dividing throughout by , we get
3
1 1
3 3
dy
x y 0
dx
1 1
3
dy 3
y x
dx
1
dy x 3

1
dx 3
y
1/3
dy y
i.e.,
dx x

dy
Example: Find , if, y log x log x log x ......... to
dx

Solution: y log x log x log x ......... to

y log x y
Squaring, we get

y2 log x y

Differentiate w.r.t. x

dy 1 dy
2y
dx x dx

dy dy 1
2y
dx dx x
dy 1
2y 1
dx x
dy 1
dx x 2y 1

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Notes
dy dy 1
Example: Find , if, x 1 y y 1 x 0 where x y , prove that dx 2 .
dx 1 x

Solution: x 1 y y 1 x 0

x 1 y y 1 x
Squaring,

x2 1 y y2 1 x

x2 x2 y y2 y2x
x2 y2 x2 y y2x
x y x y xy x y

x y xy (cancelling ( x y )) ...(i)

Differentiating w.r.t. x

dy dy
1 x y
dx dx
dy dy
i.e., x 1 y
dx dx
dy
1 x 1 y
dx
dy 1 y
...(ii)
dx 1 x
From (i), x y xy

x y 1 x

x
y
1 x
Substituting this in (ii), we get

x
1
dy 1 x
dx 1 x

1 x x
1 x 1 x

1
2
1 x

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Notes

dy
Task Find , if,
dx

1 dy 1
1. If y 1 , prove that dx x y
2
1
x
1
x
x ........to

dy f x
2. If y f x f x f x ....... , prove that
dx 2y 1 .

9.6 Summary

If x is a real variable, any expression in x is called a function of x. A function is denoted by

y = f(x), Where x is independent variable and y is dependent variable.
The functional value of f(x) at x = a is given by f(a).
If f(x) gets arbitrarily close to b (a finite number) for x sufficiently close to a, we say that f(x)

approaches the limit b as x approaches a, and write lim

x a
f (x ) b

lim f ( x ) g( x ) lim f (x) lim g (x)

x a x a x a
lim f ( x ). g( x ) lim f (x) . lim g (x)
x a x a x a
A function y = f(x) is said to be differentiable at a point x = a, in its domain,
f (a h) - f (a)
lim exists.
h 0 h
Derivative of a constant is zero.

dy
If y = ex then ex
dx
dy
If y = ax, then a x log a
dx e

9.7 Keywords

Constant: A quantity whose value remains the same.

Function: A function ‘f’ from a set x to set y is a subset of x.y, denoted as {(x, y)}, such that
corresponding to each value of x, we can associated one and only one value of y. In such a
situation, y is said to be a function of x and is denoted as y = f(x).

Irrational Function: A function which is expressed as a root of a polynomial.

Parametric Function: If the variable x and y are given in terms of a new variable t, then the
function is said to be in the parametric form and ‘t’ is called the parameter.

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Notes Polynomial Function: A function of the form y = a0 + a1x + a2x2 + .................. .......... + anxn
Rational Function: The ratio of two polynomial functions.
Successive Differentiation: The process of finding higher ordered derivatives is called successive
differentiation.

Variable: A quantity whose value changes.

9.8 Self Assessment

d( e 2 x –5 )
1. Find value of
dx
(a) 2e2x – 5 (b) 2e2x + 5
(c) 2xex – 5x (d) 2x + e2x – 5

d
2. Find value of log(4 x 5)
dx

4 2
(a) (b)
4x 5 2x 5

4x 4x 2
(c) (d)
4x 5 4x 5

d2 y
3. Find , if xy + 4y = 4x
dx 2
5( y – 4) 5( y 4)
(a) ( x 4)2 (b) ( x – 4)2

4( y – 4) 4( y 4)
(c) ( x – 4)2 (d) ( x – 2)2

d2 y
4. Find if y = (x2 + 2)log x
dx 2
2 2
(a) 3 + 2 log x – (b) 2 + 3 log x –
x2 x2

2 2
(c) 2 – 3 log x – (d) 3 – 2 log x –
x2 x2
Fill in the blanks:
5. A function of the form y = a0 + a1x + a2x2 + ................... + anxn is called as ...................
6. The ratio of two polynomial functions is called ...................
7. ................... is a function which is expressed as a root of a polynomial.

9.9 Review Questions

1. Find domain and range of the following functions:

x 3 a3 1
(i) y (ii) y x
x a x2

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 Unit 9: Differential Calculus

2. Find the limit of the following functions: Notes

x2 6x 9
(i) lim
x 3 x2 2x 3

x3 – 1
(ii) lim
x 1 x–1
3. Find derivative of the following functions:

(i) y = x2 – 5x + 10
(ii) y = (x + 1) ex
(iii) y = 10(x + 1)(4 – x)
(iv) y = log x3

dy
4. Find when y = u2 + 5, u = v2 + 2 and v = x2 – x.
dx

Answers: Self Assessment

1. (a) 2. (a) 3. (a)

4. (a) 5. Polynomial Functions
6. Rational Function 7. Irrational Function

9.10 Further Readings

Books D C Sanchethi and V K Kapoor, Business Mathematics.

Husch, Lawrence S. Visual Calculus, University of Tennessee, 2001.

R S Bhardwaj, Mathematics for Economics and Business, Excel Books, New Delhi, 2005.
Sivayya and Sathya Rao, An Introduction to Business Mathematics.
Smith and Minton. Calculus Early Trancendental, Third Edition. McGraw Hill.2008

Online links http://www.suitcaseofdreams.net/Trigonometric_Functions.htm

http://library.thinkquest.org/20991/alg2/trigi.html
http://www.intmath.com/trigonometric functions/5 signs of trigonometric
functions.php

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Notes Unit 10: Logarithmic Differentiation

CONTENTS
Objectives

Introduction
10.1 Logarithmic Differentiation

10.2 Logarithmic Differentiation Problems

10.2.1 Properties of the Natural Logarithm

10.2.2 Avoid the Following List of Common Mistakes

10.3 Summary

10.4 Keyword
10.5 Self Assessment
10.6 Review Questions
10.7 Further Readings

Objectives

After studying this unit, you will be able to:

Discuss lop logarithmic differentiation
Explain problem retated to logarithmic differentiation

Introduction

A function which is the product or quotient of a number of functions. A function of the form the
[ f ( x ) ]g ( x ) where f ( x ) and g ( x ) are both derivable, it is usually advisable to take logarithm
of the function first and then differentiate. The process is known as the logarithmic differentiation.

10.1 Logarithmic Differentiation

g x
To differentiate a function of the form f x or a f x , we use a method called Logarithmic
differentiation.

g x
To find the derivative of the functions f x and a f x .

g x
(i) Let y f x

Taking logarithms, we get

log y g(x )log f x
Differentiate w.r.t. x

1 dy 1
g x f x log f x .g x
y dx f x

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Notes
dy g x
y f x g x log f x
dx f x

dy g x g( x )
i.e., f x f x g x log f x
dx f x

dy
This method of finding is called Logarithmic differentiation.
dx

(ii) Let y af x

Taking logarithms, we get

log y f x log a
Differentiate w.r.t. x

1 dy
log a f x
y dx

dy
y log a f x af x
log a f x
dx

Example: Differentiate the following w.r.t. x :

x x
1. xx 2. xx 3. xx

to
..
x.
xx
4. 3x 5. x

Solution:

1. Let y xx

Taking logs, we get

log y x log x

Differentiate w.r.t. x

1 dy 1
x log x 1
y dx x

dy
y 1 log x
dx

dy
i.e., x x 1 log z
dx

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Notes x
2. Let y xx

Taking logs, we get

log y x x log x

Taking logs again, we get

log log y x log x log log x

Differentiate w.r.t. x

1 1 dy 1 1 1
x log x 1
log y y dx x log x x

dy 1
y log y 1 log x
dx x log x

dy x 1
i.e., x x x x log x 1 log x
dx x log x

x
3. Let y xx

2
y xx

Taking logs, we get

log y x 2 log x

Differentiate w.r.t. x

1 dy 1
x2 log x 2 x
y dx x

dy
y x 2 x log x
dx
dy x
i.e., xx x 2 x log x
dx

4. Let y 3x
Taking logs, we get

log y x log 3
Differentiating w.r.t. x

1 dy
log 3 1
y dx

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 Unit 10: Logarithmic Differentiation

dy Notes
y log 3
dx
dy
i.e., 3x log 3
dx
to
..
xx
5. Let y x

y xy
Taking logs, we get

log y y log x
Differentiating w.r.t. x

1 dy 1 dy
y log x
y dx x dx

dy 1 y
log x
dx y x

dy 1 y log x y
dx y x

dy y2
dx x 1 y log x

dy
Example: Find , if, e y yx
dx
Solution:

Taking logs, we get

y log e x log y

i.e., y 1 x log y  log e log e e 1

Differentiating w.r.t. x

dy 1 dy
x log y 1
dx y dx

dy x dy
log y
dx y dx

dy x
1 log y
dx y

dy y x
i.e., log y
dx y

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Notes dy y log y
dx y x

dy
Example: Find , if, y ax y
yx
dx
Solution:
Taking logs, we get

log y x y log a x log y

Differentiating w.r.t. x

1 dy dy 1 dy
log x 1 x log y 1
y dx dx y dx

1 x dy
i.e., log a log a log y
y y dx

dy log a log y y
dx 1 y log a x

dy m n
Example: Find , if, x m y n x y
dx
Solution:
Taking logs, we get

m log x n log y (m n)log x y

Differentiating w.r.t. x

1 1 dy 1 dy
m n (m n) 1
x y dx x y dx

m n dy m n m n dy
i.e., x y dx x y x y dx

dy n m n m n m
dx y x y x y x

dy nx ny my ny mx nx mx my
i.e.,
dx y x y x x y

dy nx my nx my
i.e., dx y x y x x y

dy (nx my ) nx my
i.e.,
dx y x y x x y

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 Unit 10: Logarithmic Differentiation

dy 1 1 Notes
i.e., dx y x

dy y
dx x

dy
Example: Find , if, x y yx
dx
Solution:
Taking logs, we get

y log x x log y

Differentiating w.r.t. x

1 dy 1 dy
y log x x log y 1
x dx y dx

dy x y
i.e., log x log y
dx y x

dy y log x x x log y y
i.e.,
dx y x

dy y x log y y
dx x y log x x

dy
Find , if,
dx
Task

1. xy + yx + 2a = 0

2. xy – yx + 2ax = 0

10.2 Logarithmic Differentiation Problems

The following problems illustrate the process of logarithmic differentiation. It is a means of

differentiating algebraically complicated functions or functions for which the ordinary rules of
differentiation do not apply. For example, in the problems that follow, you will be asked to
differentiate expressions where a variable is raised to a variable power. An example and two
common incorrect solutions are :

1. D x(2 x 3)
= (2 x 3)x( 2 x 3) 1
(2 x 3)x ( 2 x 2)

and

2. D x(2 x 3)
= x( 2 x 3)
(2)ln x

Both of these solutions are wrong because the ordinary rules of differentiation do not apply.
Logarithmic differentiation will provide a way to differentiate a function of this type. It requires
deft algebra skills and careful use of the following unpopular, but well-known, properties of

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Notes logarithms. Though the following properties and methods are true for a logarithm of any base,
only the natural logarithm (base e, where e 2.718281828), ln, will be used in this problem set.

10.2.1 Properties of the Natural Logarithm

1. ln 1 = 0
2. ln e = 1

3. ln ex = x
4. ln yx = x ln y

5. ln (xy) = ln x + ln y

x
6. ln = ln x ln y
y

10.2.2 Avoid the Following List of Common Mistakes

1. ln (x + y) = ln x + ln y
2. ln (x y) = ln x ln y
3. ln (xy) = ln x ln y

x ln x
4. ln
y ln y

ln x
5. ln x ln y
ln y

The following exaples range in difficulty from average to challenging:

Example: Differentiate y = xx
Solution:
Because a variable is raised to a variable power in this function, the ordinary rules of
differentiation do not apply ! The function must first be revised before a derivative can be taken.
Begin with

y = xx
Apply the natural logarithm to both sides of this equation getting
ln y = ln xx

= x ln x
Differentiate both sides of this equation. The left-hand side requires the chain rule since y
represents a function of x. Use the product rule on the right-hand side. Thus, beginning with

ln y = x ln x
and differentiating, we get

1 1
y = x (1)ln x
y x
= 1 + ln x

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 Unit 10: Logarithmic Differentiation

Multiply both sides of this equation by y, getting Notes

y = y(1 + ln x) = x x (1 + ln x)

Example: Differentiate y = x(ex)

Solution:

Because a variable is raised to a variable power in this function, the ordinary rules of
differentiation do not apply ! The function must first be revised before a derivative can be taken.
Begin with
y = x(ex)
Apply the natural logarithm to both sides of this equation getting

ex
ln y = ln x
Differentiate both sides of this equation. The left-hand side requires the chain rule since y
represents a function of x. Use the product rule on the right-hand side. Thus, beginning with
ln y = ex ln x
and differentiating, we get

1 1
y = ex e x ln x
y x

(Get a common denominator and combine fractions on the right-hand side.)

ex x
= e x ln x
x x

ex xe x ln x
=
x x

ex xex ln x
=
x

(Factor out ex in the numerator.)

e x (1 x ln x )
=
x
Multiply both sides of this equation by y, getting

e x (1 x ln x )
y = y
x

ex e x (1 x ln x )
= x
x1

(Combine the powers of x.)

= x ex 1 e x (1 x ln x )

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Notes
1 /x
Example: Differentiate y = 3x 2 5
Solution:
Because a variable is raised to a variable power in this function, the ordinary rules of
differentiation do not apply ! The function must first be revised before a derivative can be taken.
Begin with

1 /x
y = 3x 2 5

Apply the natural logarithm to both sides of this equation getting

1 /x
ln y = ln 3x 2 5

= (1/ x )ln 3x 2 5

ln 3 x 2 5
=
x

Differentiate both sides of this equation. The left-hand side requires the chain rule since y
represents a function of x. Use the quotient rule and the chain rule on the right-hand side. Thus,
beginning with

ln 3 x 2 5
ln y =
x

and differentiating, we get

1
x (6 x ) ln 3x 2 5 (1)
1 3x 2 5
y =
y x2

(Get a common denominator and combine fractions in the numerator.)

6x 2 3x 2 5
ln 3x 2 5
3x 2 5 3x 2 5
=
x2
1

(Dividing by a fraction is the same as multiplying by its reciprocal.)

6x 2 3x 2 5 ln 3x 2 5 1
= 2
3x 5 x2

6x 2 3x 2 5 ln 3x 2 5
=
x 3x 2
2
5

Multiply both sides of this equation by y, getting

6x 2 3x 2 5 ln 3x 2 5
y = y 2 2
x 3x 5

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 Unit 10: Logarithmic Differentiation

1 /x Notes
3x 2 5 6x 2 3x 2 5 ln 3x 2 5
=
x 2 (3x 2 5)1

(Combine the powers of (3x2 + 5).)

(1 / x 1)
3x 2 5 6x 2 3x 2 5 ln 3x 2 5
= 2
x

Example: Differentiate y (sin x )x 3

Solution:
Because a variable is raised to a variable power in this function, the ordinary rules of
differentiation do not apply ! The function must first be revised before a derivative can be taken.
Begin with
3
x
y = (sin x )
Apply the natural logarithm to both sides of this equation getting
3
x
ln y = ln(sin x )

3
= x ln(sin x )

Differentiate both sides of this equation. The left-hand side requires the chain rule since y
represents a function of x. Use the product rule and the chain rule on the right-hand side. Thus,
beginning with truein ln y x 3 ln(sin x ) and differentiating, we get

1
y = x3 cos x 3x 2 ln(sin x )
y sin x

(Get a common denominator and combine fractions on the right-hand side.)

x 3 cos x sin x
= 3x 2 ln(sin x )
sin x sin x

x 3 cos x 3x 2 sin x ln(sin x )

=
sin x

Multiply both sides of this equation by y, getting

x 3 cos x 3x 2 sin x ln(sin x )

y = y
sin x

x 3 x 3 cos x 3x 2 sin x ln(sin x )

= (sin x )
(sin x )1

(Combine the powers of (sin x).)

x3 1
= (sin x ) x 3 cos x 3x 2 sin x ln(sin x )

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Notes
Example: Differentiate y = 7x(cos x)x/2
Solution:
Because a variable is raised to a variable power in this function, the ordinary rules of
differentiation do not apply ! The function must first be revised before a derivative can be taken.
Begin with

y = 7x (cos x)x/2
Apply the natural logarithm to both sides of this equation and use the algebraic properties of
logarithms, getting

ln y = ln (7 x )(cos x )x /2

= ln (7x) + ln (cos x)x/2

= ln (7x) + (x/2) ln (cos x)
Differentiate both sides of this equation. The left-hand side requires the chain rule since y
represents a function of x. Use the product rule and the chain rule on the right-hand side. Thus,
beginning with
ln y = ln (7x) + (x/2) ln (cos x)
and differentiating, we get

1 1 1
y = 7 ( x /2) ( sin x ) (1/2)ln(cos x )
y 7x cos x

1 x sin x ln(cos x )
=
x 2 cos x 2

(Get a common denominator and combine fractions on the right-hand side.)

1 2 cos x x sin x x ln(cos x ) x cos x

=
x 2 cos x 2 cos x x 2 x cos x

2 cos x x 2 sin x x cos x ln(cos x )

=
2 x cos x

Multiply both sides of this equation by y, getting

2 cos x x 2 sin x x cos x ln(cos x )

y = y
2 x cos x

x /2 2 cos x x 2 sin x x cos x ln(cos x )

= 7 x(cos x )
2(cos x )1

(Divide out a factor of x.)

x /2 2 cos x x 2 sin x x cos x ln(cos x )

= 7(cos x )
2(cos x )1

(Combine the powers of (cos x).)

= (7 /2)(cos x )( x /2 1)
2 cos x x 2 sin x x cos x ln(cos x )

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 Unit 10: Logarithmic Differentiation

Notes
x x2
Example: Differentiate y x e
Solution:
Because a variable is raised to a variable power in this function, the ordinary rules of
differentiation do not apply ! The function must first be revised before a derivative can be taken.
Begin with

x 2
y = x ex

Apply the natural logarithm to both sides of this equation and use the algebraic properties of
logarithms, getting

x 2
ln y = ln x ex

x 2
= ln x ln e x

= x ln x x 2 ln( e)

= x ln x x 2 (1)

= x ln x x2

Differentiate both sides of this equation. The left-hand side requires the chain rule since y
represents a function of x. Use the product rule and the chain rule on the right-hand side. Thus,
beginning with

ln y = x ln x x2

and differentiating, we get

1 1 1 /2 1 /2
y = x (1/2)x (1/2)x ln x 2x
y x

1 ln x
= 2x
2 x 2 x

(Get a common denominator and combine fractions on the right-hand side.)

1 ln x 2 x
= 2x
2 x 2 x 2 x

1 ln x 4x1 1 /2

=
2 x

1 ln x 4 x 3 /2
=
2 x

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Notes Multiply both sides of this equation by y, getting

1 ln x 4 x 3 /2
y = y
2 x

x 2 1 ln x 4 x 3 /2
= x ex 1
2 x

(Combine the powers of x .)

x 1 2
= (1/2) x e x 1 ln x 4x 3 /2

Example: Differentiate y = xln x (sec x)3x

Solution:
Because a variable is raised to a variable power in this function, the ordinary rules of
differentiation do not apply ! The function must first be revised before a derivative can be taken.
Begin with
y = xln x (sec x)3x
Apply the natural logarithm to both sides of this equation and use the algebraic properties of
logarithms, getting

ln y = ln x ln x (sec x )3 x

= ln x(ln x) + ln (sec x)3x

= (ln x)(ln x) + 3x ln (sec x)
= (ln x)2 + 3x ln (sec x)
Differentiate both sides of this equation. The left-hand side requires the chain rule since y
represents a function of x . Use the product rule and the chain rule on the right-hand side. Thus,
beginning with

ln y = (ln x)2 + (3x) ln (sec x)

and differentiating, we get

1 1 1
y = 2(ln x ) 3x (sec x tan x ) (3)ln(sec x )
y x sec x

(Divide out a factor of sec x.)

2 ln x
= 3x tan x 3ln(sec x )
x

(Get a common denominator and combine fractions on the right-hand side.)

2 ln x x x
= 3x tan x 3ln(sec x )
x x x

2 ln x 3x 2 tan x 3x ln(sec x )
=
x

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 Unit 10: Logarithmic Differentiation

Multiply both sides of this equation by y, getting Notes

2 ln x 3x 2 tan x 3x ln(sec x )
y = y
x

2 ln x 3x 2 tan x 3x ln(sec x )
= x ln x (sec x )3 x
x

(Combine the powers of x.)

= x(ln x 1)
(sec x )3 x 2 ln x 3x 2 tan x 3x ln(sec x )

Logarithmic Differentiation

df x
Example: Determine of f : x cos( x )
dx
x
f (x) = cos( x )

x
ln f ( x ) = ln cos( x )

ln f ( x ) = x ln cos( x )

d d
ln f ( x ) = x ln f ( x )
dx dx

1 df 1
. = ln cos( x ) x sin( x )
f dx cos( x )

1 df
. = ln cos( x ) x tan( x )
f dx

df
= f ln cos( x ) x tan(x )
dx

df x x
= cos( x ) ln cos(x ) x cos(x ) tan(x )
dx

And thus

df x
= cos ( x )ln cos( x ) x cos x ( x )tan( x )
dx

Example: Differentiate y = (2x)sin x.

Solution:
Alternate 1
y = (2x)sin x = esin x ln 2x,

sin x
y ' e sinx ln2 x cos x ln 2x (sin x) 2 (2x)sinx cos x ln 2x
2x x .

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Notes Alternate 2
Using logarithmic differentiation we have:
ln y = ln (2x)sin x = sin x ln 2x,

y' 2 sin x
y cos x ln 2 x (sin x) cos x ln 2 x ,
2x x

sin x sin x
y' y cos x ln 2 x (2 x) sin x cos x ln 2 x .
x x

Notes The given function is of the form ( f(x))g(x), with f(x) = 2x and g(x) = sin x. The variable
appears in both the base and the exponent. Neither the power rule (d/dx) ua = aua–1u’ nor
the exponent rule (d/dx) au = au( ln a)u’ can be applied directly in this case.
In Solution 1 we transform ( f(x))g(x) into the exponential function using the definition uv =
ev ln u, to get ( f(x))g(x) = eg(x) ln f(x). Then we differentiate eg(x) ln f(x) with respect to x utilizing the
exponent rule. This is possible because the base e is a constant. In the answer, we transform
eg(x) ln f(x) back to ( f(x))g(x).
In Solution 2 we take the natural logarithm of both sides of the equation y = ( f(x))g(x), to
obtain ln y = ln ( f(x))g(x) = g(x) ln f(x). Then we differentiate implicitly both sides of the
resulting equation ln y =g(x) ln f(x) with respect to x. Note that (d/dx) ln y = (1/y) dy/dx =
y’/y, by the chain rule. Next we solve for y’. In the answer, we replace y by ( f(x))g(x), since
we should express y’ in terms of x only, not of x and y. This technique is called logarithmic
differentiation, since it involves the taking of the natural logarithm and the differentiation
of the resulting logarithmic equation. It allows us to convert the differentiation of ( f(x))g(x)
into the differentiation of a product.
Note that both Alternate 1 and 2 yield the same answer.

Example: Find dy/dx if y = x3(sin x)cos x.

Solution:
Alternate 1

y = x3(sin x)cos x = x3ecos x ln sin x,

dy cos x
3 x 2 e cos x ln sin x x 3 e cos x ln sin x ( sin x) ln sin x cos x
dx sin x

3 x 2 (sin x) cos x x 3 (sin x) cos x ( sin x ln sin x cos x cot x)

3
x 3 (sin x) cos x sin x ln sin x cos x cot x .
x

Alternate 2
Utilizing logarithmic differentiation we get:
ln y = ln x3 (sin x)cos x = 3 ln x + cos x ln sin x,

1 dy 3 cos x 3
( sin x) ln sin x cos x sin x ln sin x cos x cot x,
y dx x sin x x

dy 3 3
y sin x ln sin x cos x cot x x 3 (sin x) cos x sin x ln sin x cos x cot x .
dx x x

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 Unit 10: Logarithmic Differentiation

Notes

Notes The given function contains a term of the form ( f(x))g(x), with f(x) = sin x and g(x) = cos x.
Hence we use either the equation ( f(x))g(x) = eg(x) ln f(x) as in Alternate 1 or logarithmic
differentiation as in Alternate 2. Again, in the answer don’t forget to replace eg(x) ln f(x) by
( f(x))g(x), or y by the expression of the given function.

Example: Find:

d (1 x)(2 x) 2 (3 x) 3
.
dx (4 x) 4

Solution:
Let:

(1 x)(2 x) 2 (3 x) 3
y .
(4 x) 4

Employing logarithmic differentiation we obtain:

ln y ln(1 x) 2 ln(2 x) 3 ln(3 x) 4 ln(4 x),

1 dy 1 2 3 4
,
y dx 1 x 2 x 3 x 4 x
2 3 dy
d (1 x)(2 x) (3 x)
dx (4 x) 4 dx
1 2 3 4
y
1 x 2 x 3 x 4 x
(1 x)(2 x) 2 (3 x) 3 1 2 3 4
.
(4 x) 4 1 x 2 x 3 x 4 x

Notes Here we have a product and a quotient, but there’s no term of the form ( f(x))g(x), and
we still employ logarithmic differentiation, which therefore isn’t exclusive for the form
( f(x))g(x). Of course we can use the product and quotient rules, but doing so would be more
complicated. Generally, logarithmic differentiation is advantageous when the products
and/or quotients are complicated. It enables us to convert the differentiation of a product
and that of a quotient into that of a sum and that of a difference respectively.

Example: Differentiate y = (sec x)tan x in 2 ways:

1. Express it as natural exponential and then differentiate.
2. Use logarithmic differentiation.
Solution:
1. y = (sec x)tan x = etan x ln sec x,
y’ = etan x ln sec x (sec2 x ln sec x + tan x (1/sec x) sec x tan x)

= (sec x)tan x (sec2x ln sec x + tan2 x).

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Notes 2. ln y = ln (sec x)tan x = tan x ln sec x,

y' sec x tan x

sec 2 x ln sec x tan x sec 2 x ln sec x tan 2 x ,
y sec x

y’ = y(sec2 x ln sec x + tan2 x) = (sec x)tan x (sec2 x ln sec x + tan2 x).

Example: Find y’ using logarithmic differentiation if y = xx/(x – 1)2.

Solution:

xx
ln y ln x ln x 2 ln ( x 1),
(x 1) 2

y' x 2 2
ln x ln x 1 ,
y x x 1 x 1

2 xx 2
y' y ln x 1 1 ln x .
x 1 (x 1) 2 x 1

x x
Example:
3. Let f ( x) (x x ) and g ( x) x(x ) .
1. Which of these functions grows more rapidly for sufficiently large x?
2. Differentiate them.
Solution:
x 2
f ( x) ((xx xx )) x xx((xx 2)) 2 x 2 x 2
1. a. lim f ( x) lim lim lim x ((xx 2 xx x)) lim x xx 2((11 xx x 2)
) 0,
a. xlim g ( x) xlim x xlim x xlim x xlim x 0,
x g ( x) x xx((xx x)) x xx((xx x)) x x

because limx
because limx
xx22 ((11 xx xx 22 )) . So g grows more rapidly.
. So g grows more rapidly.
b. Using logarithmic differentiation we have:
2. b. Using logarithmic differentiation we have:  
x
ln ff ((xx))
ln ln( x xx ) x
ln( x ) xx ln x
ln xx x xx22 ln
ln xx,,
ff ''((xx)) xx22
22xx ln
ln xx xx(2 ln x 1),
(2 ln x 1),
ff ((xx)) xx

x x xx 2 1 ln x 1), 2
ff ''((xx)) ff ((xx))xx(2 ln xx 1)
(2 ln 1) ((xx x )) xx(2 ln xx 1)
(2 ln 1) xx x 1(2
(2 ln x 1),

( x x) x
ln gg((xx)) ln
ln ln xx ( x ) xx xx ln
ln xx,,
ln x
ln gg((xx)) ln
ln ln ln((xx x ln
ln xx)) xx ln
ln xx ln ln xx,,
ln ln
gg''((xx)) xx 11 1 1
ln xx x
ln ln xx 11 x ln x ,,
ln
gg((xx)) ln
ln gg((xx)) x xx ln
ln xx x ln x

1
g ' ( x) g ( x)( ln g ( x)) ln x 1
x ln x

x) x 1
x(x x ln x ln x 1
x ln x

x x 1
xx ln 2 x ln x .
x

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Notes
Example: Find:

d t 3 sin 2 t
.
dt (t 1)(t 2) 2

Solution:
Let:

y t 3 sin 2 t .
(t 1)(t 2) 2

Utilizing logarithmic differentiation we get:

ln y ln t 3 sin 2 t 3 ln t 2 ln sin t ln(t 1) 2 ln(t 2),

(t 1)(t 2) 2

1 dy 3 cos t 1 2 3 1 2
2 2 cot t ,
y dt t sin t t 1 t 2 t t 1 t 2

d t 3 sin 2 t dy
dt (t 1)(t 2) 2 dt
3 1 2
y 2 cot t
t t 1 t 2
t 3 sin 2 t 2 cot t
3 1 2
.
(t 1)(t 2) 2 t t 1 t 2

Example: Find an equation of the tangent line to the curve:

1 x 1 2x 1 3x
y
1 6x

at x = 0.
Solution:

1 x 1 2x 1 3x (1 x)1/2 (1 2 x)1/2 (1 3 x)1/2

y 1/2
.
1 x 11 26xx 1 3 x (1 x)1/2 (1
(1 26xx))1/2 (1 3 x)1/2
y .
1 6x (1 6 x)1/2
Employing logarithmic differentiation we obtain:
Employing logarithmic differentiation we obtain:
ln y 1 ln(1 x) 1 ln(1 2 x) 1 ln(1 3 x) 1 ln(1 6 x),
2 2 2 2
ln y 1 ln(1 x) 1 ln(1 2 x) 1 ln(1 3 x) 1 ln(1 6 x),
y' 2 2 2 2
1 1 3 3 ,
yy' 2(11 x) 1 12 x 2(1 3 3 x) 1 36 x
,
y 2(1 x) 1 2 x 2(1 3 x) 1 6 x
y' y 1 1 3 3 .
2(11 x) 1 12 x 2(1 3 3 x) 1 36 x
y' y .
2(1 x) 1 2 x 2(1 3 x) 1 6 x
At x 0 we have y 1 0 1 2(0) 1 3(0) 1 6(0) 1. Thus the slope of the tangent line is:
At x 0 we have y 1 0 1 2(0) 1 3(0) 1 6(0) 1. Thus the slope of the tangent line is:
1 1 3 3
y ' x 0, y 1
(1) 0.
2(1 0) 1 12(0) 2(1 3(0)) 1 36(0)
y ' x 0, y (1) 1 3 0.
1 2(1 0) 1 2(0) 2(1 3(0)) 1 6(0)

Consequently the equation of the tangent line is y – 1 = 0(x – 0) or y = 1.

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Notes

Example

Consumer price index of a certain group of workers increases by 15% per year and their quantity
index by 6%. What is the annual growth of their expenditure.
Solution:

Let P denotes price index, Q the quantity index and E the expenditure index. We can write E = P
× Q.
Taking log of both sides, we get log E = log P + log Q

Differentiating w.r.t. t, we get

d log E d log P d log Q

=
dt dt dt
d log E d log P
Let us denote , the rate of growth of E, by rE. Similarly, we denote rP and
dt dt
d log Q
rQ .
dt
Thus, we can write rE = rP + rQ = 0.15 + 0.06 = 0.21.
Hence the rate of growth of expenditure index is 21%.

Example 
Agricultural output is the following function of time: X = K × abt, where K, a and b are all positive
constants with a < 1 and b < 1.

(i) Show that, starting from an initial level of output X0, the output is always increasing but
is subject to a ceiling which is never, exceeded.
(ii) Show that proportional rate of growth of output is always positive, but declines over
time.
Solution:

(i) Note that initial output X0 = Ka

dX
To find we take log of both sides i.e. log X = log K + bt log a
dt
d log X 1 dX
Differentiating w.r.t. t, we get b t log a log b
dt X dt
dX t
or K ab bt log a × log b > 0 (Since log a, log b < 0)
dt
To determine the ceiling on output, we find

t t
X lim K.ab K lim ab K
t t

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 Unit 10: Logarithmic Differentiation

(ii) The proportional rate of growth is Notes

d log X dr 2
r bt log a log b 0 bt log a log b 0.
dt dt
Hence proportional rate of growth is positive but declines over time.

10.3 Summary

x
f :x cos( x ) , which cannot be treated as a power g n where g : x cos(x ) or as an
exponent ex.

We cannot apply the exponential or power rule for differentiating f.

Using the properties of the natural logarithm (ln), we can "simplify" some functions to
allow us to apply the product rule, and logarithmic rule for differentiating

d df dg d 1 du
( f g) g f. and ln( u) .
dx dx dx dx u dx

The commonly used property for logarithmic differentiation is ln u x x ln(u).

To use logarithmic differentiation we must assume the function with which we take the
natural logarithm cannot be less or equal to zero ln( f ) implies that f 0.

Functions which output negative values can be solved by taking the absolute value
of the function ln f .

To apply logarithmic differentiation we simply take the logarithm on both sides of an

equation, simplify, and differentiate implicitly with respect to the independant variable.
f(x) = …

ln f ( x ) = ln (…)

1 df d
= ln( )
f ( x ) dx dx

df d
= f( x ) ln( )
dx dx

10.4 Keyword
g x
Logarithmic Differentiation: To differentiate a function of the form f x or a f x , we use
a method called Logarithmic differentiation.

10.5 Self Assessment

1. If y = xx find y
(a) xx log ex (b) ex log x

(c) x log ex (d) x log exx

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Basic Mathematics – I

Notes
x
2. Value of ln
y

(a) ln x ln y (b) ln y ln x

(c) ln x + ln y (d) ln y × ln x
3. ln (x + y) is equals to

(a) ln xy + ln yx (b) ln x ln y
(c) x ln y y ln x (d) ln x + ln y

x
4. ln equals to
y

ln x ln y
(a) (b)
ln y ln x

ln x y
(c) (d) ln x ln y
ln y x

ln x
5. If is given then its value equals to
ln y

(a) ln x + ln y (b) ln x ln y
(c) ln y ln x (d) x ln y y ln x
6. ln 1 equals to
(a) 0 (b) 1
(c) 1 (d)
7. Value of lne equals to
(a) 1 (b) 2

(c) 1 (d)
x
8. Value of y equals to
(a) y ln x (b) x ln y
y
(c) ln yx (d) ln x

9. Value of D x(2 x 3)
equal to

3) 2 ln x
(a) x( 2 x 3)2 ln x
(b) x( x

(c) x( x 3)ln x
(d) ln x(3 x 2)
,2 ln x

10. ln ex is equal to
(a) x (b) 1

(c) 0 (d) 1

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 Unit 10: Logarithmic Differentiation

10.6 Review Questions Notes

x5
1. Differentiate the function y .
(1 10x ) x 2 2

2. Differentiate y = xx.

(ln x )x
3. Differentiate y .
23x 1

x 2 x ( x 1)3
4. Differentiate y .
(3 5x )4

x 5 e x (4 x 3)
5. Consider the function f ( x ) . Find an equation of the line tangent to the
5ln x (3 x )2
graph of f at x = 1.

Answers: Self Assessment

1. (a) 2. (a)
3. (d) 4. (a)
5. (b) 6. (a)
7. (a) 8. (b)
9. (a) 10. (a)

10.7 Further Readings

Books Husch, Lawrence S. Visual Calculus, University of Tennessee, 2001.

Smith and Minton, Calculus Early Trancendental, Third Edition, McGraw Hill 2008.

Online links http://www.suitcaseofdreams.net/Trigonometric_Functions.htm

http://library.thinkquest.org/20991/alg2/trigi.html
http://www.intmath.com/trigonometric functions/5 signs of trigonometric
functions.php

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Basic Mathematics – I

Notes Unit 11: Parametric Differentiation

CONTENTS
Objectives

Introduction
11.1 The Parametric Definition of A Curve

11.2 Differentiation of A Function Defined Parametrically

11.3 Second Derivatives

11.4 Parametric Functions

11.5 Summary

11.6 Keywords
11.7 Self Assessment
11.8 Review Questions
11.9 Further Readings

Objectives

After studying this unit, you will be able to:

Differentiate a function defined parametrically
Find the second derivative of such a function

Introduction

Some relationships between two quantities or variables are so complicated that we sometimes
introduce a third quantity or variable in order to make things easier to handle. In mathematics
this third quantity is called a parameter. Instead of one equation relating say, x and y, we have
two equations, one relating x with the parameter, and one relating y with the parameter. In this
unit we will give examples of curves which are defined in this way, and explain how their rates
of change can be found using parametric differentiation.
Instead of a function y(x) being defined explicitly in terms of the independent variable x, it is
sometimes useful to define both x and y in terms of a third variable, t say, known as a parameter.
In this unit we explain how such functions can be differentiated using a process known as
parametric differentiation.

11.1 The Parametric Definition of A Curve

In the first example below we shall show how the x and y coordinates of points on a curve can be
defined in terms of a third variable, t, the parameter.

Example: Consider the parametric equations

x = cos t y = sin t for 0 t 2 (1)
Note how both x and y are given in terms of the third variable t.

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To assist us in plotting a graph of this curve we have also plotted graphs of cos t and sin t in Notes
Figure 11.1. Clearly,
when t = 0, x = cos 0 = 1; y = sin 0 = 0

when t ,x cos 0; y sin 1.

2 2 2

In this way we can obtain the x and y coordinates of lots of points given by Equations (1). Some
of these are given in Table 11.1.

Figure 11.1: Graphs of sin t and cos t

Table 11.1: Values of x and y given by Equations (1)

Plotting the points given by the x and y coordinates in Table 1, and joining them with a smooth
curve we can obtain the graph. In practice you may need to plot several more points before you
can be confident of the shape of the curve. We have done this and the result is shown in
Figure 11.2.
Figure 11.2. The parametric equations define a circle centered
at the origin and having radius 1

So x = cos t, y = sin t, for t lying between 0 and 2 , are the parametric equations which describe
a circle, centre (0, 0) and radius 1.

11.2 Differentiation of A Function Defined Parametrically

It is often necessary to find the rate of change of a function defined parametrically; that is, we
dy
want to calculate . The following example will show how this is achieved.
dx

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Notes
dy
Example: Suppose we wish to find when x = cos t and y = sin t.
dx
We differentiate both x and y with respect to the parameter, t:

dx dx
= sin t = cos t
dt dt

From the chain rule we know that

dy dy dx
=
dt dx dt

so that, by rearrangement

dy
dy dx
= dt provided is not equal to 0
dx dx dt
dt

So, in this case

dy
dy cos t
= dt cot t
dx dx sin t
dt

dy
Notes Parametric differentiation: if x = x(t) and y = y(t) then dy dt provided dx 0
dx dx dt
dt

dy
Example: Suppose we wish to find when x = t3 t and y = 4 t2.
dx
x = t3 t y = 4 t2

dx dy
= 3t2 1 = 2t
dt dt

From the chain rule we have

dy
dy
= dt
dx dx
dt

2t
= 2
3t 1

So, we have found the gradient function, or derivative, of the curve using parametric
differentiation.

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 Unit 11: Parametric Differentiation

For completeness, a graph of this curve is shown in Figure 11.3. Notes

Figure 11.3

dy
Example: Suppose we wish to find when x = t3 and y = t2 t.
dx
In this Example we shall plot a graph of the curve for values of t between 2 and 2 by first
producing a table of values (Table 11.2).

Table 11.2

Part of the curve is shown in Figure 11.4. It looks as though there may be a turning point
between 0 and 1. We can explore this further using parametric differentiation.

Figure 11.4

From

x = t3 y = t2 t
we differentiate with respect to t to produce

dx dy
= 3t2 = 2t 1
dt dt

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Basic Mathematics – I

Notes Then, using the chain rule,

dy
dy dx
= dt provided 0
dx dx dt
dt

dy 2t 1
=
dx 3t 2

1 dy 1 1
From this we can see that when t , 0 and so t is a stationary value. When t ,
2 dx 2 2

1 1
x and y and these are the coordinates of the stationary point.
8 4

dy
We also note that when t 0, is infinite and so the y axis is tangent to the curve at the point (0, 0).
dx

11.3 Second Derivatives

d2 y
Example: Suppose we wish to find the second derivative when
dx 2
x = t2 y = t3
Differentiating we find

dx dy
= 2t = 3t2
dt dt

Then, using the chain rule,

dy
dy dx
= dt provided 0
dx dx dt
dt

So that

dy 3t 2 3t
=
dx 2t 2

d2 y
We can apply the chain rule a second time in order to find the second derivative, .
dx 2

d2 y d dy
=
dx 2 dx dx

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 Unit 11: Parametric Differentiation

Notes
d dy
= dt dx
dx
dt

3
= 2
2t

3
=
4t

Notes if x = x(t) and y = y(t) then

Example:

Suppose we wish to find when

Differentiating

Then, using the chain rule,

so that

This can be simplified as follows:

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Basic Mathematics – I

Notes

11.4 Parametric Functions

If the variables x and y are given in terms of a new variable t, then the function is said to be in the
parametric form and ‘t’ is called the parameter.
In general, the parametric function is given by x f t ,y g t where f t and g t are
functions of the parameter t.

x f t ,y g t are called the parametric equations.

dy
To find when the parametric equations are given
dx

Let x f t and y g t be the parametric equations.

dx
Differentiate x f t w.r.t. t to get
dt
dy
Differentiate y g t w.r.t. t to get
dt
dy
dy dt
then
dx dx
dt
This method of differentiation is called Parametric Differentiation.

dy
Example: Find , if, x at 2 , y 2 at
dx
Solution:
Differentiating both the equations w.r.t. t, we get

dx dy
2 at , 2a
dt dt
dy dy / dt 2a 1
dx dx / dt 2 at t

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 Unit 11: Parametric Differentiation

Notes
dy
Example: Find , if, x t , y 1/ t
dx
Solution:

dx 1 dy 1
Differentiating w.r.t. t, we get ,
dt 2 t dt 2t 3 /2
1
dy dy / dt 2t 3/2 1
dx dx / dt 1 t
2 t

dy
Example: Find , if, x 2 et , y 3e t
dx
Solution:

dx dy
2 et , 3e t

dt dt
dy dy / dt
dx dx / dt

3e t
2 e2t
3
2 e2t

dy
Example: Find , if, x et log t , y e t log t
dx
Solution:

dx 1
et log t et
dt t
1
et log t
t
dy t 1 t
e log t e
dt t

t 1
e log t
t

dy t 1
e log t
dy dt t
dx dx 1
et log t
dt t

1 t log t
2t
e 1 t log t

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Basic Mathematics – I

Notes
dy 3 at 3 at 2
Example: Find , if, x y
dx 1 t3 1 t3
Solution:

dx 1 t 3 3 a 3 at 3t 2
2
dt 1 t3

3a 1 t 3 3t 3
3 2
1 t

3 a 1 2t 3
2
1 t3

3 at 2
y
1 t3

dy 1 t 3 6 at 3 at 2 3t 2
2
dt 1 t3
3 at 2 t 3
3 at(2 t 3 ) 2
3 2 t3
(1 t 1)

dy
dy dt 3 at 2 t 3
dx dx 3 a 1 2t 3
dt

dy t 2 t3
dx 1 2t 3

dy
Example: Find , if, x log t l2 1 ,y t2 1
dx
Solution:

dx 1 1
1 2t
dt t t 2
1 2 t2 1

1 t2 1 t 1
2 2 2
t t 1 t 1 t 1

dy 1 t
2t
dt 2 t 2
1 t 2
1

dy t
dy dt t 2
1 t
dx dx 1
dt t2 1

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 Unit 11: Parametric Differentiation

Notes

dy
, if
Task Find dx
2–t
(i) x=
2 t

2t
(ii) y (note x + y = 1)
2 t

11.5 Summary

If the variables x and y are given in terms of a new variable t, then the function is said to
be in the parametric form and ‘t’ is called the parameter.

In general, the parametric function is given by x f t ,y g t where f t and g t

are functions of the parameter t.

x f t ,y g t are called the parametric equations.

11.6 Keywords

Parameter: If the variables x and y are given in terms of a new variable t, then the function is said
to be in the parametric form and ‘t’ is called the parameter.
Parametric Equations: In general, the parametric function is given by x f t ,y g t where
f t and g t are functions of the parameter t.
x f t ,y g t are called the parametric equations.

11.7 Self Assessment

dy
1. x t t y t t then
dx

3t
(a) (b) cot t
2

2 t 1 4tet
(c) (d)
2 t 1 1 t

dy
2. x te t , y 2t 2 1 then
dx

5 3 2 t 1
(a) t (b)
4 2 t 1

4tet
(c) (d) cost
1 t

3. x = 2t3 + 1, y = te-2t, determine co-ordinater of the stationary points.

5 1
(a) , (b) 1 2 , 16
4 2e

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Basic Mathematics – I

Notes
5 1 22 7
(c) , (d) ,
126 26 7 77

4. x t 1, y t3 12 t for t 0, determine co-ordinat of stationary points.

5 1
(a) , (b) 1 2 , 16
4 2e

5
(c) , 2 (d) 2 , 16
28

d2 y
5. x = sin t, y = cos t determine
dx 2

(a) sec3 t (b) sec2 t

(c) cos2 t (d) cosec3 t

d2 y
6. x = e-t, y = t3 + t + 1, thus
dx 2

1
(a) (b) 3t 2 6t 1 e 2 t
2t

1
(c) sec2 t (d)
9t 3

11.8 Review Questions

dy
1. Determine , if x = t2 + 1, y = t3 1
dx

dy
2. Explain , if x = 3 cos t, y = 3 sin t
dx

dy
3. Solve , if x = 2t3 + 1, y = t2 cos t
dx

4. Determine the co-ordinates of the stationary points if x = 5t 4, y = 5t6 t5 for t > 0

5. Determine the co-ordinates of the stationary points if x = t + t2, y = sin t for 0 < t <

d2 y
6. Determine in terms of t, if x = 3t2 + 1, y = t3 2t2
dx 2

d2 y 1 2
7. Explain in terms of t, if x t 2, y sin(t 1)
dx 2 2

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 Unit 11: Parametric Differentiation

Answers: Self Assessment Notes

1. (c) 2. (c)
3. (a) 4. (b)

5. (a) 6. (b)

11.9 Further Readings

Books Husch, Lawrence S. Visual Calculus, University of Tennessee, 2001.

Smith and Minton, Calculus Early Trancendental, Third Edition, McGraw Hill 2008.

Online links http://www.suitcaseofdreams.net/Trigonometric_Functions.htm

http://library.thinkquest.org/20991/alg2/trigi.html
http://www.intmath.com/trigonometric functions/5 signs of trigonometric
functions.php

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Notes Unit 12: Successive Differentiation

CONTENTS
Objectives

Introduction
12.1 Successive Differentiation

12.2 Definition of Successive Differentiation

12.3 Summary

12.4 Keyword
12.5 Self Assessment

12.6 Review Questions

12.7 Further Readings

Objectives

After studying this unit, you will be able to:

Discuss successive differentiation
Differentiate problem related to successive differentiation

Introduction

Differentiation in math terms is the mathematical procedure of taking the derivative of a function.
A derivative of a function is a function that gives the slopes of the tangent lines to each point of
the curve representative of the function on a graph. We have seen that the derivative of a
function of x is in general also a function of x. This new function may also be differentiable, in
which case the derivative of the first derivative is called the second derivative of the original
function. Similarly, the derivative of the second derivative is called the third derivative; and so
on to the nth derivative. Thus, if

d dy d2 y
=
dx dx dx 2

d d dy d d2 y d3y
=
dx dx dx dx dx 2 dx 3

d dn 1 y dn y
=
dx dxn 1 dx n

12.1 Successive Differentiation

If y = f(x) is a differentiable function then by differentiating it w.r.t. x, we get

dy
f x ...(i)
dx

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 Unit 12: Successive Differentiation

dy Notes
If f x is a differentiable function, then by differentiating it w.r.t. x, we get
dx
d2 y
f x ...(ii)
dx 2
Similarly by differentiating it w.r.t. x, we get

d3y
f x ...(iii)
dx 3
Again by differentiating it w.r.t. x, we get

d4 y
f iv x ...(iv)
dx 4
and so on.

dy
This process of finding higher ordered derivatives is called successive differentiation. is
dx
d2y d3y
called first derivative, is called the second derivative, is called the third derivative
dx 2 dx 3
d4y
and is called fourth derivative and so on.
dx 4
dny th
dn 1y
In general, n is called the n derivative, which is obtained by differentiating w.r.t. x.
dx dx n 1

(n) dny dn
The nth derivative of y = f(x) is denoted by the symbols y n , f ( x ), , [ f ( x )]
dx n dx n

Examples: Find the second, third, fourth derivatives of the following functions:

1 ax b
1. x 4 5x 3 7 x 2 2 x 2. ax 2 bx c 3.
x cx d
x
4. x log x 5. xe
Solution:

1
1. Let y x 4 5x 3 7 x 2 2 x
x
dy 1
4 x 3 15x 2 14 x 2 ]
dx x2
d2 y 2
2
12 x 2 30 x 14
dx x3

d3y 6
24 x 30
dx 3 x4
d4y 24
24
dx 4 x5

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Basic Mathematics – I

Notes 2. Let y ax 2 bx c

dy
2 ax b 0
dx
d2 y
2a 0
dx 2
= 2a

d3y
0
dx 3
d4y
0
dx 4
ax b
3. Let y
cx d
dy cx d a ax b c
2
dx cx d

acx ad acx bc
2
cx d

ad bc
2
cx d

d2 y ac bc 2c
3
dx 2 cx d

d2 y 2c bc ad
3
dx 2 cx d

d3y 6c 2 (bc ad )
dx 3 (cx d ) 4

d4y 24c 3 (bc ad )

dx 4 (cx d ) 5
4. Let y = x log x

dy 1
x log x 1 log x
dx x
d2 y 1 1
0
dx 2 x x

d3y 1
dx 3 x2
d4y 2
dx 4 x3

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5. Let y xe x Notes

dy
xex ex 1
dx
d2 y
x 1 ex ex 1
dx 2
x 2 ex

d3y
( x 2 )e x e x .1
dx 3
( x 3 )e x

d4y
( x 3 )e x e x .1
dx 4
( x 4 )e x

d2 y
Example: If x 2 xy y 2 0, prove that 0.
dx 2

Solution: x 2 xy y 2 0
Differentiating w.r.t. x, we get

dy dy
2x x y 2y 0
dx dx
dy
x 2y 2x y
dx

dy 2x y
dx x 2y

dy dy
x 2y 2 2x y 1 2
d2 y dx dx
2
dx 2 x 2y

2x y (2x y )
(x 2 y ) 2 (2x y ) 1 2
x 2y (x 2 y )
(x 2 y )2

x 2 y 3y 2x y 3x
3
x 2y

3xy 6 y 2 6x 2 3xy
3
x 2y

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Basic Mathematics – I

Notes
6 x 2 6 xy 6 y 2
(x 2 y )3

x2 xy y 2 6 0
6 3 3 0
x 2y x 2y

d2 y
0
dx 2

d2y ax b
Example: Find , if y
dx 2 bx a

ax b
Solution: y
bx a
dy bx a a ax b b
2
dx bx a

abx a 2 abx b 2
2
bx a

a2 b 2
2
bx a

d2 y 2 1 d
a2 b2 2 bx a bx a
dx 2 dx

3 2b b 2 a2
2 b2 a 2 bx a b 3
bx a

d2y
Example: Find , if y ax .
dx 2
Solution: y = ax

dy
a x log a
dx
d2 y 2
a x log a
dx 2
m
Example: If y x x2 1 , prove that x
2
1 y2 xy 1 m 2 y 0.

m
Solution: y x x2 1

m 1 d
y1 m x x2 1 x x2 1
dx

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Notes
m 1 1
m x x2 1 1 2x
2 x2 1
m 1 x2 1 x
2
m x x 1
x2 1
m
m x2 1 x
i.e., y 1
x2 1

x2 1y 1 my ...(i)

Differentiating again w.r.t. x, we get

1
x2 1y 2 y1 2x my1
2 x2 1
Multiplying throughout by x2 1 , we get

x2 1 y2 xy1 my1 x 2 1

x2 1 y2 xy 1 m my (using (1))

i.e., x2 1 y2 xy1 m2 y
x2 1 y2 xy1 m2 y 0
Alternate: Squaring equation (i)
2
We get x 1 y 12 m2 y 2

Differentiating w.r.t. x,

x2 1 2 y1 y 2 y12 2 x m 2 2 yy 1 (cancelling 2y 1 )

x2 1 y2 xy 1 m2 y

2
i.e., x 1 y2 xy 1 m 2 y 0

1
Example: If y ax n bx n , prove that x 2 y 2 n n 1 y 0.
1
Solution: y ax n bx n

1 1 n 1
y1 (n 1) ax n b( n) x
n 1
n 1 ax n bnx
1 n 1 1
y2 n 1 nax n bn n 1 x
1 n 2
y2 n 1 nax n bn n 1 x

x2 y2 (n 1)nax n 1 . x 2 bn(n 1)x n 2

.x 2

i.e., x 2 y2 n 1 nax n 1
bn n 1 x n

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Basic Mathematics – I

Notes 1
n n 1 ax n bx n
n n 1 y

x2 y2 n(n 1)y 0

d2y
Example: Find , if, x at 2 , 2 y 2 at
dx 2
Solution:

dx dy
2 at , 2a
dt dt
dy
dy dt 2a 1
dx dx 2 at t
dt

d2 y d 1 d 1 dt
dx 2 dx t dt t dx
1 1 dx
 2 at
t 2 2 at dt
1
2 at 3

d2 y c
Example: Find , if, x ct , y
dn 2 t
Solution:

dy dx c
c,
dt dt t2
c
dy dy / dt t2 1
dx dx / dt c t2

d2 y d 1
dx 2 dx t2

d 1 dt 2 1 2
dt t2 dx t3 c ct 3

d2y
Example: Find , if, x 2 xy y 2 a2
dx 2
Solution:

Differentiate x 2 xy y 2 a 2 w.r.t. x

dy dy
2x x y 2y 0
dx dx

dy dy 2x y
x 2y 2x y ,
dx dx x 2y

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dy dy Notes
(x 2 y ) 2 (2x y ) 1 2
d2y dx dx
dx 2 (x 2 y )2

dy dy
2x 4y x 2y 2x y 4x 2 y
dx dx
2
x 2y

dy
3y x 2 y 4x 2 y
dx
2
x 2y

2x y
3 y 3x
x 2y
2
x 2y

y x 2y x 2x y
3 3
x 2y

xy 2 y 2 2x2 xy
3 3
x 2y

2x2 2 xy 2 y 2
3
x 2y

x2 xy y 2
3 2 3
x 2y

6 a2
3 ( x 2 xy y 2 a2 )
x 2y

d2 y
Example: Find , if, x 3 y 2 a5
dn 2
Solution:
Differentiating w.r.t. x, we get

dy
x3 2y y 2 3x 2 0
dx
dy 3x 2 y 2 3y
dx 2x 3 y 2x

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Basic Mathematics – I

Notes dy
x y
d2 y 3 dx 3 3y
x y
dx 2 2 x 2
2x2 2x

3 3 3 5 15y
y y y
2x2 2 2x2 2 4x 2

d2 y x2 y2
Example: Find 2 , if,
1
dn a2 b2
Solution:
Differentiating w.r.t. x, we get

2x 2 y dy
0
a2 b 2 dx
dy b2 x
dx a2 y

dy
y x
d2 y b2 dx
dx 2 a2 y2

b2x
y x
b2 a2 y
a2 y2

b 4 a2 y 2 b2 x 2
a2 y 2 a2b2 y

b 2 a2 y 2 b 2 x 2
a2 y 2 a2 y

b4 x2 y2
a2 y 3 a2 b2
b4 b4
[1]
a2 y 3 a2 y 3

d2 y
Task Find , if:
dx 2
1. y = (x2 + 2) log x,

1
2. y
ax b

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12.2 Definition of Successive Differentiation Notes

Consider,
A one variable function,
y = f(x) (x is independent variable and y depends on x.)
Here if we make any change in x there will be a related change in y.

dy
This change is called derivative of y w.r.t. x. denoted by f’(x) or y 1 or y’ or called first order
dx
derivative of y w.r.t. x.

d2 y
f "( x ) f '(x ) ' y" y 2 is called second order derivative of y w.r.t x.
dx 2
It gives rate of change in y 1w.r.t. rate of change in x.
Similarly,

d3 y
Third derivative of y is denoted by y 3 or f "'( x ) or or y "' and
dx 3

So on…………………
(Above derivatives exist because, If y = f(x), then y1 = g(x), where g(x) is some function of x
depends on f(x) for e.g. if y = sinx then y 1 = cosx, hence y2 = sinx and so on………)
Thus,
Derivatives of f(x) (or f) w.r.t. x are denoted by, f’(x), f”(x), f”’(x),……………f (n) (x),………
Above process is called successive differentiation of f (x) w.r.t. x and f’, f”, f”’,………,f (n) are called
successive derivatives of f.
f(n)(x) denotes nth derivative of f.
Notations:
Successive derivatives of y w.r.t. x are also denoted by,
1. y1, y2, y3, ……….yn,……………. ………… or

dy d 2 y d 3 y dn y
2. , , , , ……………… or
dx dx2 dx3 dxn

3. f’(x), f”(x), f”’(x), ………, f (n)(x), ……… or

4. y’, y”, y”’, …………y (n), ………… or
5. Dy, D2y, D3y,…………., Dny, …………….

d
Where D denotes .
dx

Value of nth derivative of y = f(x) at x = a is denoted by,

dn y
fn(a), yn(a), or
dx n x a

(i.e. value can be obtained by just replacing x with a in f n(x).)

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Basic Mathematics – I

Notes

Notes Sr no. Function nth derivative

01 y = eax yn = an eax
02 y= bax yn = an bax (logeb)n
03 y = (ax + b)m (i) if m is integer greater than n or less than (–1) then,
yn = m(m – 1)(m – 2)…(m – n + 1) an(ax + b)m-n
(ii) if m is less than n then, yn = 0
(iii) if m = n then, yn = an n!

( 1)n n ! an
(iv) if m = -1 then, yn
( ax b)n 1

( 1)n (n 1)! an
(v) if m = -2 then, yn
( ax b)

04 y = log (ax +b) ( 1)n 1 (n 1)! a n

yn
( ax b)n

n th derivatives of reciprocal of polynomials (n th derivatives of functions which contain

polynomials in denominators) :
Consider

ax b 1
y or y
cx 2 dx e cx 2 dx e

To find nth derivative of above kind function first obtain partial fractions of f(x) or y.
To get partial fractions:

1
If y then first factorize cx2 + dx + e.
cx 2 dx e

1
Let (fx + g) (hx + i) be factors then y
( fx g )( hx i )

A B
Find A & B such that y
fx g hx i

obtain nth derivatives of above fractions separately and add them, answer will give n th derivative
of y.

Notes If polynomial in denominator is of higher Degree then we will have more factors.
(Do the same process for all the factors).

1 A B C
If y then use factors y
( fx g )2 ( hx i ) ( fx g )2 hx i fx g

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Notes

Task Obtain nth derivatives of followings:

a x 1 x4 x
1. 2. ( x 1)2 ( x 2) 3. 4.
a x (x 1)( x 2) a2 x2

Notes Sr no. Function nth derivative

01 y = sin(ax + b) (i) yn = an sin(ax +b + n /2)
(ii) if b =0 , a =1 then y = sin x & yn = sin(x + n /2)
02 y = cos(ax + b) (i) yn = an cos(ax + b + n /2)
(ii) if b = 0, a = 1 then y = cos x & yn = cos(x + n /2)
03 y= eax sin( bx + c) (i) yn = rn eax sin(bx + c + n )
Where r = (a2 + b2)1/2
= tan-1(b/a)
04 y= eax cos( bx + c) (i) yn = rn eax cos( bx + c + n )
Where r = (a2 + b2)1/2
= tan-1(b/a)

Problems Based on Above Formulas :

1. Obtain 4th derivative of sin(3x + 5).
2. Obtain 3rd derivative of e2x cos3x

Problems Based on Above Formulas :

Obtain nth derivatives of followings:
1. sin x sin 2x 2. sin2 x cos3 x 3. cos4 x 4. e2x cos x sin2 2x

Task Obtain nth derivatives of followings:

1. cos x cos 2x cos 3x 2. sin4 x 3. e-xcos2x sinx
Some Problems (Problems of Special Type) based on Above all (1 & 2) formulas:

x3
1. For y 2
x 1

dn y 0 if n is even
Show that,
dx n x 0
( n) if n is odd integer greater than 1

2. If y = cosh 2x, show that

y n = 2n sinh 2x, when n is odd.

= 2n cosh 2x, when n is even.

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Basic Mathematics – I

Notes 3. Find nth derivative of following:

1 1 x 1 2x
(a) tan (b) sin
1 x 1 x2

1 1 x2
(c) cos (d) tan-1 x
1 x2

4. If u = sin nx + cos nx, show that

1
ur nr 1 ( 1)r sin 2 nx 2

where ur denotes the rth derivative of u with respect to x.

dn n
5. If I n ( x log x )
dx n

Prove that In = n In-1 + (n 1)!,

Hence show that

1 1 1
In n ! log x 1
2 3 n

Leibnitz’s theorem(only statement):

If y = u .v,
where u & v are functions of x possessing derivatives of n th order then,
yn = nC0unv +nC1un-1v1 + nC2un-2v2 + ……… + nCrun-rvr + ……… + nCnuvn

n!
where, nCr
r !( n r )!

Properties:
1. nCr = nCn-r

2. nC0 = 1 = nCn
3. nC1 = n = nCn-1

Notes Generally we can take any function as u and any as v.( If y = u .v) But take v as the
function whose derivative becomes zero after some order.

Problems Based on Leibnitz’s theorem:

Obtain nth derivatives of followings:

xn
1. x3 log x 2. 3. x2 ex cos x
x 1

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Notes

Task Obtain nth derivatives of followings (using Leibnitz’s theorem):

1. x2 log x 2. x2 ex 3. x tan-1 x

Example: Partial differentials–successive differentiation: outline solutions

x
1. f (x , y )
x2 y2

Use the quotient rule

v u u v
(u / v) x x
=
x v2

f y2 x2
= 2
x x2 y2

Use it again to get:

2
f 2x5 4x 3 y 2 6 xy 4
=
x2 x 2
y 2 4

Same idea with y:

f 2xy
= 2
y x2 y2

AND

2
f 2x5 4x 3 y 2 6 xy 4
2
=
dy 2 2 4
x y

Nearly there.
2. (a) f (x, y) = x2 cos y
This should be easier having done the last one.

First:

f f
= 2x cos y = x2 sin y
x x

Now differentiate again:

2 2
f f
= 2x sin y = 2x sin y
x y x y

which proves it ?

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Basic Mathematics – I

Notes (b) f (x, y) = sin hx cos y

To get you started..

f
= cos hx cos y etc.
x

1 x2 y2
3. v(x, y, z) = exp
z 4z

More complicated function but same principle….

v 1 x2 y2 2x
= exp
x z 4z 4z

and then:

2
v x x2 y2 2x 1 x2 y2
= exp exp
x2 2 z2 4z 4z 2 z2 4z

Following same steps you should get:

2
v y x2 y2 2y 1 x2 y2
= exp exp
y2 2 z2 4z 4z 2 z2 4z

v
Turning to , you should obtain:
z

v 1 x2 y2 1 x2 y2 x2 y2
= exp exp
z z2 4z z 4z 42z

2 2
v v
This is what you should get when you simplify .
x2 y2

n
1 y x
Task 1. If cos log then prove, x2 yn+2 + (2n + 1)xyn+1 + 2n2 yn = 0
b n
2. If y = (x2 1)n then prove, (x2 1)yn+2 + 2xyn+1 n(n + 1)yn = 0

1 a x
3. If y tan then prove, (a2 + x2)yn+2 + 2(n + 1)xyn+1 + n(n + 1)yn
a x

d2y dy
Example: If y = sin (loge x)then x 2 x is equal to:
dx 2 dx
Solution:

dy 1 dy
y = sin(log x ) cos(log x ) x cos(log x )
dx x dx

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Notes
d2y dy 1
x = sin(log x )
dx 2 dx x

d2y dy
x2 x = y
dx 2 dx

Example: f(x) = ex sin x f(6) (x) is equal to:

Solution:
f(x) = eax sin bx
fn (x) = (a2 + b2)n/2 .eax sin(bx + n tan-1 b/a)
a = 1, b = 1, n = 6
6
f 6 (x) = (1 1) e x sin x 6 tan 1 (1)

3
= 8 e x sin x 8 e x cos x
2

dn n
Example: If In x log x , then I n nI n 1 is equal to:
dx n
Solution:

dn n
In = x log x
dxn

1
y = x n log x y1 xn nx n 1 log x
x

(y1)n-1 = nIn-1 + (n 1)!

In nIn-1 = (n 1)!

Example: If y = aex + be-x + c, where a, b, c are parameters, then y”’ is equal to:
Solution:
y = aex + be-x + c
y’ = aex be-x ;
y” = aex + be-x
y”’ = aex be-x
y”’ = y’

Example: If y = a cos (log x) + b sin (log x), where a, b are parameters, then x 2 y” + xy’ is
equal to:
Solution:
y = a cos (log x) + b sin (log x)
xy’ = a sin(log x) + b cos(log x)

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Basic Mathematics – I

Notes a cos(log x ) b sin(log x )

xy” + y’ =
x

x2 y” + xy’ = y

12.3 Economic Applications

12.3.1 Demand Function

We know that demand of a commodity, in a given time period, depends upon its own price,
prices of other commodities, income of the consumer etc. In order to understand the behaviour
of demand in response to changes in one of the above variables, say price, we assume the
remaining variables, income and prices of other commodities etc., as constant. Consequently,
we can define three types of relations, given below:

1. The relationship of demand of a commodity with its own price is termed as the price
demand or the law of demand.

2. The relationship of demand of a commodity with income of the consumer is termed as

income demand.
3. The relationship of the demand of a commodity with the price of other commodity is
termed as cross demand.

Price Demand

Other things, like income of the consumer, price of other commodities, taste and habits of the
consumer etc., remaining constant, the quantity demanded of commodity (xd) varies inversely
with its price (p). Mathematically we say that xd is a function of p. Symbolically, we write xd = f(p).

dxd
Since xd decreases as p increases, we have 0, under normal conditions of demand.
dp

Price Elasticity of Demand

The price elasticity of demand or simply the elasticity of demand, is defined as the negative of
the ratio of proportionate change in quantity demanded to proportionate change in price. It is
d log x
denoted by where d . (The subscript of x is dropped for convenience.)
d log p

d log x dp 1 dx dx p
We can also write d p
dp d log p x dp dp x

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Notes

Notes

(i) The above formula gives the elasticity of demand at a point on the demand curve
and hence is also referred to as point-elasticity formula.

(ii) Since d
is a ratio, it is a pure number.

(iii) As per the convention in economics, the elasticity of demand is defined as the
negative of the ratio of proportional change in quantity demanded to proportionate
change in price.

Income Demand (Engel Function)

Assuming price of a commodity and prices of other commodities etc., as constant, we can say
that quantity demanded (x) of a commodity is a function of consumer’s income (Y). Symbolically,
dx
we can write this as x = g(Y). Note here that can be positive or negative.
dY
dx
If 0 (< 0), the commodity is said to be normal (inferior).
dY
Income Elasticity of Demand
The income elasticity of demand, Y, is defined as the ratio of proportionate change in quantity
demanded to proportionate change in price.

d log x d log x dY dx Y
Y=
d log Y dY d log Y dY x
We note that if Y
< 0, the commodity is inferior.

Cross Demand

Let there be two commodities A and B. Assuming other things as constant, we can write demand
for A, denoted as xA, as a function of the price of B(PB); and also the demand for B(xB) as a function
of the price of A(PA). Using symbols, we can write
xA = (PB) and xB = (PA)

dxA dxB
Such functions are termed as cross demand functions. We note here that if 0 and 0,
dpB dpA
then A and B are termed as substitutes. If both the derivatives are negative, the two commodities
are termed as compliments. Nothing can be said about the relationship between A and B, if these
derivative are of opposite signs.

Cross Elasticity of Demand

The cross elasticity of demand of commodity A as compared with price of B, denoted by AB, is
the ratio of proportionate change in quantity demanded of A to proportionate change in price of
B. Symbolically, we can write

d log x A dx A pB d log xB dxB pA

AB . Similarly, BA .
d log pB dpB x A d log pA dPA xB

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Notes 12.3.2 Law of Supply

Other things, like prices of other commodities price of factors of production, level of technology
etc. remaining constant, the quantity supplied (xs) of a commodity varies directly with its price.
Mathematically, we can say that x s is a function of p. Using symbols, we can write
dxs
xs = f(p). We note that 0.
dp

Elasticity of Supply

The elasticity of supply s is defined as ratio of proportionate change in quantity supplied to

proportionate change in price.

d log x dx p
s=
d log p dp x

Example

(i) Find elasticity of demand of the function, x = 100 – 5p at (a) p = 10, (b) p = 15.
(ii) Find elasticity of demand of the function p = –2x2 + 3x + 150 at x = 8.
(iii) If p = a – bx is the inverse demand function, show that elasticity of demand is different at
different points on the demand curve. At what price the demand is unitary elastic?
(iv) p = f(x) is an inverse demand function such that x f(x) is constant. Show that elasticity of
demand is unity at every point on it. Explain the meaning of this result.

(v) Show that elasticity of demand can be expressed as the numerical value of the marginal
demand function to average demand function.
Solution:

dx dx p 10
(i) (a) x = 100 – 5p 5 and d 5 1
dp dp x 50
(x = 50 when p = 10, from the demand equation).
Hence, the elasticity of demand d = 1.
d log x d log x dp 5p 50
Alternatively, d 1
d log p dp d log p 100 5 p 50
5 15
(b) When p = 15 we have, d 3
25
dp
(ii) We have p = –2x2 + 3x + 150 4x 3 29 at x = 8.
dx
Also, p = –2 × 64 + 3 × 8 + 150 = 46

dx p 1 46 23
d 0.198
dp x 29 8 116

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dp 1 p Notes
(iii) We are given p = a – bx b. Thus d
dx b x
Since elasticity of demand depends upon p (or x) and thus, will be different at different
points on the demand curve.
1 p p
When d = 1, we can write 1 or b
b x x
p b 1 b
or b  , from demand equation
a p x a p
a
p = a – p or 2p = a or p =
2
a
Thus, the elasticity of demand is unity when p = .
2
(iv) Let x f(x) = c where c is a constant. Differentiating both sides w.r.t. x, we have f(x) + xf (x) =
f ( x)
0 or 1. We note that expression on the left hand side is elasticity of demand of
xf ( x )
the function p = f(x). Thus d = 1. Since d is independent of x (or p), hence elasticity of
demand is unity at every point on the demand curve p = f(x).
We note that x f(x) is the total outlay (or expenditure) of the consumer. Thus when total
outlay of the consumer is constant the demand is unitary elastic at every point. It can also be
shown that p = f(x), in this case, will represent a rectangular hyperbola with centre at (0, 0)
and asymptotes as the axes of the coordinate system.

dx p
(v) The elasticity of demand, d , can also be written as
dp x
dx / dp marginal demand function
d=
x/ p average demand function
Hence the result.

Example
(i) The price elasticity of demand of a commodity when price = Rs 10 and quantity demanded
= 25 units, is given to be 1.5. Find the demand equation of the commodity on the assumption
that it is linear.

(ii) Find the elasticity of demand of the inverse demand function p = 3x2 – 100x + 800 when x
= 10. Find, approximately, the percentage change in demand if price rises by 4%. Also find
the elasticity at new price, quantity combination.

Solution.

dx p dx 10
(i) Given d = 1.5, 1.5 or 1.5
dp x dp 25
dx 1.5 25
Thus, 3.75
dp 10
The required demand equation will be a straight line passing through the point (25, 10)
1
with slope =
3.75

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Basic Mathematics – I

Notes
1
Thus p 10 x 25
3.75
or x – 25 = – 3.75(p – 10) or x = 62.5 – 3.75p is the required equation.
(ii) The given demand function is p = 3x2 – 100x + 800
dp
= 6x – 100 = 60 – 100 = –40 when x = 10
dx
When x = 10, we have p = 300 1,000 + 800 = 100

dx p 1 100 1
d=
dp x 40 10 4
When price increases by 4%, then the approximate change in demand in given by the formula
% change in demand
d=
% change in price
or % change in demand = – d × % change in price

1
= 0.04 = –0.01
4
i.e. demand falls by 1%.
The new demand = old demand × 0.99
= 10 × .99 = 9.9
New price = 100 × 1.04 = 104

dx p 1 p
d= .
dp x (6 x 100) x
1 104
= 0.2587
(6 9.9 100) 9.9

Example
(i) If x = 2Y2, find income-elasticity of demand.
pB 1
(ii) If xA , find cross-elasticity of demand when pB = 5.
pB 2
Solution:

dx Y Y
(i) Y=
4Y 2
dY x 2Y 2
dxA pB
(ii) AB =
dpB xA

dx A pB 2 pB 1 3 1
Now = 2 2
at pB = 5
dpB pB 2 pB 2 3

1 5 5
Also xA = 2 when pB = 5 AB = –0.83.
3 2 6

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 Unit 12: Successive Differentiation

Notes
Example
Find the elasticity of supply, s, for the following functions:
(i) x = 2p + p2 at (a) p = 5 and (b) p = 7.
(ii) p = x2 at x = 5.
Solution:

dx
(i) (a) The supply function is x = 2p + p2 = 2 + 2p = 12 when p = 5
dp
dx p 12 5
When p = 5, we have x = 10 + 25 = 35 s=
1.71.
dp x 35
dx
(b) When p = 7, we have = 2 + 14 = 16 and x = 14 + 49 = 63
dp
16 7 16
s=
1.77
63 9
(ii) The supply function is p = x2

dp 1 25
2 x 10 and p = 25 at x = 5 Thus s 0.5
dx 10 5

Example: Show that for the inverse supply function p = a + bx(b > 0), the supply is elastic
if a > 0, inelastic if a < 0 and unitary elastic if a = 0.

Solution:
dp dx p 1 a bx a
Given p = a + bx, we get b s 1.
dx dp x b x bx
a a
Since, b > 0 and x (the quantity) > 0, s will be greater than 1 if 1 1 or 0 a 0.
bx bx
a a
Similarly, s will be less than 1 if 1 1 or 0 a 0.
bx bx
a a
Further, s = 1, if 1 1, or 0 a 0.
bx bx

Example

The supply of a certain good is given by x a p b , where p (> b) is the price and a and b are
positive constants. Find an expression for s, the elasticity of supply, as a function of price. Show
that s decreases as price (or supply) increases and becomes unity when p = 2b.
Solution:
1
dx a a
Given x a p b , we get p b 2
dp 2 2 p b

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Notes dx p a p p
and s
dp x 2 p b a p b 2 p b

d s 1 p b p b
Differentiating s w.r.t. p, we get 2 2
dp 2 p b 2 p b

d s
Since b is given to be positive, therefore 0. Thus, s decreases with increase of price (or
dp
supply).
2b
When p = 2b, we have s 1.
2 2b b

Example

dx dx
For a demand function x = f(p), with 0, find in terms of elasticity of demand .
dp dp

d
(i) Show that the demand curve is convex from below if 0.
dp

d
(ii) If 0, show that the demand curve is convex from below provided that
dp
d 1
.
dp p
Solution:

p dx dx x
(i) We can write elasticity of demand,
x dp dp p
Differentiating both sides w.r.t. p, we get

d dx d dx
p x x px p x
d x 2
dp dp dp dp d
= 0 if 0.
dp2 p 2
p 2
dp

Thus the demand curve is convex from below.

d
(ii) If 0, then the demand curve will be convex from below if
dp

d dx d dx
px p x 0 or px p x
dp dp dp dp
2
d p dx 1
or
dp px dp p p p p

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12.3 Summary Notes

It is extension of differentiation of one variable function successive.

Consider,
A one variable function,

y = f(x) (x is independent variable and y depends on x.)

Here if we make any change in x there will be a related change in y.

f(n)(x) denotes nth derivative of f.

Value of nth derivative of y = f(x) at x = a is denoted by,

dn y
fn(a), yn(a), or
dx n x a

(i.e. value can be obtained by just replacing x with a in f n(x).)

12.4 Keyword

Successive Differentiation: If y = f(x) is a differentiable function then by differentiating it w.r.t. x,

dy
we get f x
dx

12.5 Self Assessment

-1
1. y e a sin x
(1 x 2 )yn 2 (2n 1)xyn 1 is equal to:

(a) (n2 + n2)yn (b) (n2 a2)yn

(b) (n2 + a2)yn (d) (n2 a2)yn

d2y dy
2. x cos , y sin 5 1 x2 x is equal to:
dx 2 dx

(a) 5y (b) 5y
(c) 25y (d) 25y

d2 y
3. y sin 1 x 1 x2 is equal to:
dx 2

dy
(a) x (b) 0
dx

2
dy dy
(c) x (d) x
dx dx

4. If yk is the kth derivative of y with respect to x, y = cos(sin x) then y1 sin x + y2 cos x is equal to:
(a) y sin3 x (b) y sin3 x
(c) y cos3 x (d) y cos3 x

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Notes
dn x
5. e sin x is equal to:
dxn

(a) 2n/2 .ex cos(x +n /4) (b) 2n/2 .ex cos(x n /4)
(c) 2n/2 .ex sin (x + n /4) (d) 2n/2 .ex sin (x n / 4)

12.6 Review Questions

1. If y = sin (m sin-1x)
Then prove, (1 x2)yn+2 (2n + 1)xyn+1 + (m2 n2)yn = 0

2. If y = cot-1 x,
Then prove, (1 + x 2)yn+2 + 2(n + 1)xyn+1 + n(n + 1)yn = 0

3. If y1/m + y-1/m = 2x
Then prove, (x2 1)yn+2 + (2n + 1)xyn+1 + (n2 m2)yn = 0

4. Let p and q be two real numbers with p > 0. Show that the cubic x3 + px + q has exactly one
real root.
5. Let a > 0 and f be continuous on [ a, a]. Suppose that f’(x) exists and f’(x) 1 for all
x ( a, a). If f(a) = a and f( a) = a, show that f(0) = 0.
6. Let f(x) = 1 + 12|x| 3x2. Find the global maximum and the global minimum of f on [ 2, 5].
Verify it from the sketch of the curve y = f(x) on [ 2, 5].

Answers: Self Assessment

1. (c) 2. (d) 3. (c)

4. (d) 5. (c)

12.7 Further Readings

Books Husch, Lawrence S. Visual Calculus, University of Tennessee, 2001.

Smith and Minton, Calculus Early Trancendental, Third Edition, McGraw Hill 2008.

Online links http://www.suitcaseofdreams.net/Trigonometric_Functions.htm

http://library.thinkquest.org/20991/alg2/trigi.html

http://www.intmath.com/trigonometric functions/5 signs of trigonometric

functions.php

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 Unit 13: Maxima and Minima

Unit 13: Maxima and Minima Notes

CONTENTS
Objectives

Introduction
13.1 The Extreme-value Theorem

13.1.1 First Derivative Criterion for Local Extrema

13.1.2 Second Derivative Criterion for Local Extrema

13.2 Points of Inflexion

13.2.1 Nth Derivative Criterion for Maxima, Minima and Point of Inflexion

13.3 Summary
13.4 Keywords
13.5 Self Assessment
13.6 Review Questions
13.7 Further Readings

Objectives

After studying this unit, you will be able to:

Discuss the Extreme-value Theorem

Explain the points of Inflexion

Introduction

We know that the value of a function is different at different points in its domain. When the
function is monotonic, the functional values are either continuously increasing or decreasing. If
the function is not monotonic, the functional values may increase (decrease) over a certain
subset of the domain and then decrease (increase). This behaviour may be repetitive also.

13.1 The Extreme-value Theorem

If a function f(x) is continuous at every point of a closed interval I, then f(x) assumes
both an absolute maximum value M and an absolute minimum value m some where in the
interval I.
This theorem implies that there always exist two values x1 and x2 in I such that f(x1) = m, f(x2) = M
and m f(x) M for other values of x in the interval I.

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Notes Figure 13.1

Some possible situations of absolute maxima and minima are shown, in Fig. 5.1 above, for a
function that is continuous in [a, b].

Absolute Maxima/Minima (Definition)

Let f(x) be a function with domain D. Then f(x) has an absolute maxima at a point c in D if f(x)
f(c) for all x in D and an absolute minima at a point d in D if f(x) f(d) for all x in D.
Absolute maxima/minima are also called global maxima/minima.

Local Maxima/Minima (Definition)

A function f(x) has a local maxima (or minima) at an interior point c in its domain D if f(x) f(c)
(or f(x) f(c)) for all x in some open interval containing c.

Notes 1. As is evident from Figure (i) the function has a local minima at x1 which is also
absolute minima. Simialrly, the functioin has a local maixma at x2 which is also
an absolute maxima. However, it is not necessary that a local maxima (minima)
will always be an absolute maxima (minima) or vice-versa.
2. Suppose a function f(x) = x be defined in [0, 2]. Then this function has a maxima at
x = 2. However, f(x) 0 as x 0, f(x) attains the value 0 and thus it has no minima.

First Derivative Theorem for Local Extrema

If a function f(x) has a local extrema (i.e., maxima or minima) at an interior point c of its domain,
and if f (c) exists, then f (c) = 0.

Critical Point (Definition)

An interior point of the domain of a function f(x) at which f¢(x) is either zero or undefined is
termed as a critical point.

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Notes

Notes 1. The points of the domain at which a function can assume extreme values are
either critical point or end points.
2. The end point(s) can also be a local extrema.

13.1.1 First Derivative Criterion for Local Extrema

Figure 13.2

At a point where f(x) has a local maxima (or minima), we note that f > 0 (or < 0) on the interval
immediately to the left and f < 0 (or > 0) on the interval immediately to the right of the critical
point. If the critical point is an end point (a or b), we consider the interval on the appropriate side
of the point. Various possible situations are shown with the help of following figure.

Example: Determine maxima/minima of the following functions, by using only first

dirivative:
(a) y = x3 – 2x2 + x + 20

(b) y = x2/3(x – 1)
Solution:

dy
(a) = 3x2 – 4x + 1 = 0 for maxima/minima.
dx

3x2 – 3x – x + 1 = 0 or 3x(x – 1) – 1(x – 1) = 0

or (3x – 1)(x – 1) = 0

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Notes
1
The critical points are x and x = 1
3
dy
These points divide x-axis into intervals on which is either positive or negaitve.
dx

1 1
3

1 1 dy 1 1 3
When x , say , 3 4 1 0
3 4 dx 16 4 16
1 2 dy 4 2 1
When x say , 3 4 1 0
3 3 dx 4 3 3
4 dy 16 4
When x > 1 say , 3 4 1 1 0
3 dx 9 3

dy 1
Since changes from positive to neative at x , the function has a local maxima at
dx 3
1
x .
3

Similarly function has a minima at x = 1

(b) W e can w rite y = x5/3 – x2/3

dy 5 2 2 1 1 1
3
5x 2
= x 3
x 3
= x 5x 2 1
dx 3 3 3 3x 3

dy 2
0 at x and uindefined at x = 0. These are two critical points.
dx 5

0 2
5

dy 7
When x < 0, say x = –1, 0
dx 3
2 1 dy 1
When 0 x say x , 1 0
5 5 dx 1 3
3
5
2 3 dy 1
When x say x , 1 0
5 5 dx 3 3
3
5
2
Thus there is local maxima (of the type given in Figure 13.2(b)) at x = 0 and minima at x .
5

1. If the function f(x) is continuous at the point x = a, and lim– f (x) and lim f ( x) are
Notes x a x a

both infinite with opposite signs, then the graph of f(x) has a cusp at x = a. Note
that the graph of the function given in example 1(b) above, has a cusp at x = 0.

2. If lim– f (x) and lim f (x) are both infinite with same signs, then the graph of f(x)
x a x a
1
has a vertical tangent at x = a. Note that f ( x) x 3 has a vertical tangent at x = 0.

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13.1.2 Second Derivative Criterion for Local Extrema Notes

When the function f(x) is twice differentiable at an interior point c of the domain, then
(i) f(x) has a local maxima at x = c if f (c) = 0 and f (c) < 0.

(ii) f(x) has a local minima at x = c if f (c) = 0 and f (c) > 0.

Notes When f(x) has a maxima (or minima) at c, the curve of f(x) is concave (or convex)
from below. This test is inconclusive when f (c) = 0.

Example:
(a) Show that the function y = x2 – 2x + 3 has a minima at x = 1. Find the minimum value of the
function.

(b) Show that the function y = x2 – 2x + 3 has a maxima at x = 5/2. Find the maximum value of y.
Solution:

dy
(a) We have y = y = x2 – 2x + 3 = 2x – 2 = 0, for maxima or minima.
dx

dy
2(x –1) = 0 or x = 1 is a stationary point (A point at which
0 ).
dx
To know whether y is maximum or minimum at x = 1, we determine the sign of second
derivative at this point.
d2 y
Since 2 0, therefore the function has a minima at x = 1.
dx 2
Further, the minimum value of y = 12 – 2 + 3 = 2.

dy
(b) We have y = 100 + 15x – 3x2 = 15 – 6x = 0, for maxima or minima. This implies that
dx
15 5
x is a stationary point.
6 2

d2 y 5
Since = –6 < 0, therefore, the function has a maxima at x . The maximum value of
dx 2 2
15 5 3 25
the function is given by y 100 118.75.
2 4

Procedure for fuiding absolute extremia

To find absolute extrema of a continuous function f(x) on [a, b]

1. Find all critical points of f(x) on [a, b].

2. Evaluate f(x) at each critical points as well as at the end points a and b.
3. The largest-value of f(x), obtained above, is absolute maxima and the smallest-value is
absolute minima.

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Notes
Example: Find relative maxima and minima of the function y = x3 – 4x2 – 3x + 2.
Also find absolute maxima/minima in [0, 4].
Solution:

Given the function y = x3 – 4x2 – 3x + 2, we have

dy
= 3x2 – 8x – 3 = 0, for maxima or minima.
dx

Rewriting this equation as 3x2 – 9x + x – 3 = 0

or 3x(x – 3) + (x – 3) = 0 or (x – 3)(3x + 1) = 0

1
x = 3 or x
3

d2 y
Further, = 6x – 8 = 10 > 0, when x = 3
dx 2

1
and = – 10 < 0, when x
3
1
Thus, the function has a minima at x = 3 and maxima at x .
3
To find maxima/minima in [0, 4], we note that there is only one stationary point x = 3 in the
given interval.
Let f(x) = x2 – 4x2 – 3x + 2
f(0) = 2
f(3) = 27 – 36 – 9 + 2 = –16
f(4) = 64 – 64 – 12 + 12 = –10
Function has absolute maxima at x = 0, and aboslute minima at x = 3

1
Example: Show that the function y x
has one maximum and one minimum value
x
and later is larger than the former. Draw a graph to illustrate this.
Solution:

1
Given y = x , we have
x

dy 1 x2 1
= 1 0 or 0 x2 1
dx x2 x2

or x = ±1 are the stationary points.

d2 y 2
Further, = , which will be positive when
dx 2 x3

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 Unit 13: Maxima and Minima

Figure 13.3
Notes

x = 1 and negative when x = –1. Thus the function has minima at x = 1 and maxima at
x = –1. The minimum value of the function is 2 and the maximum value = –2 which is less than
the minimum value. These values are shown in Figure 13.3.

ax b
Example: The function y has an extreme point at A(2, –1). Find the values
x 1 x 4
of a and b. What is the nature of the extreme point?
Solution:
Since point A(2, –1) lies on the function, we can write

2a b
= –1 or 2a + b = 2 ... (1)
2 1 2 4

dy a x2 5x 4 ax b 2 x 5
Further, = 2 0 for extrema
2
dx x 5x 4

a[4 – 10 + 4] – (2a + b)(4 – 5) = 0 or – 2a + 2a + b = 0 or b = 0

Substituting this value in (1), we get a = 1

d2 y
To check the nature of extreme point at A(2, –1), we find
dx 2

dy x2 5x 4 2x2 5x x2 4
Now = 2 2
dx x 2
5x 4 x 2
5x 4

2
d2 y x2 5x 4 2x 2 4 x2 x2 5x 4 2x 5
= 4
dx 2 x 2
5x 4

2
x2 5x 4 2x 2x 4
= 4 = 2 = 1 0 at x = 2
x 2
5x 4 x2 5x 4 4

Thus the extreme point is a maxima.

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Notes 13.2 Points of Inflexion

A point of inflexion marks the change of curvature of a function. Since the curvature may change
from convex (from below) to concave (from below) or vice versa, we have two types of points of
inflexion which would be termed (for convenience) as type I and type II points of inflexion, as
shown in following figures.

Criterion for Point of Inflexion

In order to develop a criterion for the point of inflexion, we have to examine the behaviour of
the slope of the function, dy dx , as we pass through this point.

dy
As is obvious from Figure 13.4, when we approach point A, from its left, the value of is
dx
dy dy
increasing and after we cross this point, starts declining. Thus, is maximum at point A. In
dx dx
dy
a similar way is minimum at point B in Figure 13.5.
dx
Figure 13.4

Figure 13.5

Thus, the problem of determination of a point of inflexion is reduced to the problem of

dy
determination of the conditions of maxima or minima of . By suitable modification of the
dx
conditions for maxima, minima of y, we can write:

A thrice differentiable function f(x) has a point of inflexion of type I (or II), see Figures 13.4 and
13.5, at an interior point c of the domain if f (c) = 0 and f (c) < 0 (or > 0).
Note that if f (c) is also equal to zero at the point of inflexion, it is termed as a stationary point of
inflexion.

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Notes
Example: Find the nature of point of inflexion of the following functions:
(i) y = x3 – 15x2 + 20x + 10
(ii) y = 20 + 5x + 12x2 – 2x3

Solution:

dy
(i) y = x3 – 15x2 + 20x + 10 = 3x2 – 30x + 20
dx
d2 y
and = 6x – 30 = 0, for the point of inflexion x=5
dx 2
d3 y
Further, 6, which is positive for all values of x.
dx 3
The point of inflexion at x = 5 is of type II i.e, curve changes from concave to convex
from below.
dy
(ii) y = 20 + 5x + 12x2 – 2x3 = 5 + 24x – 6x2
dx
d2 y
and = 24 – 12x = 0, for the point of inflexion x=2
dx 2
d3 y
Further, = – 12 < 0 The point of inflexion at x = 2 is of type I i.e. the curve changes from
dx 3
convex to concave from below.

Example: Find maxima, minima and the points of inflexion for the following functions
and hence trace their curves:
(i) y = x3 + 10x2 + 25x – 40 (ii) y = x4 – 6x2 + 1
Solution:
(i) y = x3 + 10x2 + 25x – 40
First order condition ( maxima or minima)

dy
= 3x2 + 20x + 25 = 0 for maxima or minima or (3x + 5) (x + 5) = 0
dx
5
Thus, the stationary points are x and x = –5.
3
Second order condition

d2 y 5
= 6x + 20 = 10 > 0, when x .
dx 2 3

5
Thus, the function has a minima at x = –1.67.
3
The minimum value of the function f(–1.67) = –58.52.

d2 y
When x = –5 we have = –30 + 20 = –10 < 0. Hence, the function has a maxima at
dx 2
x = –5. The maximum value of the function f(–5) = –40.

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Notes Figure 13.6

Point of Inflexion

d2 y 10
We have = 6x + 20 = 0 x = –3.33.
dx 2 3

d3 y
Further, = 6 > 0, the point of inflexion at x = –3.33 is of type II. Also f(–3.33) =
dx 3
–49.29. Using this information we can trace the curve as shown in the Figure 13.6.
(ii) y = x4 – 6x2 + 1.
First order condition (maxima or minima)

dy
= 4x3 – 12x = 0 x = 0, x 3,x 3
dx

Second order condition

d2 y
= 12x2 – 12 < 0 when x = 0
dx 2

> 0 when x = 3 or 3

Thus the function has a maxima at x = 0, minima at x = 3 and x 3. Also, f(0) = 1, and

f 3 f 3 8.

Point of Inflexion
First order condition

d2 y
= 12x2 – 12 = 0 x = ±1
dx 2

Second order condition

d3 y
= 24x < 0, when x = –1
dx 3

and > 0 when x = 1

Thus, the function has type I point of inflexion at x = –1 and type II inflexion at x = 1. Also,
f(–1) = f(1) = –4. Using the above information we can trace the curve as shown in the curve
as shown in the Figure 13.7.

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Figure 13.7
Notes

Example: Show that the polynomial y = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d has only one point of inflexion.
Under what conditions

(a) The curvature changes from: (i) convex to concave and (ii) concave to convex?
(b) The point of inflexion is stationary?

Solution:
dy
(a) y = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = 3ax2 + 2bx + c
dx
d2y b
Further, = 6ax + 2b = 0 for point of inflexion x
dx 2 3a

d2y
Since = 0 at a single value, there is only one point of inflexion.
dx 2
(i) For change of curvature from convex to concave, we must have

d3 y
= 6a < 0 a<0
dx 3

(ii) Similarly, if a > 0, the curvature will change from concave to convex.
(b) The point of inflexion is said to be stationary if

dy b b2 2b 2
= 3ax2 + 2bx + c = 0 at x 3a c 0
dx 3a 9a2 3a

b2 2b 2 b2
or c = 0 or c 0 or b2 = 3ac
3a 3a 3a

1 x
Example: If y (e e – x ) show that
2
(a) y(x) = y(–x)
(b) y has a minima at x = 0

(c) The function has no point of inflexion.

Solution:

1 –x 1 x
(a) y(– x ) (e ex ) (e e – x ) y( x )
2 2

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Notes dy 1 x x
(b) e e 0, for maxima or minima
dx 2
ex = e–x or x = –x 2x = 0 x = 0.
Second Order Condition:
d2 y 1 x
e e x 1 0 at x = 0 y has a minima at x = 0.
dx 2 2
d2 y 1 x
(c) Since e e x 0 for all real values of x, the function has no point of inflexion.
dx 2 2

13.2.1 Nth Derivative Criterion for Maxima, Minima and Point of Inflexion

The criterion for relative maxima or minima of a function y = f(x), discussed so far, fails if f (x) =
0 at the stationary point. Similarly we cannot determine the nature of the point of inflexion if
f (x) = 0 at a point where f (x) = 0. Such situations can be tackled with the help of following nth
derivative criterion.
Let us assume that the first non-zero derivative at a point x = a, encountered in successive
derivation, is fn(a). Then
(i) f(a) will be a maxima if n is even and fn(a) < 0.

(ii) f(a) will be a minima if n is even and fn(a) > 0.

(iii) f(a) will be a type I point of inflexion if n is odd and fn(a) < 0.
(iv) f(a) will be a type II point of inflexion if n is odd and fn(a) > 0.

Notes 1. If f(x) has a cusp at x = a, there is either maxima or minima at x = a, although the
above criterion is not applicable.
2. If f(x) has a vertical tangent at x = a, there is a point of inflexion at x = a,
although the above criterion is not applicable.

1
Example: Show that the function y 3 has a point of inflexion at x = 1. What is the
x 1
nature of the point of inflexion?
Solution:

1
y = 3
x 1

dy 3 d2 y 12
= 4 and = 5
dx x 1 dx 2 x 1

d2 y
We note that is not defined at x = 1, therefore, the criterion for point of inflexion is not
dx 2
applicable.

d2 y
However, since 0 when x < 1 and, > 0 when x > 1, the curve changes from concave to convex
dx 2
and hence the point of inflexion at x = 1 is of type II.

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Notes
3 2
Example: Find the derivative of y x and show that it is infinite at x = 0. Draw a graph
of the function and indicate its behaviour in the neighbourhood of origin. Deduce that y has a
minimum value at origin which is not a stationary value.

Solution.
1
dy 2 3
y = 3
x2 x at x = 0
dx 3

To draw graph, we find

4
d2 y 2 3
2
= x 0 x.
dx 2 9 9x 4/3

Thus, the function is concave from below for all values of x.

dy
Further, since lim x 2/3 lim x 2/3 f 0 0, the function is continuous at x = 0. Since , the
x 0 x 0 dx
function is not differentiable at x = 0. This situation is shown in Figure 13.8.

Note that, as we move away from origin on both sides, the value of y becomes greater than its
value at x = 0. Thus f(0) = 0 is a minimum value of y 3
x 2 which is not a stationary value.

1
dy 2
Example: By examining the sign of , show that y exp x 2 x has a maxima at
dx 5
25 16 .

Solution.
1
2
x2 x
The given function can be written as, y e 5

dy
1
2
x 2 x 1 1/2 2
= e 5
x 0
dx 2 5

1 1/2 2 1 2 1/2 5 25
x = 0 or or x or x
2 5 2 x1 / 2 5 4 16

1
2 dy 1 1/2 2
Since e x 2 x x
5
0 for all values of x, the sign of dx depends on the sign of 2 5

Figure 13.8

Fig. 5.8
25 24
When x is slightly less than say , we have
16 16

1 16 2
= 0.408 0.04 0
2 24 5

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Notes 25 26
When x is slightly greater than say , we have
16 16

1 16 2
= 0.392 0.4 0
2 26 5

dy 25
Since the sign of changes from positive to negative as we pass through the point x , the function
dx 16
has a maxima at this point

Example: A rectangular area is to be marked off as a chicken run with one side along an
existing wall. The other sides are marked by wire netting of which a given length is available.
Show that the area of the run is maximum if one side is twice the other.

Solution:
Let x be the length and y be the breadth of rectangle. Also let l be the length of wire.

We can write l = x + 2y, or x l 2y .

The area of the rectangle,
A = x.y = l 2y y ly 2 y2
We want to find y so that A is maximum.

dA l
= l 4 y 0 or y , for maxima.
dy 4

Second order condition:

d2 A l
= therefore A is maximum when y .
dy2 4

l l
Also x = l 2y l .
2 2

Thus A is maximum when one side is taken as twice the other.

Example: An open box is constructed by removing a small square of side x cms from
each corner of the metal sheet and turning up the edges. If the sheet is a square with each side
equal to L cms, find the value of x so that volume of the box is maximum. Also find the largest
volume of the box.

Figure 13.9

Wall

y y
x

Fig. 5.9
Solution:
After a square of side x cms is removed from each corner, the base of the box will be a square
with each side = L 2 x .
2
Volume of the box V = x L 2 x

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 Unit 13: Maxima and Minima

dV Notes
2
Further, = L 2x 4 x L 2x 0, for maximum V.
dx

L 2x L 2x 4 x = or L 2 x L 6 x 0

L L
or x = or x
2 6
Second order condition

d2V
= 4 L 2x 4 L 2x 8x 8L 24 x
dx2

L
= 8L 12L 4L 0, when x ,
2

L
and = 8L 4L 4L 0, when x .
6

L
Thus the volume is largest when x = .
6

2
L L 2L3
The largest volume = L .
6 3 27

Example: A running track of 440 ft. is to be laid out enclosing a football field, the shape
of which is a rectangle with a semicircle at each end. If the area of the rectangular portion is to be
kept maximum, find the length of its sides.
Solution:
Let x be the length of the rectangular portion and y be the breadth of the football field. Total
perimeter of the running track is

y P 2x 440 2x
P = 2x 2 = 2x + py or y
2
Let A be the area of the rectangular portion.

440 x 2 x 2
A = x. y

dA 440 4 x
Further, = 0 for maximum A
dx
x = 110 ft.

440 220
Also y = 7 70
22

Figure 13.10

Fig. 5.10

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Notes
d2 A 4
Further, 0 . Hence second order condition for maxima of A is also satisfied.
dx 2

13.3 Summary

Let f(x) be a function with domain D. Then f(x) has an absolute maxima at a point c in D if
f(x) f(c) for all x in D and an absolute minima at a point d in D if f(x) f(d) for all x in D.

Absolute maxima/minima are also called global maxima/minima.

A function f(x) has a local maxima (or minima) at an interior point c in its domain D if f(x)
f(c) (or f(x) f(c)) for all x in some open interval containing c.

If a function f(x) has a local extrema (i.e., maxima or minima) at an interior point c of its
domain, and if f (c) exists, then f (c) = 0.
When the function f(x) is twice differentiable at an interior point c of the domain, then

f(x) has a local maxima at x = c if f (c) = 0 and f (c) < 0.

f(x) has a local minima at x = c if f (c) = 0 and f (c) > 0.
When f(x) has a maxima (or minima) at c, the curve of f(x) is concave (or convex) from
below. This test is inconclusive when f (c) = 0.

13.4 Keywords

Absolute Maxima/Minima (Definition): Let f(x) be a function with domain D. Then f(x) has an
absolute maxima at a point c in D if f(x) f(c) for all x in D and an absolute minima at a point d
in D if f(x) f(d) for all x in D. Absolute maxima/minima are also called global maxima/minima.

Local Maxima/Minima (Definition): A function f(x) has a local maxima (or minima) at an interior
point c in its domain D if f(x) f(c) (or f(x) f(c)) for all x in some open interval containing c.

13.5 Self Assessment

2
1. Determine maxima of y x 3 ( x 1)

2 5
(a) (b)
5 2

2 2
(c) (d)
3 6

5
2. Find maximum value of y if y x2 2 x 3, x then y is equal to:
2

(a) 110.75 (b) 119.12

(c) 118.75 (d) 111.85

3. If f(x) = x2 4x2 3x + x then find f(x), if x = 4

(a) 2 (b) 16
(c) 10 (d) 10

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4. Find the nature of point of inffexion if y = 20 + 5x + 12x 2 2x3, then x = Notes

(a) 2 (b) 3

(c) 4 (d) -2

5. Find minima if y = x4 6x2 + 1

(a) 3 (b) 2

(c) 10 (d) 9

13.6 Review Questions

1. Fluid maxima/minima of the following functions, by using only first derivative.

(i) y x 2 10 x 15 (ii) y x3 3x 2 9 x 20
4

(ii) y x 3 ( x 2)

2. Find maxima, minima and point of inflexion, if any, of the following functions:

(i) y x3 6 x 2 12 x 1 (ii) y 2x3 3x 2 4

(iii) y x4 4 x3 8 x2 (iv) y 3x 5 5x 3

(v) y x4 2 x2 (vi) y x2 / 3 x1 / 3

x2
(vii) y 2 (viii) y x4 4 x 3 16 x
x 1

1 4
(ix) y x3 3x 2 5 (x) y x x2 1
2

3. Find the absoute maxima/minima of the following functions:

(i) y 8x x2 on [1, 5]

3
(ii) y x 7 on [–1, 3]
4

(iii) y 4 x2 on [–2, 1]

(iv) 2 x on [–2, 2]

(v) 2 x on [4, 7]

1
(vi) y x 2 (4 x ) on [0, 3]

4. (a) If y x4 4x3 6 x2 4 x 3 , show that y has a minimum at x = 1.

(b) If y x 5 5 x 4 10 x 3 10 x 2 5 x 10 , show that y has an inflexional value at
x = –1.
5. Find maxima, minima and the point of inflexion for the function y x3 3x2 9 x 27 .
Show these points on a graph.

If the domain of the functions is [–2, 2], find maxima/minima.

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Notes 6. Find maxima, minima and the point of inflexion of the following function:

y 4r2 x3 4 rx 2 x 1 , where 0 < r < 1.

1
7. Show that the curve y 2x 3 is convex from below for positive values of x and
x
c
concave from below for negative values of x. Is the same true of the curve y ax b ?
x

Answers: Self Assessment

1. (a) 2. (c)

3. (d) 4. (a)
5. (a)

13.7 Further Readings

Books Husch, Lawrence S. Visual Calculus, University of Tennessee, 2001.

Smith and Minton, Calculus Early Trancendental, Third Edition, McGraw Hill 2008.

Online links http://www.suitcaseofdreams.net/Trigonometric_Functions.htm

http://library.thinkquest.org/20991/alg2/trigi.html
http://www.intmath.com/trigonometric functions/5 signs of trigonometric
functions.php

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 Unit 14: Business Applications of Maxima and Minima

Unit 14: Business Applications of Maxima and Minima Notes

CONTENTS
Objectives

Introduction
14.1 Maximisation of Revenue

14.2 Maximisation of Output

14.3 Minimisation of Cost

14.4 Economic Applications (Continued)

14.4.1 Maximisation of Profits

14.4.2 Profit Maximisation by a Firm under Perfect Competition

14.4.3 Profit Maximisation by a Monopoly Firm
14.5 Summary
14.6 Keywords
14.7 Self Assessment
14.8 Review Questions
14.9 Further Readings

Objectives

After studying this unit, you will be able to:

Discuss economic applications
Explain prectical problems related to business applications of maxima and mininma

Introduction

In last unit you studied about maxima and minima. The terms maxima and minima refer to
extreme values of a function, that is, the maximum and minimum values that the function
attains. Maximum means upper bound or largest possible quantity. The absolute maximum of
a function is the largest number contained in the range of the function. That is, if f(a) is greater
than or equal to f(x), for all x in the domain of the function, then f(a) is the absolute maximum.
In terms of its graph, the absolute maximum of a function is the value of the function that
corresponds to the highest point on the graph. Conversely, minimum means lower bound or
least possible quantity. The absolute minimum of a function is the smallest number in its range
and corresponds to the value of the function at the lowest point of its graph.

14.1 Maximisation of Revenue

We can write total revenue as TR = p.x, where p is price and x is quantity. Total revenue will be
d TR d 2 TR
maximum at a level of output where = 0 (or MR = 0) and < 0. The first order
dx dx 2

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Notes p dx
d TR dp
condition implies that = p x 0 or 1 i.e. h = 1. Thus maxima of total revenue
dx dx x dp
occurs at a level of output where elasticity of demand is unity.

Example: The inverse demand function facing a monopolist is p x ( , > 0). Find
the price charged and quantity sold for maximum monopoly revenue. Show that the elasticity at
this point is unity.
Solution:

TR = p.x = x .x x x2

d TR
= 2 x 0, for maxima, x .
dx 2

The monopoly price p = .

2 2
Second order condition
d 2 TR
= –2 < 0.
dx 2
d 2 TR d 2 TR
Note that 2 = . Thus the second order condition implies that the marginal revenue
dx dx 2

should be falling at the point , .

2 2

dp
For elasticity of demand at the point , on the demand function p x , we have =
2 2 dx
dx 1
– or .
dp

dx p 1 2
= 1. Hence elasticity of demand is unity.
dp x 2

Example: A wholesaler of pencils charges 24 per dozen on orders of 50 dozens or less.

For orders in excess of 50 dozens, the price is reduced by 20 paise per dozen in excess of 50
dozens. Find the size of the order that maximises his total revenue.

Solution:
Let x be the number of dozens in an order.
When x 50, TR = 24x

When x > 50, the price charged per dozen is given by

p = 24 0.20 x 50 34 0.20x

This is the equaton of a straigh line passing through the point (50, 24) with slope =
– 0.20.

Thus, TR = p.x = (34 – 0.2x).x = 34x – 0.2x2

We note here that TR will have maxima only when x > 50 because, when x £ 50, TR is a straight
line and hence has no maxima.

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For maximum TR, we have Notes

d TR 34
= 34 - 0.4x = 0 or x 85 dozens.
dx 0.4

d 2 TR
Since = 4 0, the second order condition is satisfied.
dx 2

Alternate Method

Let y be number of dozens ordered in excess of 50 dozens.

Then p = 24 0.20y and quantity ordered = 50 + y.
TR = (24 0.20 y) (50 y)
= 1200 + 14y – 0.20y2
d(TR )
dy
= 14 0.40 y 0 for maxima.

14
or y = 35
0.40

d2 (TR )
= –0.40 0
dy
Thus, revenue is maximised when (50 + 35) = 85 dozens of pencils are ordered.

Example: A tour operator charges 200 per passenger for 50 passengers with a discount
of 5 for each 10 passenger in excess of 50. Determine the number of passengers that will
maximise the revenue of the operator.
Solution:
Let x be the number of passengers, then revenue from each passenger i.e. price p is given by

5 x
p = 200 ( x 50) 225
10 2
5
The equation of a straight line passing through the point (50, 200) with slope = .
10

x x2
TR = 225 x 225x .
2 2
d(TR )
dx
= 225 x 0 or

d 2 (TR )
= 1 0
dx 2
TR is maximised when x = 225 passengers. Alternatively, we can write the revenue function
as.
y
TR 200 50 y , where y is the number of passengers in excess of 50.
2

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Notes
Example: If the demand law is x = e p , , 0 , express marginal revenue as a function
of x. At what levels of output and price the total revenue is maximum? Also find maximum total
revenue.

Solution:
Taking log of both sides of the demand function, we get

1
log x = log p or p log log x

1
TR = p.x = x.log x.log x

d TR 1
Now MR = = log log x 1
dx

1
= log 1 0 , for maximum TR
x

log 1 = 0 or log 1
x x

log = log e e or x
x x e

d 2 TR 1
Further, = x
dx 2 x < 0, the second order condition is satisfied. Also price, when e
, is

1 1 1
given by p log log x log
x

1
Hence, maximum TR = .
e

10
Example: A firm’s demand function is : x 400 ln . Find the price and quantity where
p
total revenue is maximum. Also find price elasticity of demand at that price.
Solution:
Note: ln denotes log with base e.

Here it will lie convenient to express total revenue as a function of p.

TR = p.x. 400p ln10 ln p 400p .ln10 400p .ln p

d(TR ) 1
= 400 ln10 400 ln p 400 p
dp p

= 400 ln10 ln p 1 0 for maxima.

ln10 ln p = 1

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Notes
10 10
or ln = 1 or e
p p

or p = 10.e–1

10
Also x = 400 ln 400 ln e 400
p

Thus x = 400 and p = 10.e–1 at maximum revenue. To find price elasticity of demand, we
write.

ln x = ln 400(ln10 ln p )

d ln x 1 400 1 400
=
dp 400 ln10 ln p p 10 p
400 ln
p

d log p 1
Also =
dp p

d ln x 1 400 1
= p
d ln p 10 p 10
400 ln ln
p p

1 10
= 1 at p
ln e e

Example: If p = f(x) is an inverse demand function, find the level of output at which total
revenue is maximum. Show that total revenue will always be a maximum if demand curve is
downward sloping and concave from below. Is it possible to have maxima of total revenue if the
demand curve is convex from below? Discuss.
Solution:

d TR
TR = xf(x) f x xf x 0 for maxima
dx

f x p
f x =
x x

Since p and x are always positive, this implies that total revenue is maximum only if f x < 0

d 2 TR
= 2f x xf x 0 (second order condition)
dx 2

2f x
f x < , which is always satisfied if f x 0.
x

2f x
When the demand curve is convex from below such that 0 f x , it is possible to have
x
maxima of total revenue.

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Notes Maximisation of Tax Revenue

Let p = f(x) and p = g(x) be the market demand and supply of a commodity and a specific tax of
t per unit be imposed. Then under equilibrium, we can write f(x) = g(x) + t.

Let xt be the equilibrium quantity obtained by solving the above equation for x. We can write
the expression for tax revenue T as T = t.xt (note that xt is a function of t).
From this we can find t such that T is maximum.

Example: The inverse demand and supply functions of a commodity, in a perfectly

competitive market, are given by p x and p b ax respectively, where a, b, a, b > 0 and b > b.

Find the equilibrium values if p and x. If the government imposes a specific tax @ t per unit,
find post-tax equilibrium values. Also find the value of t for maximum tax revenue.
Solution:
We have demand price = supply price, (in equilibrium)
b
x = b + ax or x , is the equilibrium quantity. We substitute this value in demand
a
function to get the equilibrium price.
b a b
Thus, p
a a
After a specific tax of t per unit, the equilibrium condition becomes:
demand price = supply price + t
b t
or x b ax t xt
a

b t a b t
The post-tax equilibrium price p
a a

t b t
The tax revenue T t. x t
a

dT b 2t 1
Thus 0, for maximum T, t b .
dt a 2

Example: The inverse demand and supply of a commodity in a perfectly competitive

market are given by p = f(x) and p = g(x), where f x 0 and g x 0 . If a specific tax of t per
unit is imposed, show that equilibrium output decreases as tax rate t increases.
Solution:
Let a specific tax of t per unit be imposed on the commodity with demand and supply function
as p f x and p s g x . Where p denotes price paid by the consumer and ps is the price received
by the seller. Thus under equilibrium we have

p = ps + t or f(x) = g(x) + t

Let xt (the equilibrium quantity) be the solution of this equation.

Therefore, we can write f xt g xt t

Since xt is a function of t, we can differentiate the above equation with respect to t, to get

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 Unit 14: Business Applications of Maxima and Minima

dx t 1 Notes
dxt dx
f xt g xt 1 or
dt dt dt f xt g xt

Since demand function is assumed to be downward sloping, the denominator of the above
dxt
expression is negative. Thus 0, which implies that equilibrium output decreases as tax rate
dt
increases.

14.2 Maximisation of Output

Assuming that labour is the only variable factor, we can write the production function of a firm
as x = f(L), where x denotes total product of labour which will be denoted as TPL.

TPL f L
The average product of labour is APL = , the marginal product of labour is MPL =
L L
dx d TPL dx
f (L ) and necessary condition for maximum output is MPL 0
dL dL dL

Often we are interested in finding that level of employment of labour at which its average
product is maximum.
For maxima of APL , we have

d AP L L. f L f L
0
dL L2

f (L )
Lf (L ) f (L ) or f (L ) or MPL = APL . Thus, the marginal and average products of a factor are
L
equal at the maxima of the later.

Maximisation of Total Revenue Product

If p is price of a unit of output, the total revenue of the firm is, TR = p.x. This total revenue, when
expressed as a function of L, using production function x = f(L), is called the total revenue product
d TR
of labour (TRPL). Units of L, to be employed, for maximum TR is given by the equation = 0.
dL
d TR
The derivative is known as the marginal revenue product of labour.
dL

Since TR is a function of x and x is a function of L, using chain rule, we can write an expression for
marginal revenue product in terms of marginal revenue and marginal product.

d TR d TR dx
MRPL = . = MR.MPL
dL dx dL

Example: The short-run production function of a manufacturer is given as

x 11L 16L2 L3 .
(i) Find the average product function, APL , the marginal product function, MPL , and show
that MPL = APL where APL is maximum.

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Notes (ii) Find the value of L for which output is maximum.

(iii) Find the value of L at which the total product curve has a point of inflexion and verify that
MPL is maximum at this point. What is the nature of the point of inflexion?
(iv) If the manufacturer sells the product at a uniform price of 10 per unit, find the maximum
total revenue product and associated level of L.

Solution:
x
(i) APL = 11 16L L2
L
dx
MPL = 11 32L 3L2
dL

d APL
We have = 16 2L 0 APL is maximum at L = 8.
dL

d 2 APL
Since = 2 0 , the second order condition is satisfied.
dL2

The maximum APL = 11 + 168 82 = 75

Further, MPL when L = 8, is 11 + 32 8 3 82 = 75
Thus, APL = MPL, when APL is maximum.
(ii) For maximum output:

dx
= 11 32L 3L2 0
dL
or (11 – L)(1 + 3L) = 0, \ L = 11. The other value, being negative, is dropped.

d2 x
Since 32 6L 34 0 , the second order condition for maxima is satisfied.
dL2

(iii) For point of inflexion:

d2 x 16 d3 x
2 = 32 – 6L = 0 L = 5.33 and 3 = – 6 < 0.
dL 3 dL
Thus the point of inflexion is of type I, i.e. the curve changes from convex to concave from
below.
d2 x d( MPL ) d3 x d 2 ( MPL )
Since 2 = 0 and 3 = 0,
dL dL dL dL2
MPL is maximum at L = 5.33.

(iv) TRPL = p.x = 10 11L 16L2 L3 .

Since TRPL is a constant multiple of the production function, therefore, maxima of TRPL will be
at the same level of L where x is maximum. Thus, TRPL will also be maximum at L = 11. The
maximum value = 10 11 11 16 112 113 = 7,260.

14.3 Minimisation of Cost

C F( x) dC
If total cost C = F(x), then we can define AC , and MC = F ( x ).
x x dx
Very often we are interested in finding the level of output that gives minimum AC. For minima
of AC, we have

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d AC xF ( x ) F ( x ) Notes
= =0
dx x2

F( x )
xF ( x ) = F ( x ) or F ( x ) or MC = AC.
x

Thus, marginal cost is equal to the average at the minima of the later.

Notes The level of output at which AC is minimum is also known as the most economic (or
capacity) output.

Example: The short-run cost function of a food manufacturer is given by

C = 1,000 + 100x – 10x2 + x3.
(i) Find AC, AVC and MC functions.

(ii) Show that MC = min. of AC.

(iii) Show that MC = min. of AVC.
(iv) Show that total cost function has a point of inflexion at a level of output where MC is
minimum. Find min. MC.
Solution:

C 1,000
(i) AC = 100 10 x x 2
x x

AVC = 100 10 x x2 , MC 100 20x 3x2

(ii) For minima of AC, we have

d AC 1000
= 10 2 x 0 or 1000 10 x 2 2 x 3 0
dx x2

2
or x3 5x2 500 = 0 or x 10 x 5x 50

Thus x = 10 is a stationary point. The other roots, being imaginary, are neglected.

d 2 AC 2000
We note that = 2 4 0, at x = 10
dL2 x3

Thus AC is minimum at x = 10.

1000
Also min. AC = 100 10 10 102 200
10

and MC = 100 20 10 3 102 200, at x = 10

Thus, MC = min. AC.

(iii) For minima of AVC, we have

d AVC
= 10 2 x 0 or x = 5, min.
dx

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Notes AVC = 100 10 5 5

2
75

and MC = 100 20 5 3 52 75, at x = 5

Thus, MC = min. AVC

d 2C d MC d 3C 10
(iv) Since = 20 6 x 0 and 6 0, at x , the total cost function has a
dx2 dx dx 3 3
type II point of inflexion.

d MC 10
Since = 0 at x , MC is also minimum at this value.
dx 3

10 102 200
Also, min. MC = 100 20 3 66.67
3 32 3

Example: The cost of fuel consumed per hour in running a train is proportional to the
square of its speed (in kms per hour), and it costs 3,200 per hour at a speed of 40 kms per hour.
What is the most economical speed, if the fixed charges are 12,800 per hour?
Solution:
Let F be the cost of fuel and x be the speed of the train per hour. We are given that
2
F x2 or F kx , where k is a constant of proportionality.
3200
When x = 40, F is given to be 3,200, k 2.
1600

Thus we can write F 2 x2 , as the cost of fuel per hour of running the train when its speed is x
kms per hour. Now the total cost of running the train for x kms (per hour) is TC = 12,800 + 2x2.

12800
Average cost AC = 2 x.
x
The most economic speed will be that value of x which minimises AC.

d AC 12800
= 2 0, for minima or
dx x2

12800
or x2 = 2
6400 or x = 80 kms/hour.

Second order condition

d 2 AC 25600
= 0 , when x = 80.
dx 2 x3

Thus, the second order condition for minima is satisfied.

Coefficients of a Cubic Total Cost Function

Let the cubic total cost function be TC = ax 3 bx 2 cx d. Therefore, the marginal cost function is
given by

d TC
MC = 3ax 2 2bx c
dx

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In order that MC curve is U-shaped, the MC function should represent a parabola with axis Notes
pointing vertically upward. Further, in order that total cost function makes economic sense, the
vertex of the parabola must lie in positive quadrant.

d MC b
For minima of MC, we have 6 ax 2b 0 x
dx 3a

d 2 MC
Further, 6 a, which should be positive for minima.
dx 2

This implies that a > 0. Also, since x, the output level, should be positive, therefore
b < 0.
2
b b 3ac b 2
Now min. MC = 3a 2b c
3a 3a 3a

This will be positive only if b2 < 3ac. Since a > 0, this condition also implies that c > 0. Further, the
constant term d, which represents the total fixed cost, is always positive.

14.4 Economic Applications (Continued)

14.4.1 Maximisation of Profits

Profit is the difference between total revenue and total cost of a producer or firm. We know that
total revenue as well as total costs are often expressed as functions of level of output, x. If we
write TR = R(x) and TC = C(x), then the profit p can be written as p(x) = R(x) – C(x).
We want to find that value of x so that p(x) becomes maximum. The conditions for maxima of
p(x) are:

First order condition

x = R x C x = 0, or R x C x or MR(x) = MC(x)

Let xe satisfy this equation. Then, we can write R x e C xe

Here xe is termed as the profit maximising or equilibrium output. Note that the first order condition
is also termed as the equilibrium condition.
Second order condition

In order that profit (x) is maximum at xe, we should have x e < 0.

This condition implies that R x e C x e or R x e C x e , i.e. the slope of marginal revenue

curve must be less than slope of the marginal cost curve at equilibrium point.
Alternatively, we can express total revenue and total cost as functions of price, where price and
quantity are related by the demand function x = (p). Thus, we can also express profit of the firm
as a function of price. The first and second order condition maximum profits, in this case, can be
written as pe 0 and pe < 0 respectively.

14.4.2 Profit Maximisation by a Firm under Perfect Competition

A firm under perfect competition is a price taker i.e. price is constant. Therefore, the only option
before it is to choose that level of output at which its profits are maximised.

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Notes If p is the price at which the firm can sell its output, then total revenue of the firm is R(x) = p.x,
where x is the level of output. We note that total revenue of the firm is a straight line passing
through origin with slope p. Assuming the cost function as C = C(x), we can write the profit of the
firm as p(x) = R(x) – C(x) = px – C(x).
x = p C ( x ) 0, for maximum (note that MR = p).
Thus, p = C ( x ) or p = MC(x) is the necessary condition for maximum profits.

Second order condition

x = 0 C ( x ) 0, for maximum p.

d MC x
This condition will hold only if C ( x ) or 0 at the stationary value i.e. MC must be
dx
rising at the stationary point.

Break-Even Point

It can be shown that the break-even point of a profit maximising firm under perfect competition
will occur at a level of output where average cost is minimum.
We can write
TR = TC (for break even)

TC
or px = TC or p
x

or MC = AC ( p = MC in equilibrium)

Starting Point

The starting point of a firm is the minimum level of output at which total variable costs (TVC)
of the firm are covered. Therefore we have
TR = TVC, (at the starting point)

TVC
or px = TVC or p AVC
x
or MC = AVC (in equilibrium)
Thus the starting point occurs at the minima of AVC.

Example: A plant produces x tons of steel per week at a total cost of

1 3 1
x 3x2 50 x 300. If the market price is fixed at 33 , find the profit maximising output of
10 3
the plant and the maximum profit. Will the firm continue production?
Solution:

100 1 3
We can write R x = x and C x x 3x 2 50 x 300
3 10

100 1 3
x = R x C x x x 3 x2 50 x 300
3 10

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1 3 50 Notes
= x 3x 2 x 300
10 3

For max. p, we should have x 0 and x 0

3 2 50
Now, x = x 6x 0 or 9 x 2 180 x 500 0
10 3

180 1802 4 9 500 180 120

x =
18 18

300 50 60 10
Thus, x1 = or and x2 or
18 3 18 3

6 6 50 50
Further, x = x 6 . 6 4 0 at x1
10 10 3 3

6 10 10
= . 6 4 0 at x2
10 3 3

50 2
Therefore, profit maximising output of the plant = or 16 .
3 3

2 2 2
1 50 50 50
Max. profit = 3 300 207.41
10 3 3 3

Thus the firm is incurring loss of 207.41. Since this loss is less than 300 (fixed cost), the firm
will continue production.

1 3
Example: If the total cost of a firm is C x 5 x2 30 x 10, where C is the total cost and
3
x is the level of output, and price under perfect competition is given as 6, find for what value(s)
of x the profit will be maximised? Also find the value of maximum profit and comment on the
result.
Solution:
We can write

1 3 1 3
(x) = 6 x x 5x2 30 x 10 x 5x 2 24 x 10
3 3

We have x = x 2 10 x 24 0 or x 2 10 x 24 0 , for max. p

x 6 x 4 = 0 x1 6 and x2 4

Further, x = 2 x 10 12 10 2 0, when x = 6

and = 8 10 2 0 , when x = 4
Thus, the profit is maximum when x = 6 units.

1
Maximum profit = 63 5 62 24 6 10 46 i.e. loss of 46.
3

Since this loss is greater than the loss of 10, when nothing is produced, the firm will discontinue
production.

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Notes Supply Curve of a Firm under Perfect Competition

The supply curve of a firm, under perfect competition, is that portion of the marginal cost curve
that lies above the average variable cost curve. Let pm = MC = min. AVC (average variable cost).
We can say that

(i) When p < pm, quantity supplied x = 0, and

(ii) When p ³ pm, quantity supplied is given by the condition p = MC. Solving this equation for
x gives the supply function of the firm.

Example: The total cost of a firm under perfect competition is given by

C x3 6 x 2 15 x 10. Find the supply function of the firm.
Solution:
First we find the lowest price pm below which the supply will be zero.

Total variable cost TVC = x 3 6 x 2 15 x AVC = x2 6 x 15

d AVC
We have = 2 x 6 0, for minima Þ x = 3
dx

Now, pm = min. AVC = 32 6 3 15 6 , below which quantity

supplied will be zero.

Further, we write p = MC = 3x 2 12 x 15 or 3x 2 12 x (15 p ) 0

Solving this quadratic equation for x, we have

12 144 12 15 p 12 12p 36 6 3p 9
x =
6 6 3

Thus, the supply function of the firm is

6 3p 9
x = when p 6,
3

and x = 0 when p < 6.

Note that we have ignored the negative sign because this will give values of x lying on that
portion of MC which lies below AVC.

1 3
x 6 x 2 30 x 20. Find the equilibrium output
Example: The total cost of a firm is C
3
if price is fixed at 10 per unit. What will be the effect of a specific tax of 3 per unit on the
equilibrium output?
Solution:
1 3 1 3
Profit (x) = 10 x x 6 x2 30 x 20 x 6 x2 20x 20
3 3
x = x2 12 x 20 0, for maximum profit

x 2 12 x 20 = 0 or x 10 x 2 0 x = 10 or 2
Further, x = – 2x + 12 = 2 10 12 8 0, when x = 10
and = 2 2 12 8 0, when x = 2

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Profits are maximised when x = 10. Notes

When a tax of 3 per unit is imposed, the total cost is written as

1 3 1 3
Ct x = x 6 x2 30 x 20 3x x 6x2 33x 20
3 3

1 3 1 3
Profit t x = 10 x x 6 x2 33x 20 x 6x2 23x 20
3 3

Now t x = x 2 12 x 23 0, for max. x 2 12 x 23 0

12 144 92 12 7.21
x = . Thus, x = 9.6 or 2.4
2 2

Further it can be shown that t x 0 , when x = 9.6. Therefore, post-tax equilibrium occurs at
lower level of output.

14.4.3 Profit Maximisation by a Monopoly Firm

Let the firm faces an inverse demand function p = f(x). Then we can write the total revenue of the
firm as R(x) = p.x = x.f(x). Assuming the cost function as C(x), we can write the profit function as
p(x) = x.f(x) – C(x). As before, the profit maximising conditions are x = 0 and x < 0.

1
1. The equilibrium condition can be written as MR(x) = MC(x) or p 1 =
Notes
MC(x). Thus p > MC(x) when > 1 (note that a profit maximising monopolist
always operates on the elastic portion of the demand curve). Since p = MC(x)
for a perfectly competitive firm, this implies that price charged by a monopolist
will be higher for producing the same level of output.
2. Like a perfectly competitive firm, there is no supply curve of a monopoly
1
firm. To show this, we solve the equilibrium condition p 1 = MC(x) for x.

The solution for x will be a function of p and . This function can be regarded
as a supply function only if is constant. However, we know that often h is
different at different points of the demand curve.

1
Example: The demand and cost functions of a monopolist are given to be x p 500
2
and C x3 59 x2 1315 x 2000 respectively. Find his profit maximising level of output and price.

Solution:
1
We can write the demand function as p 500 x or p 1000 2 x
2
Therefore, the profit function of the monopolist is
x = 1000 2 x x x 3 59 x 2 1315 x 2,000
= x3 57x 2 315 x 2000
We have, x = 3x 2 114 x 315 0 or x 2 38 x 105 0 for max. p
x 35 x 3 = 0 x = 35 or 3

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Notes Second order condition:

We have x = 6 x 114
= 6 35 114 96 0 , at x = 35
= 6 3 114 96 0, at x = 3
Therefore, profits are maximised when 35 units of the commodity are produced.

Further, the equilibrium price p 1000 2 35 = 930.

Example: The total cost of a monopolist is C ax 2 bx c (a, b, c > 0) and the inverse
demand function is p x , 0 . Find his equilibrium output, price and net revenue
(profit). How will these values change if a tax of t per unit is levied? Also determine the tax rate
that maximises the tax revenue. Find the maximum tax revenue.
Solution:

Profit x = x x2 ax 2 bx c a x2 b x c

b
x = 2 a x b 0, for max. , x
2 a

b
We note that x = 2 a 0 . Therefore, x is the profit maximising output.
2 a

The equilibrium price

b 2a 2 b 2a b
p =
2 a 2 a 2 a

2
1 b b b
Maximum net revenue a 2
c
4 a 2 a

2 2 2 2
b b b b
= c 1 2 c c
4 a 2 a 4 a 4 a

After a specific tax of t per unit is imposed, the profit function can be written as
t x a x2 b x c tx

t x = 2 a x b t 0 or 2 a x b t for max.

b t
x = 2 a

The second order condition is same as before.

b t 2a b t
The post-tax price p =
2 a 2 a

The max. net revenue is given by

2
b t b t b t
= a 2
b c t
4 a 2 a 2 a

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2 2 2 Notes
b t b t b t b t
= b t c c
4 a 2 a 4 a 2 a

2
b t
= c
4 a

b t t bt t 2
The tax revenue T = t.x t.
2 a 2 a

dT b 2t 1
= 0, for max. T t b
dt 2 a 2

Second order condition

d2T 2
= 2 a 0 (since a, a > 0)
dt 2

Figure 14.1

Fig. 5.13
Thus, maximum tax revenue is given by

2
1 b 1
2 b 1 b
T = b
2 2 a 8 a

Example: A firm under non-perfect competition has the following total cost and demand
functions:

C 20 2x 3x2 , p 50 x
(i) Find the values of p and x that maximise profit.
(ii) An excise tax is imposed @ 5 per unit. Compute the profit maximising values of p and x
in the post-tax situation.

(iii) Find the rate of excise tax t that would fetch maximum tax revenue to the government.
Solution:

(i) Profit x = 50 x x 2 20 2 x 3x 2 4 x2 48 x 20
Now, x = 8 x 48 0, for max. x=6

Second order condition:

x = 8 0, x = 6 is the profit maximising output.

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Notes Also, the profit maximising price p 50 6 44.

(ii) Post-tax situation:

Profit x = 50 x x 2 20 2 x 3x 2 5x 4 x2 43x 20

43
x = 8 x 43 0 x 5.375
8

Second order condition:

x = 8 0, x 5.375 is the profit maximising output in

post-tax situation. Also, price = 50 - 5.375 = 44.625
(iii) When rate of excise tax is t per unit

Profit t x = 50 x x 2 20 2 x 3x 2 tx 4 x2 48 t x 20

48 t
t x = 8 x 48 t 0, for max. x
8

48 t t2
Now tax revenue T = .t 6t
8 8

dT t
We have = 6 0, for max. T t 24
dt 4

Second order condition:

d2T 1
Since 0, hence, T is maximum when rate of excise-tax is 24 per unit.
dt 2 4

Example: Suppose that the demand and total cost functions of a monopolist are p 20 4 x
and C 4 x 2 respectively, where p is price x is quantity. If the government imposes tax @ 20%
of sales, determine the total tax revenue.
Solution:

p
We have p = ps 0.2p s 1 0.2 p s or p s
1.2

p 20 4 x x
TR = p s x x
1.2 1.2

20 4 x x 20 x 4 x2
Thus, profit p(x) = 4x 2 4x 2
1.2 1.2

20 8 x
Now x = 4 0, for max.
1.2

20 – 8x = 4.8 or x 15.2 8 1.9

Second order condition

8
x = 0, is max. at x = 1.9
1.2

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Now, price p = 20 4 1.9 12.4 (when x = 1.9) Notes

20 12.4
Tax revenue T = 1.9 3.93 .
100 1.2

Example: Show that a monopolist with constant total cost and downward sloping demand
curve will maximise his profits at a level of output where elasticity of demand is unity.
Solution:

Let p = f(x) be the inverse demand function facing a monopolist and c (a constant) be his total cost.

profit p(x) = x.f(x) c and x f ( x ) x.f ( x ) 0 0 for max. p

f ( x)
f ( x) = x. f ( x ) or 1
xf ( x )

Thus, h = 1, where h denotes the elasticity of demand.

Second order condition:

For max. p, we should have x 2 f ( x ) xf ( x ) 0.

f ( x) < 2f ( x) x

Since R.H.S of the above inequality is positive, the above result will hold if either the demand
2
curve is concave f x 0 or if convex then f ( x ) f ( x) .
x

Notes Marginal cost of a monopolist, under normal conditions of production, is always

non-negative since an additional unit of a commodity can be produced only at some
additional cost. Thus we shall always have MR 0 at the profit maximising point, implying
there by that a profit maximising monopolist will never have his equilibrium on any
point that lies on the inelastic portion of the demand curve.

Example: Suppose that the demand facing a monopolist is x p k , where k > 1, and his
total cost function C ax 2 bx c .
(i) Find the profit maximising output of the monopolist as k 1.
(ii) What restrictions on the constants a, a, b and c are required for the answer to be economically
meaningful?

(iii) Find the supply function, if possible? Is this supply function consistent with your answer
to part (i)?
Solution:

1
1 k 1
k
(i) Total revenue TR = px = .x k
.x k
x

1 k 1
Profit p = k
.x k
ax 2 bx c

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Notes Differentiating w.r.t. x, we get

d 1
k 1 1
= k
. x k
2ax b 0, for maximum profits
dx k

Taking limit of the above as k 1, we get

1 1
k 1 b
lim k
.x k
2ax b = 2ax b 0 or x
k 1 k 2a

The profit at x b 2a will be maximum if

1 1
d2 k 1 1 1
= lim . x 2a 2a 0
k k
a>0
dx 2 k 1 k k

(ii) Since x is positive in x p k, > 0.

b
Further, b must be negative in order that x 0 and no restriction is needed for c.
2a
(iii) Since the elasticity of demand is k (constant), we can find the supply function of the
monopolist. The supply function is given by the condition MR = MC. We have

1
1 1
k 1 k k 1 k –1
MR =
k
x k
. p and MC = 2ax + b
k x k k

k 1 k 1
p = 2ax b or 2ax p b
k k

k 1 1 b
or x = p is the required supply function.
k 2a 2a

lim k 1 1 b b
Since x k 1
p
k 2a 2a
,
2a this supply function is consistent with the answer to part (i).

1 2
Example: A monopolist with the cost function C(x) = x faces a demand curve x 12 p .
2
(i) What will be his equilibrium price and quantity?

(ii) If for some reason the firm behaves as though it were in a perfectly competitive industry,
what will equilibrium price and quantity be? How much money will the firm require to
forgo monopoly profits and behave competitively instead?

Solution:

(i) Total revenue TR = px 12 x x 12 x x 2

2 1 2 3 2
Profit = 12 x x x 12x x
2 2

d
= 12 3x 0 or x = 4 for maximum p.
dx

d2
= 3 0, the second order condition is satisfied.
dx 2

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Equilibrium price p = 12 4 8 Notes

(ii) When the firm behaves as a perfectly competitive firm, we can write TR px where p is
constant

1 2
p = px x
2

d
= p x 0 or p = x for maximum
dx

Substituting p = 12 x, we get 12 x x or x = 6, also p = 6

d2
= 1 0, the second order condition is satisfied.
dx 2

3
Monopoly profit, = 12 4 16 24 and
m
2

1
Profit under competition, c 6 6 36 18
2
Profit forgone = 24 – 18 = 6

Example: An industry consists of a number of profit maximising firms, each with a long
run total cost function C(x) = x 2 1.
(a) On the same diagram sketch the total cost, average cost, average variable cost and marginal
cost curves.
(b) Derive the supply function of the individual firm as a function of price (p). The industry
supply Xs is the sum of the firm supplies. Obtain Xs as a function of p if there are n firms in
the industry. How does the Xs curve change if the number of firms changes?
(c) The market demand is given by X d 52 p. For given n, what will be the (short period)
equilibrium price and output for the industry, and what profits will each firm earn?
(d) With free entry, the long run equilibrium price will be the lowest short-run equilibrium
price compatible with non-negative profits. Determine this price and the number of firms
in the industry in long run equilibrium.

Solution:

(a) (i) The total cost function is C x 2 1 or C 1 x 2 . This is a parabola with axis pointing
vertically upward and vertex at (0, 1).

dC
Alternatively, we can determine its turning point by equating 0 x 0. Also C
dx
= 1 when x = 0.

d 2C
Further, 2 0 C has a minima at x = 0.
dx 2

1
(ii) Average cost is A x
x

dA 1
To determine its turning point 1 2 0 or x2 1 or x 1
dx x

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Notes Since x > 0, we consider only x = 1

d2 A 2
0 when x = 1
dx 2 x3

Also A = 2 when x = 1
A has a minima at (1, 2).
(iii) Average variable cost is AV x . This is the equation of a straight line passing
through origin with slope equal to unity.
(iv) Marginal cost is M = 2x This is the equation of a straight line passing through origin
with slope equal to 2. The diagrams of the above function are shown in Figure 14.1.

(b) The supply function of the individual firm is given by the condition p MC or p 2 x i
(Note that whole of MC lies above AVC)

p
xi is the supply function of an individual firm.
2
When there are n firms, the industry supply is

n
Xs xi p
2

dX s p p
, which shows that supply increases by a constant with entry of an additional
dn 2 2
firm.

(c) The condition for the short term equilibrium is X d Xs

n n 2 104
or 52 – p = p or p 52 or p
2 2 n 2

n 52n
Further, equilibrium output is X p
2 n 2

Profit of the ith firm i TR i TC i

2 2 2 2
104 52 52 52 52 52
1 2 1 1
n 2 n 2 n 2 n 2 n 2 n 2

(d) In the long run i 0

2
52
or 2
1 or n 2 2
52
2
or n 2 52
n 2

or n = 50 (no. of firms)

104
Also price p 2
50 2

Example: The market demand for a good X is given by the relation p x. A

monopolist produces X at an average cost ax b for output x and sells to a merchant at a price p
which maximises his profits. The merchant is a monopolist with constant distributive costs and
maximises his profits by selling on the market at price p.

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b Notes
Show that the amount X produced and sold is x 2 a 2 and that 2 x and p x.

Find the output if the producer monopolist sold directly to the market and show that “bilateral
monopoly” here restricts output and raises price.
Solution:

Total revenue of the merchant = x x x x2

Total cost of the merchant = x + d

(where d is distributive cost given to be constant.)

Now, profit of the merchant pme x x2 x d

d Pme
We have 2 x 0 , for max. Pme
dx

= –2 x … (1)
Second order condition

d 2 Pme
2 0 (since a > 0)
dx 2

The producer monopolist sells the output to the merchant at a price equal – 2 x, given by the
equilibrium condition (1). Thus, = – 2ax serves as a demand function facing the producer
monopolist.

The revenue of the producer monopolist = 2 x x , and his total cost = x(ax+b).

Profit Pmo = x 2 x2 ax2 bx

d Pmo
Thus, = 4 x 2ax b 0, for max. profits.
dx

b
x = 2 a 2 ... (2)

Second order condition:

d 2 Pmo
= 4 2a 0, (since a, a > 0).
dx 2
If the producer monopolist sold direct to the market, we can write his profit function as P
= x x ax2 bx .

dP
= 2 x 2ax b 0, for max. profits.
dx

b
or x = 2 a ... (3)

Comparing (2) and (3), we conclude that bilateral monopoly restricts output. Since output price
are inversely related by the demand function, this also implies that price is higher in bilateral
monopoly.

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Notes 14.5 Summary

We can write total revenue as TR = p.x, where p is price and x is quantity. Total revenue
d TR d 2 TR
will be maximum at a level of output where = 0 (or MR = 0) and < 0. The first
dx dx 2
d TR dp p dx
order condition implies that = p x 0 or 1 i.e. h = 1. Thus maxima of
dx dx x dp
total revenue occurs at a level of output where elasticity of demand is unity.
Let p = f(x) and p = g(x) be the market demand and supply of a commodity and a specific tax
of t per unit be imposed. Then under equilibrium, we can write f(x) = g(x) + t.
Let xt be the equilibrium quantity obtained by solving the above equation for x. We can
write the expression for tax revenue T as T = t.xt (note that xt is a function of t).

TPL f L
The average product of labour is APL = , the marginal product of labour is MPL
L L
dx d TPL dx
= f (L ) and necessary condition for maximum output is MPL 0
dL dL dL

C F( x) dC
If total cost C = F(x), then we can define AC , and MC = F ( x ).
x x dx

14.6 Keywords

Derivative: The rate at which a function changes with respect to its independent variable.
Geometrically, this is equivalent to the slope of the tangent to the graph of the function.
Domain: The set, or collection, of all the first elements of the ordered pairs of a function is called
the domain of the function.

Function: A set of ordered pairs. It results from pairing the elements of one set with those of
another, based on a specific relationship. The statement of the relationship is often expressed in
the form of an equation.
Range: The set containing all the values of the function.

14.7 Self Assessment

1. Total number of parallel tangents of f 1(x) = x2 – x + 1 and f2(x) = x3 – x2 –2x + 1 is equal to

(a) 2

(b) 3
(c) 4

(d) None of these

2. The function 2tan3x – 3tan2x + 12tanx + 3, x is

(a) increasing

(b) decreasing

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(c) increasing in (0, p/4) and decreasing in (p/4, p/2) Notes

(d) none of these

3. Let f (x) = (4–x2)2/3, then f has a

(a) a local maxima at x = 0

(b) a local maxima at x = 2

(c) a local maxima at x = –2

(d) none of these

4. Let f (x) = x3 – 6x2 + 9x + 18, then f (x) is strictly decreasing in

(a) (– , 1]

(b) [3, )
(c) (– , 1] [3, )

(d) [1, 3]
5. The absolute minimum value of x4 – x2 – 2x+ 5
(a) is equal to 5
(b) is equal to 3
(c) is equal to 7
(d) does not exist
6. Equation of the tangent to the curve y = e–|x| at the point where it cuts the line x=1

(a) is ey + x =2
(b) is x + y = e
(c) is ex + y = 1
(d) does not exist
7. Rolle’s theorem holds for the function x 3 + bx2 + cx, 1 < x < 2 at the point 4/3, the value of
b and c are;

(a) b = 8, c = - 5
(b) b = -5, c = 8
(c) b = 5, c = -8

(d) b = -5, c = -8.

8. The number of value of k for which the equation x 3 – 3x + k = 0 has two different roots lying
in the interval (0, 1) are
(a) 3

(b) 2
(c) infinitely many

(d) no value of k satisfies the requirement.

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Basic Mathematics – I

Notes 9. From mean value theorem: f(b) – f(a) = (b – a) f’ (x1); a < x1 < b if f(x) = 1/x , then x1 =
(a) ab

(b) a + b/2

(c) 2ab/q + b
(d) b – a/b + a

10. The minimum value of ax + by, where xy = r 2, is (r, ab >0)

(a) 2r ab

(b) 2ab r
(c) –2r ab

(d) None of these

14.8 Review Questions

1. The demand function of a particular commodity is given by y 15e x / 3 for 0 x 8 where

y is price per unit and x is the number of units demanded. Determine the price and
quantity for which revenue is maximum.
2. Total revenue from the sale of a good X is given by the equation R = 60Q – Q2, for
0 Q 60 , where R is total revenue and Q is the quantity sold at price P. Calculate the
value of MR when the point price elasticity of demand is 2.
3. From the demand function Q = 600/P, show that total expenditure on the commodity
remains unchanged as price falls. Estimate the elasticity of demand at P = 4 and at
P = 2.
4. Following are the market demand and market supply equations for a product X:
Qd 10,000(12 2P ) and Q s 1,000(20P )
The government decides to collect a sales tax of 2.50 per unit sold.
(a) What effect does it have on the equilibrium price and quantity of commodity X?
(b) Find total amount of tax collected by the government.
(c) If the government wants to maximise total tax collections, find the rate of specific
tax it should impose.
5. Show that for a competitive market with linear demand and supply functions, the imposition
of a specific tax increases the demand price and decreases the supply price by less than the
tax rate.
6. Let xd = a – bp and xs = a + bp be the demand and supply functions respectively of a good in
perfectly competitive market. A specific tax of t per unit is imposed. Find equilibrium
dp dps
price paid by consumer p and that received by seller ps . Find and and show
dt dt
that equilibrium the price paid by consumer increases and that received by seller decreases
as tax rate is increased.
7. A cultural organisation is arranging a kathakali dance program in a city. It expects that 300
persons would attend the show if the entrance ticket is 8. It has also estimated that for a
unit decrease in entrance fee, 60 additional persons would attend the program. Express the
revenue of the organisation as a function of the entrance fee. What should be the entrance
fee so that the organisation gets maximum revenue?

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 Unit 14: Business Applications of Maxima and Minima

8. A tour operator charges 136 per passenger upto 100 passengers with a discount of 4 for Notes
each 10 passenger in excess of 100. Determine the number of passengers that will maximise
the amount of money the tour operator receives.
1 3
9. For a firm under perfect competition, the total cost function is given by C q
25
9 2
q 10q 12 . If the price of output is 4 per unit, will the firm continue production?
10
10. A firm has a revenue function given by R = 10x, where R is gross revenue and x is the
2
x
quantity sold; and a production cost function given by C = 1,00,000 50 . What is
1,000
the expression for the profit function p = R - C ? Find the rate of change of p w.r.t. x at x =
1,00,000 units.

Answers: Self Assessment

1. (d) 2. (a)
3. (a) 4. (d)
5. (b) 6. (a)
7. (d) 8. (c)
9. (a) 10. (a)

14.9 Further Readings

Books Husch, Lawrence S. Visual Calculus, University of Tennessee, 2001.

Smith and Minton, Calculus Early Trancendental, Third Edition, McGraw Hill 2008.

Online links http://www.suitcaseofdreams.net/Trigonometric_Functions.htm

http://library.thinkquest.org/20991/alg2/trigi.html

http://www.intmath.com/trigonometric functions/5 signs of trigonometric

functions.php

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