MODULE III PROBLEM SOLVING AND REASONING Lesson 1 Inductive and Deductive Reasoning Lesson 2 Strategies in Problem SolvingMODULE III Problem Solving and Reasoning ["] INTRODUCTION Problem solving is a fundamental means of developing mathematical knowledge at any level. For this reason, it is one of the most important, if not the most important, aspect of doing mathematics (Annenberg Learner, 2017). Bearing such statement, Mathematics can be used to develop the skills that involve the ability of logical reasoning, systematic, critical, careful and creative in communicating ideas or to solve problems. Reasoning ability becomes one of the student's mathematical abilities standard because the reasoning has an important role in understanding the material and mathematics concepts that will be learned. According to Prihandoko (2005) problem reasoning is the first thing that needs to be understood with regard to the assessment of the basic concepts of mathematics because reasoning is the foundation for the study of mathematical concepts hereinafter. Furthermore, problem solving gives students a context to help them make sense out of the mathematics they are learning. In the real world, problem-solving is a universal job skill that applies to any position and every industry. While everyone is tasked with some form of problem-solving in their workplace, not all employees are good at it. According to CareerBuilder.com, having the necessary skills to identify solutions to problems is one of the skills that employers look for in employees; therefore, it is no surprise that many companies today are hunting for problem solvers and as a result, you as student should be a good problem solver at this very early stage of your life. Ken Watanabe (2011) on his article entitled “The Importance of Problem Solving” further stressed the significance of having a skill in problem solving because we all have to make decisions, whether you’re a student or president of the Philippines, whether the issue is big or small. In this lesson, we will tackle some of the fundamentals of reasoning and problem solving for you to enhance such skill because understanding the critical components involved in problem-solving will help you improve this skill set and demonstrate your expertise in the real world with your chosen career. Module Il includes the discussion of the following: Lesson 1 Inductive and Deductive Reasoning Lesson 2 Strategies in Problem Solving ‘Mathematics in the Modern World© OBJECTIVES After studying the module you should be able to: 1. Use different types of reasoning to justify statements and arguments made about mathematics and mathematical concepts. 2, Solve problems involving patterns and recreational problems following Polya’s four steps. 3. Organize one’s methods and approaches for proving and solving problems. 4. Learn to monitor and reflect on their own ideas in solving problems by sharing their thinking with other students and the teacher 5. Appreciate the importance of problem solving in the study of mathematics. é DIRECTIONS/ MODULE ORGANIZER 1. Module III consists of two (2) lessons. Take time to read all these two (2) lessons, so you can have a better understanding and appreciate about mathematical reasoning and problem solving. 2. Accomplish all the learning activities and submit them to your tutor in the next face-to-face meeting. 3. For difficulties, try to contact the curriculum adviser or your tutor/ professor. eo o-s$F- SS Mathematics in the Modern World ‘Module I~Lesson 1 INDUCTIVE AND DEDUCTIVE REASONING The development of mathematics can be traced back to the Egyptian and Babylonian cultures (3000 B.C. - A.D. 260) as a necessity for problem solving. Their approach was an example of the “do this and so” method: in order to solve a problem or perform an operation, a cookbook-like recipe was given, and it was performed over and over to solve similar problems. The classical Greek period (600 B.C. - A.D. 450) gave rise to a more formal type of mathematics,’in which general concepts were applied to specific problems, resulting in a structured, logical development of mathematics. By observing that a specific method worked for a certain type of problem, the Babylonians and the Egyptians concluded that the same method would work-for any similar type of problem. Such a conclusion is called a conjecture. A conjecture is an educated guess based upon repeated observations of a particular process or pattern. The method of reasoning we have just described is called inductive reasoning. Inductive Reasoning Inductive reasoning is characterized by drawing a general conclusion (making a conjecture) from repeated observations of specific examples. The conjecture may or may not be true. In testing a conjecture obtained by inductive reasoning, it takes only one example that does not work in order to prove the conjecture false. Such an example is called a counterexample. Inductive reasoning provides a powerful method of drawing conclusions, but it is also important to realize that there is no assurance that the observed conjecture will always be true. For this reason, mathematicians are reluctant to accept a conjecture as an absolute truth until it is formally proved using methods of deductive reasoning. Deductive reasoning characterized the development and approach of Greek mathematics, as seen in the works of Euclid, Phytagoras, Archimedes, and others. Deductive Reasoning Deductive reasoning is characterized by applying general principles to specific examples. Let us now look at examples of these two types of reasoning. In this lesson we will often refer to the natural or counting numbers: 1, 2, 3,.. ‘Mathematics in the Modern World ~ Module I=The three dots indicate that the numbers continue indefinitely in the pattern that has been established. The most probable rule of for continuing this pattern is “add 1 to the previous number,” and this is indeed the rule that we follow. Now consider the following list of natural numbers: 2, 9, 16, 23, 30. What is the next number of this list? Most of the people would say that the next number is 37. Why? They probably reason something like this: What have 2 and 9 and 16 in common? What is the pattern? After studying the numbers, we might see that 2+ 7=9, and9+7= 16. Is something similar true for the other numbers in this list? Do you add 16 and 7 to get 23? Do you add 23 and 7 to get 30? Yes; any number in the given list can be found by adding 7 to the preceding number, so the next number in the list should be 30 + 7 = 37. You set out to found the “next number” by reasoning from your observation of the numbers in the list. You may have jumped from these observations above (2 + 7 = 9, 9 + 7 = 16, and so on) to the general statement that any number in the list is 7 more than the preceding number. This is an example of inductive reasoning. By using inductive reasoning, we concluded that 37 was the next number in the list. But this is wrong. You were set up. You've been tricked into drawing an incorrect conclusion. Not that your logic was faulty; but the person making up the list has another answer in mind. The list of numbers 2, 9, 16, 23, 30 actually gives the dates of Mondays in June if June 1 falls on a Sunday. The next Monday after June 30 is July 7. With this pattern, the list continues as 2,9, 16, 23, 30, 7, 14, 21, 28,.. See the calendar in opposite figure. The process you may have used to obtain the rule “add 7” in the list above reveals one main flaw of inductive reasoning. You can never be sure that what is true in a specific case will be true in general. Even a larger number of cases may not be enough. Inductive reasoning does not guarantee a true result, but it does provide a means of making a conjecture. With deductive reasoning, we use general statements and apply them to specific situations. For example, one of the best-known rules in mathematics me 3 a M Tu W Th F OS 3 o]7 9 10) rr 2 A 5]16 18 19 a 3 26 ay is the Pythagorean Theorem: In any right triangle, the sum of the squares of the legs (shorter sides) is equal to the square of the hypotenuse (longest side). Thus, if we know that the lengths of the shorter sides are 3 inches and ‘Mathematics in the Modern World ~ Module I~4 inches, we can find the length of the longest side. Let h represent the longest side: 32 + 4? = h? Pythagorean Theorem 9+16=h? Square the Terms 25=h? Add h=5 The positive square root of 25 is 5. Thus, the longest side measures 5 inches. We used the general rule (the Pythgorean Theorem) and applied it to the specific situation. Reasoning through a problem usually requires certain premises. A premise can be an assumption, law, rule, widely held idea, or observation. Then reason inductively or deductively from the premises to obtain a conclusion. The premises and conclusion make up a logical argument. o My Y EXAMPLES. Identify each premise and the conclusion in each of the following arguments. Then tell.whether each argument is an example of inductive or deductive reasoning. a. Our house is made of redwood. Both of my next-door neighbors have redwood houses. Therefore, all houses in our neighborhood are made of redwood. b. All word processors will type the symbol @. | have a word processor. | can type the symbol @ ¢. Today is Friday. Tomorrow will be Saturday. Solutions. a. The premises are “Our house is made of redwood” and “Both of my next-door neighbors have redwood houses.” The conclusion is “Therefore, all houses in our neighborhood are made of redwood”. Since the reasoning goes from specific examples to a general statement, the argument is an example of inductive reasoning (although it may very well have a false conclusion). b. Here the premises are “All word processors will type the symbol @” and “I have a word processor.” The conclusion is “I can type the symbol @.” This reasoning goes from general to specific, so deductive reasoning was used. ‘Mathematics in the Modern World = Module I=c. There is only one premise here, “Today is Friday.” The conclusion is “Tomorrow will be Saturday.” The fact that Saturday follows Friday is being used, even though this fact is not explicitly stated. Since the conclusion comes from general facts that apply to this special case, deductive reasoning was used. The example involving dates earlier in this lesson illustrated how inductive reasoning may, at times, lead to false conclusions. However, in many cases inductive reasoning does provide correct results, if we look for the most probable answer. Wa FY EXAMPLES. Use inductive reasoning to determine the probable next number in each list below. a. 3,7,11,15,19,23 b. 1,1,2,3,5,8,13,21 c. 1,2,4,8,16 Solutions. a. Each number in the list is obtained by adding 4 to the previous number. The probable next is 23 + 4 = 27. b. Beginning with the third number in the list, each number is obtained by adding the two previous numbers in the list. That is, 1+ 1 = 2, 1+ 2= 3, 2+3=5, and so on. The probable next number in the list is 13 + 21 = 34, (These are the first few terms of the famous Fibonacci sequence) c. It appears here that in order to obtain each number after the first, we must double the previous number. Therefore, the most probable next number is 16 x 2 = 32. ES LEARNING ACTIVITY Identify the following arguments as inductive or deductive. 1. Consciousness is either a physical thing or a nonphysical thing. Since it is not a physical thing, it must be nonphysical. 2. Since the universe is like a watch, it is probably designed. Mathematics in the Modern World ‘Module Tit3. There are only two people in this house: Blaise and Catherine. Neither wears glasses. Therefore, Blaise doesn't wear glasses. 4, If God exists there is good in the world. God exists, so there is good in the world. 5. Bob is taller than his wife, and his wife is taller than his son. So, Bob is taller than his son. ‘Mathematics in the Modern World = Module IrLesson 2 STRATEGIES IN PROBLEM SOLVING Before discussing what problem solving is, we must first come to grips with what is meant by a problem. In essence, a problem is a situation that confronts a person, that requires resolution, and for which the path to the solution is not immediately known. In everyday life, a problem can manifest itself as anything from a simple personal problem, such as the best strategy for crossing the street (usually done without much “thinking’’), to a more complex problem, such as how to assemble a new bicycle. These everyday situations are usually resolved ‘‘subconsciously,”” without our taking formal note of the procedures by which we found the solution. A consciousness of everyday problem-solving methods and strategies usually becomes more evident when we travel outside of our usual cultural surroundings. There the usual way of life and habitual behaviors may not fit or may not work. We may have to consciously adapt other methods to achieve our goals. Problem solving is one of the main thrusts of Mathematics in K to 12 Curriculum, it is assumed that the whole aim of education is to equip children to solve problems. According to the National Council of Teachers in Mathematics (NCTM, 2000, p.52), "Problem Solving means engaging in a task for which the solution method is not known in advance. In order to find a solution, students must draw on their knowledge and through this process; they will often develop new mathematical understandings. Solving problem is not only a goal of knowing mathematics, but also a major means of doing so.” Step in Problem Solving In 1945, the mathematician George Polya wrote a small book called How To Solve It. Since then it has become one of the most widely read mathematics books, and for good reason. It is a practical guide to mathematical problem solving, filled with hints and examples. Clearly, it is required reading for all problem solvers. The foundation of Polya’s book is a four-step procedure that can be used to organize the problem-solving Process. It is not a specific prescription that works for all problems, but it is a useful set of guidelines. You can think of the four-step procedure as a framework; it is like a four-room house. The procedure tells you to visit each room; however, it does not tell you exactly what to do in each room. The basic problem-solving strategy that Polya advocated consisted of the following four steps. 1. Understand the problem. Mathematics in the Modern World ~ Module Tit =10 2. Devise a plan. 3. Carry out the plan. 4. Review the solution. Polya’s four steps are deceptively simple. To become a good problem solver, it helps to examine each of these steps and determine what is involved. Step 1: Understand the problem. The first step in problem solving is to determine where you are going. Be sure that you understand what the problem is asking. + Read the problem carefully! If it helps, read it aloud. + Record the quantities and conditions that are given (often called the data for the problem). + Identify the unknowns. Exactly what is to be determined? + Draw a picture or diagram to help you organize the information and visualize the problem. + If possible, restate the problem in different ways to clarify it. Step 2: Plan a strategy for solving the problem. Once you understand the Problem, the next step is to decide how to go about solving it. This step is the most difficult; it requires creativity, organization, and experience. + Try to think of a similar or related problem. + Map out your strategy with a flow chart or diagram. + Identify the appropriate analytical or computational tools needed for the solution. Step 3: Execute your strategy, and revise it if necessary. After devising a strategy, the next step is to carry it out. + Keep an organized written record of your work, which will be helpful if revisions are needed. + Double-check each step so that you do not propagate errors to the end of the solution. + Assess your strategy as you work; if you find a flaw, return to Step 2 and revise your strategy. Step 4: Check and interpret your result. It's tempting to stop after Step 3; however, the final step may be the most important. + Be sure that your result makes sense; for example, check that it has the expected units and that numerical values are sensible. + Recheck your calculations, or find an independent way of checking the result. + Check the consistency of the result by considering special or limiting cases, + Write the solution clearly and concisely. + If possible, determine other related or more general problems for which the techniques will work. ‘Mathematics in the Modern World ~ Module I"1 Strategy: GUESS & TEST “Guess and Test” is a problem-solving strategy that students can use to solve mathematical problems by guessing the answer and then checking that the guess fits the conditions of the problem. It is often one of the first strategies that students learn when solving problems. This is a flexible strategy that is often used as a starting point when solving a problem, and can be used as a safety net, when no other strategy is immediately obvious. oy F EXAMPLE. In the following cryptarithm—that is, a collection of words where the letters represent numbers—sun and fun represent two three-digit numbers, and swim is their four-digit sum. Using all of the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, and9 in place of the letters where no letter represents two different digits, determine the value of each letter. sun + fun swim Solution. Step 1. Understand the Problem Each of the letters in sun, fun, and swim must be replaced with the numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, and 9, so that a correct sum results after each letter is replaced with its associated digit. When the letter n is replaced by one of the digits, then n + n must be m or 10 +m, where the 1 in the 10 is carried to the tens column. Since 1 + 1=2,3+3=6, and 6 +6 = 12, there are three possibilities for n, namely, 1, 3, or 6. Now you can try various combinations in an attempt to obtain the correct sum. Step 2. Devise a Plan There are three choices for n. Observe that sun and fun are three-digit numbers and that swim is a four-digit number. Thus we have to carry when we add s and f. Therefore, the value for s in swim is 1, This limits the choices of n to 3 or 6. Step 3. Carry out the Plan Since s =1 and s +f leads to a two-digit number, f must be 9. Thus there are two possibilities: (a) 1u3 (b) 1u6 ® +9u3 oO + 9u6 Twié Twid ‘Mathematics in the Modern World = Module Wr12 In (a), if u= 0, 2, or 7, there is no value possible for i among the remaining digits. In (b), if u= 3, then u + u plus the carry from 6 + 6 yields i = 7. This leaves w = 0 for a solution. (by 1u6 136 + 9u6 +936 Awi2 1072 Therefore, s= 1, u=3,n=6, f=9, w=0, andi=7. Step 4. Review the Solution The reasoning used here shows that there is one and only one solution to this problem. When solving problems of this type, one could randomly substitute digits until a solution is found. However, the aforementioned answer simplifies the solution process by looking for unique aspects of the problem. Here the natural places to start are n +n, u+u, and the fact that s + f yields a two-digit number. ‘clues The Guess and Test strategy may be appropriate when: + There is a limited number of possible answers to test. + You want to gain a better understanding of the problem. + You have a good idea of what the answer is. + You can systematically try possible answers. + Your choices have been narrowed down by the use of other strategies. + There is no other obvious strategy to try. \ Strategy: USE A VARIABLE Letters used in place of numbers are called variables or unknowns. The Use a Variable strategy, which is one of the most useful problem- solving strategies, is used extensively in algebra and in mathematics that involves algebra. o My GF EXAMPLE What is the greatest number that evenly divides the sum of any three consecutive whole numbers? ‘Mathematics in the Modern World ~ ‘Module IiB Soluti n. Step 1. Understand the Problem The whole numbers are 0, 1, 2, 3... so that consecutive whole numbers differ by 1. Thus an example of three consecutive whole numbers is the triple 3, 4, and 5. Step 2. Devise a Plan Since we can use a variable, say x, to represent any whole number, we can represent every triple of consecutive whole numbers as follows: XX4 1X42. Step 3. Carry out the Plan The sum of x, x + 1, and x +2 is: X + (X41) + (x +2) = 3x +3 = 3(x+1) Thus x + (x + 1) + (x + 2) is three times x + 1. Therefore, we have shown that the sum of any three consecutive whole numbers has a factor of 3. The case of x = 0 shows that 3 is the greatest such number. Step 4. Review the Solution Is the solution correct? Does the given answer satisfy the statement of the problem? Is it also true that the sum of any five consecutive whole numbers has a factor of 5? Or, more generally, will the sum of any n consecutive whole numbers have a factor of n? ues) a. The Use a Variable strategy may be appropriate when: + A phrase similar to “for any number” is present or implied. + A problem suggests an equation. + A proof or a general solution is required. + A problem contains phrases such as “consecutive,” “even,” or “odd” whole numbers. + There are a large number of cases. + There is an unknown quantity related to known quantities. + There is an infinite number of numbers involved. + You are trying to develop a general formula. Strategy: LOOK FOR A PATTERN A Pattern constitutes a set of numbers or objects in which all the members are related with each other by a specific rule.When using the Look for a Pattern strategy, one usually lists several specific instances of a problem and then looks to see whether a pattern emerges that suggests a solution to the entire problem. Mathematics in the Modern World ‘Module I~14 o Vy Y EXAMPLE. Find the ones digit in 3°. Solution. Step 1. Understand the Problem The number 3” is the product of 99 threes. Using the exponent key on one type of scientific calculator yields the result 1.717925065””. This shows the first digit, but not the ones (last) digit, since the 47 indicates that there are 47 places to the right of the decimal Therefore, we will need to use another method. Step 2. Devise a Plan Consider 3', 3, 3°, 34, 3, 3°, 37, 3% Perhaps the ones digits of these numbers form a pattern that can be used to predict the ones digit of 3”. Step 3. Carry out the Plan 31 = 3, % = 9, 3° = 27, 34 = 81, 3° = 243, 3° = 729, 37 = 2187, 3° = 6561. The ones digits form the sequence 3, 9, 7, 1, 3, 9, 7, 1. Whenever the exponent of the 3 has a factor of 4, the ones digit is a 1. Since 100 has a factor of 4, 3 must have a ones digit of 1. Therefore, the ones digit of 3” must be 7, since 3” precedes 3 and 7 precedes 1 in the sequence 3, 9, 7, 1. Step 4. Review the Solution Ones digits of other numbers involving exponents might be found in a similar fashion. Check this for several of the numbers from 4 to 9. (tues) The Look for a Pattern strategy may be appropriate when: A list of data is given. + A sequence of numbers is involved. + Listing special cases helps you deal with complex problems. + You are asked to make a prediction or generalization. + Information can be expressed and viewed in an organized manner, such as in a table. Strategy: MAKE A LIST The Make a List strategy is often combined with the Look for a Pattern strategy to suggest a solution to a problem. For example, here is a list of all the squares of the numbers 1 to 20 with their ones digits in boldface. Mathematics in the Modern World ~ Module I15 1, 4,9, 16, 15, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100, 121, 144, 169, 196, 225, 256, 289, 324, 361, 400 The pattern in this list can be used to see that the ones digits of squares must be one of 0, 1, 4, 5, 6, or 9. This list suggests that a perfect square can never end in a2, 3, 7, or & iy F EXAMPLE. The number 10 can be expressed as the sum of four odd numbers in three ways: () 10=7 414144, (i) 10=5+3+1 44, and (ili) 10=3+3+3+1. In how many ways can 20 be expressed as the sum of eight odd numbers? Solution. Step 1. Understand the Problem Recall that the odd numbers are the numbers 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19,... Using the fact that 10 can be expressed as the sum of four odd numbers, we can form various combinations of those sums to obtain eight odd numbers whose sum is 20. But does this account for all possibilities? Step 2. Devise a Plan Instead, let’s make a list starting with the largest possible odd number in the sum and work our way down to the smallest. Step 3. Carry out the Plan 20=13+14+14+14+1414+141 20=11+3+1+1+14+1+1+1 20=9+5+141414+141+1 20=9+3+3414+14+1+141 20=7+74+14+1+14+1+141 20=7+54+3+14+14+14+1+1 20=7+34+34+34+14+1+141 20=54+54+5+14+14+14+1+1 20=5+5+34+34+14+14+1+1 20=54+34+34+34+34+141+1 20=3+3+3+3+3+3+1+1 Step 4. Review the Solution Could you have used the three sums to 10 to help find these 11 sums to 20? Can you think of similar problems to solve? For example, an easier one would be to express 8 as the sum of four odd numbers, and a Mathematics in the Modern World ~ Module I=16 more difficult one would be to express 40 as the sum of 16 odd numbers. We could also consider sums of even numbers, expressing 20 as the sum of six even numbers. ‘cLuEs) G. ~ The Make a List strategy may be appropriate when: + Information can easily be organized and presented. + Data can easily be generated. + Listing the results obtained by using Guess and Test. + Asked “in how many ways” something can be done. + Trying to learn about a collection of numbers generated by a rule or formula. Strategy: SOLVE A SIMPLER PROBLEM Like the Make a List strategy, the Solve a Simpler Problem strategy is frequently used in conjunction with the Look for a Pattern strategy. The Solve a Simpler Problem strategy involves reducing the size of the problem at hand-and making it more manageable to solve. The simpler problem is then generalized to the original problem. o Wy Y EXAMPLE. Find the sum a -O- = Solution. Step 1. Understand the Problem This problem can be solved directly by getting a common denominator, here 2", and finding the sum of the numerators. Step 2. Devise a Plan Instead of doing a direct calculation, let’s combine some previous strategies. Namely, make a list of the first few sums and look for a pattern. Step 3. Carry out the Plan ‘Mathematics in the Moder World ~ Module it7 fractions is Step 4. Review the Solution This method of combining the strategy of Solve a Simpler Problem with Make a List and Look for a Pattern is very useful. For example, what isthe sum 1 2 te +s? Because of the large denominators, you wouldn’t want to add these fractions directly. ‘c.ues) } ~ The Solve a Simpler Problem strategy may be appropriate when: + The problem involves complicated computations. + The problem involves very large or very small numbers. + A direct solution is too complex. + You want to gain a better understanding of the problem. + The problem involves a large array or diagram. BS LEARNING ACTIVITY Answer the following problems. @ 1, Place the digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 in the circles in (See (C) C) opposite figure) so that the sum of the three —~/—~/ numbers on each side of the triangle is 12. ©oe@ 2, Find the sum of the first 10, 100, and 500 counting numbers. 3. There are 20 people at a party. If each person shakes hands with each other person, how many handshakes will there be? 4, Solve this cryptarithm, where each letter represents a digit and no digit represents two different letters: USSR +USA PEACE possible? Mathematics in the Modern World ~ Module I~18 7 REFERENCES BOOKS: Briggs, William L. 2005. Ants, Bikes, and Clocks: Problem Solving for Undergraduates. Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics. Camarista, Genesis G. 2016. The Art of Problem Solving. Metro Manila: Lorimar Publishing, Inc. Musser, Gary L., Burger, William F., and Peterson, Blake E, 2011. Mathematics for Elementary Teachers, A Contemporary Approach. 9" Edition. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Rex Book Store. 2018. Mathematics in the Modern World. Philippines: Rex Book Store, Inc. ONLINE SOURCES: Annenberg - Learning. Problem Solving. Retrieved from https://www.learner.org/courses/teachingmath/gradesk_2/session_0 3/index.htmt CareerBuilder. What Are Problem-Solving Skills And Why Are They Important?. Retrieved from https: //www.careerbuilder.com/advice/what-are-problemsolving- skills-and-why-are-they-important Crossroads Academy. Solving Problems by Inductive Reasoning. Retrieved from http://www.crossroadsacademy.org/crossroads/wp- content/uploads/2016//05/Logical-Reasoning-in-Mathematics.pdf Crossroad Academy. The Art of Problem Solving. Retrieved from http: //www.crossroadsacademy.org/crossroads/wp- content /uploads/2016/ /05/Logical-Reasoning-in-Mathematics. pdf Logsdon, Ann. Concrete Reasoning Is The Foundation For Learning. Retrieved from https: //www.verywellfamily.com/concrete- reasoning-2162163 Mathematics in the Modern World