Motion Control Basics
By John Mazurkiewicz
Baldor Electric
Here are easy to follow equations for determining drive mechanics friction and inertia for any
electromechanical positioning application. Part 2 describes how to determine motor and control
requirements.
Part 1 – Drive mechanics
The first step in determining the requirements of a motion control system is to analyze the mechanics
including friction and inertia of the load to be positioned. Load friction can easily be determined either by
estimating or by simply measuring with a torque wrench.
Inertia the resistance of an object to accelerate or decelerate defines the torque required to accelerate a
load from one speed to another, but it excludes frictional forces. Inertia is calculated by analyzing the
mechanical linkage system that is to be moved. Such systems are categorized as one of four basic drive
designs: direct, gear, tangential, or leadscrew.
In the following analyses of mechanical linkage systems, the equations reflect the load parameters back to
the motor shaft. A determination of what the motor “sees” is necessary for selecting both motor and
control.
Cylinder inertia
The inertia of a cylinder can be calculated based on its weight and radius, or its density, radius, and length.
2
(1) J + WR Inertia for solid cylinder based on weight and radius.
2g
pLòR 4
(2) J + Inertia for solid cylinder based on density, radius, and length.
2g
(3) J + W (R 0 ) R i )
2 2
Inertia for hollow cylinder based on weight and radius.
2g
pLò 4 4
(4) J + (R 0 * R i ) Inertia for hollow cylinder based on density, radius, and length.
2g
With these equations, the inertia of mechanical components (such as shafts, gears, drive rollers) can be
calculated. Then, the load inertia and friction are reflected through the mechanical linkage system to
determine motor requirements.
Example: If a cylinder is a leadscrew with a radius of 0.312 in. and a length of 22 in., the inertia can be
calculated by using Table 1 and substituting in Equation (2):
pLòR 4 (p x 22 x 0.28 x 0.312) 4
J + + + 0.000237 lb–in–sec 2
2g 2 x 386
Figure 1 – Solid cylinder Figure 2 – Hollow cylinder Table 1 – Material densities
Material Density
lb per in3
Aluminum 0.096
Copper 0.322
Plastic 0.040
Steel 0.280
Wood 0.029
Direct drive
The simplest drive system is a direct drive, Figure 3. Because there are no mechanical linkages involved
the load parameters are directly transmitted to the motor. The speed of the motor is the same as that of
the load, so the load friction is the friction the motor must over come, and load inertia is what the motor
“sees.” Therefore, the total inertia is the load inertia plus the motor inertia.
(5) J t + J l ) J m
Nomenclature: e = Efficiency Nm = Number of motor gear teeth
Fl = Load force, lb ρ = Density, lb/in3
Ff = Friction force, lb P = Pitch, rev/in.
Fpf = Preload force, lb R = Radius, in.
g = Gravitational constant, 386 in./sec2 Ri = Inner radius, in.
J = Inertia, lb–in–sec2 R0 = Outer radius, in.
Jl = Load Inertia, lb–in–sec2 Si = Load speed, RPM
Jls = Leadscrew Inertia, lb–in–sec2 Sm = Motor speed, RPM
Jm = Motor Inertia, lb–in–sec2 Tf = Friction torque, lb–in
Jp = Pulley Inertia, lb–in–sec2 Tl = Load torque, lb–in
Jt = Total Inertia, lb–in–sec2 Tm = Motor torque, lb–in
L = Length, in. Tr = Torque reflected to motor, lb–in
µ = Coefficient of friction Vl = Load velocity, imp
N = Gear ratio W = Weight, lb
Nl = Number of load gear teeth Wlb = Weight of load plus belt, lb
Figure 3 – Direct drive Figure 4 – Gear drive Figure 5 – Tangential drive
Gear drive
The mechanical linkage between the load and motor in a gear drive, Figure 4, requires reflecting the load
parameters back to the motor shaft. As with any speed changing system, the load inertia reflected back to
the motor is a squared function of the speed ratio.
Motor speed:
Sl x Nl
(6) S m + S l x N or (7) S m +
Nm
Motor torque:
Tl
(8) T m +
Ne
Reflected load inertia:
Jl
(9) J r +
N2
Total inertia at motor:
Jl
(10) J t + ) Jm
N2
Example: To calculate the reflected inertia for a 6 lb, solid cylinder with a 4 in. diameter, connected through
a 3:1 gear set, first use Equation (1) to determine the load inertia.
2 6 x (2) 2
J + WR + + 0.031 lb–in–sec 2
2g 2 x 386
To reflect this inertia through the gear set to the motor, substitute in Equation (9).
Jl
Jr + + 0.031 + 0.0034 lb–in–sec 2
N2 32
For accuracy, the inertia of the gears should be included when determining total inertia. This value can be
obtained from literature or calculated using the equations for the inertia of a cylinder. Gearing efficiencies
should also be considered when calculating required torque values.
Tangential drive
Consisting of a timing belt and pulley, chain and sprocket, or rack and pinion, a tangential drive, Figure 5,
also requires reflecting load parameters back to the motor shaft.
Motor speed:
Vl
(11) S m +
2pR
Load torque:
(12) T l + F l R
Friction torque:
(13) T f + F f R
Load inertia:
W lbR 2
(14) J + g
Total inertia:
W lbR 2
(15) J t + g ) Jp1 ) Jp2 ) Jm
Example: A belt and pulley arrangement will be moving a weight of 10 lb. The pulleys are hollow cylinders,
5 lb each, with an outer radius of 2.5 in. and an inner radius of 2.3 in.
To calculate the inertial for a hollow, cylindrical pulley, substitute in Equation (3):
J p + W (R 0 ) R i ) +
2 2 5 (2.5 2 ) 2.3 2) + 0.0747 lb–in–sec 2
2g 2 x 286
Substitute in Equation (14) to determine load inertia:
2 10(2.5) 2
J l + WR
g + 386 + 0.1619 lb– in – sec
2
Total inertia reflected to the motor shaft is the sum of the two pulley inertias plus the load inertia:
J + J l ) J p 1 ) J p 2 + 0.1619 ) 0.0747 ) 0.0747 + 0.3113 lb–in–sec 2
Also, the inertia of pulleys, sprockets or pinion gears must be included to determine the total inertia.
Leadscrew drive
Illustrated in Figure 6, a leadscrew drive also requires reflecting the load parameters back to the motor.
Both the leadscrew and the load inertia have to be considered. If a leadscrew inertia is not readily
available, the equation for a cylinder may be used. For precision positioning, the leadscrew may be
preloaded to eliminate or reduce backlash. Such preload torque can be significant and must be included,
as must leadscrew efficiency.
Figure 6 – Leadscrew
Load
Motor Coupling Lead Screw
Pitch=Rev/Inch
Motor speed:
(16) S m + V l x P
Load torque reflected to motor:
Fl F pf
(17) T r + 1 ) 1 xm
2p Pe 2p P
For typical values of leadscrew efficiency (e) and coefficient of friction (µ), see Tables 2 and 3.
Friction force:
(18) F f + m x W ) cos f ) W sin f
Friction torque:
Ff
(19) T f + 1
2p Pe
Total inertia:
ǒ2pp1 Ǔ ) J
2
(20) J t + W
g ls ) Jm
Example: A 200 lb load is positioned by a 44 in. long leadscrew with a 0.5 in. radius and a 5 rev/in. pitch.
The reflected load inertia is:
ǒ Ǔ ǒ Ǔ
2 2
Jl + W 1
g 2pP + 200 1 + 0.00052 lb–in–sec 2
386 2p5
Leadscrew inertia is based on the equation for inertia of a cylinder:
pLòR 4
+ p x 44 x 0.28 x 0.5 + 0.00313 lb–in–sec 2
4
J ls +
2g 2 x 386
Total inertia to be connected to the motor shaft is:
J + J l ) J ls + 0.00052 ) 0.00313 + 0.00365 lb–in–sec 2
Table 2 – Typical leadscrew efficiencies Table 3 – Leadscrew coefficients of friction
Type Efficiency Material Coefficient
Ball nut 0.90 Steel on steel (dry) 0.58
ACME (plastic nut) 0.65 Steel on steel (lubricated) 0.15
ACME (metal nut) 0.40 Teflon on steel 0.04
Ball bushing 0.003
Part 2 – Motor and Control Selection
In this part, we show you how to use the previous information on drive mechanics to easily determine the
right motor and control for any electromechanical positioning application.
Once the mechanics of the application have been analyzed, and the friction and inertia of the load are
known, the next step is to determine the torque levels required. Then, a motor can be sized to deliver the
required torque and the control sized to power the motor. If friction and inertia are not properly determined,
the motion system will either take too long to position the load, it will burn out, or it will be unnecessarily
costly.
Motion control
In a basic motion control system, Figure 7, the load represents the mechanics being positioned. The load
is coupled or connected through one of the mechanical linkages described in Part 1.
The motor may be a traditional PMDC servo motor, a vector motor, or a brushless servo motor. Motor
starting, stopping and speed are dictated by the control (or amplifier), which takes a low level incoming
command signal and amplifies it to a higher power level for driving the motor.
The programmable motion controller is the brain of the motion system. The motion controller is
programmed to accomplish a specific task for a given application. This controller reads a feedback signal
to monitor the position of the load. By comparing a preprogrammed, “desired” position with the feedback
“actual” position, the controller can take action to minimize an error between the actual and desired load
positions.
Figure 7 – Basic motion system
User
Interface
AC Power
Motion control system
Power
Supply
Programmable Control
Motion (Amplifier)
Controller
Motor Load
Position and speed feedback Encoder or resolver
Nomenclature: αacc = Rotary acceleration, radians/sec2 tacc = Acceleration time, sec
Iacc = Current during acceleration, A tdec = Deceleration time, sec
IRMS = Root–mean–squared current, A tidle = Idle time, sec
Jls = Leadscrew inertia, lb–in–sec2 trun = Run time, sec
Jm = Motor inertia, lb–in–sec2 T = Torque, lb–in
Jt = Total inertia (load plus motor), lb–in–sec2 Tacc = Acceleration torque, lb–in
Kt = Torque constant, lb–in/A Tdec = Deceleration torque, lb–in
P = Total power, W Tf = Friction torque, lb–in
Pdel = Power delivered to the load, W TRMS = Root–mean–squared torque, lb–in
Pdiss = Power (heat) dissipated by the motor, W Trun = Running torque, lb–in
Rm = Motor resistance, ohms Ts = Stall torque, lb–in
Sm = Motor speed, RPM
Move profile
A move profile defines the desired acceleration rate, run time, speed, and deceleration rate of the load.
For example, suppose with a system at rest (time=0, Figure 8), the motion controller issues a command to
the motor (through the control) to start motion. At t=0, with full power supply voltage and current applied,
the motor has not yet started to move. At this instant, there is no feedback signal, but the error signal is
large.
Figure 8 – Move profile
Speed (RPM)
2,000
time, seconds
0.12 0.12 0.12 0.3
Acceleration Run Deceleration Idle
t=0 t=1
As friction and torque are overcome, the motor and load begin to accelerate. As the motor approaches the
commanded speed, the error signal is reduced and, in turn, voltage applied to the motor is reduced. As the
system stabilizes at running speed, only nominal power (voltage and current) are required to overcome
friction. At t=1, the load approaches the desired position and begins to decelerate.
In applications with similar move profiles, most of the input energy is dissipated as heat. Therefore, in such
systems, the motor’s power dissipation capacity is the limiting factor. Thus, basic motor dynamics and
power requirements must be determined to ensure adequate power capability for each motor.
Determining acceleration rate is the first step. For example, with a movement profile as shown in Figure 8,
the acceleration rate can be determined from the speed and acceleration time. (Dividing the motor speed
expressed in RPM by 9.55 converts the speed to radians per second.)
Sm 2000
(21) a acc + + + 1745.2 rad.ńsec 2
9.55t acc 9.55 x 0.12
Acceleration torque
The torque required to accelerate the load and overcome mechanical friction is:
(22) T acc + J t(a acc) ) T f
(23) T acc + (J t ) J ls ) J m)(a acc) ) T f
Example: Our application requires moving a load with a leadscrew, Figure 6.
The load parameters are:
Weight of load (Wlb) = 200 lb leadscrew inertia (Jls) = 0.00313 lb–in–sec2, friction torque (Tf) = 0.95 lb–in
acceleration rate (αacc) =1745.2 rad./ sec2.
Typical motor parameters are:
Motor inertia (Jm) = 0.0037 lb–in–s2, continuous stall torque (Ts) = 14.4 lb–in, torque constant (Kt) = 4.8
lb–in/A and motor resistance (Rm) = 4.5 ohms.
Acceleration torque can be determined by substituting in Equation (23)
Tacc = (.00052 +.00313 +.0037)1745.2 + 0.95 = 13.77 lb–in.
Duty cycle torque
In addition to acceleration torque, the motor must be able to provide sufficient torque over the entire duty
cycle or move profile. This includes a certain amount of constant torque during the run phase, and a
deceleration torque during the stopping phase. Running torque is equal to friction torque (Tf), in this case,
0.95 lb–in During the stopping phase, deceleration torque is:
(24) T dec + * J t(a acc) ) T f + * (.00052 + .00313 + .0037)1745.2 ) 0.95 + –11.87 lb–in
Now, the root mean squared (RMS) value of torque required over the move profile can be calculated:
(25) T RMS + Ǹ 2 2 2
T acc (t acc) ) T run (t run) ) T dec (t dec)
t acc ) t run ) t dec ) t idle
+ Ǹ
(13.77) 2(.12) ) (.95) 2(.12) ) (11.87) 2(.12)
.12 + .12 + .12 + .3
+ 7.75 lb–in
The motor selected for this application can supply a continuous stall torque of 14.4 lb–in, which is adequate
for the application.
Control requirements
Determining a suitable control (amplifier) is the next step. The control must be able to supply sufficient
accelerating current (Iacc), as well as continuous current (IRMS) for the application’s duty cycle requirements.
Required acceleration current that must be supplied to the motor is:
T acc
(26) I acc + + 13.77 + 2.86A
Kt 4.8
Current over the duty cycle, which the control must be able to supply to the motor, is:
T RMS
(27) I RMS + + 7.75 + 1.61A
Kt 4.8
Power requirements
The control must supply sufficient power for both the acceleration portion of the movement profile, as well
as for the overall duty cycle requirements. The two aspects of power requirements include:
S Power to move the load, “Pdel” and
S Power losses dissipated in the motor, “Pdiss”.
Power delivered to move the load is:
T(S m)(746)
(28) P del +
63, 025
Power dissipated in the motor is a function of the motor current. Thus, during acceleration, the value
depends on the acceleration current (Iacc); and while running, it is a function on the RMS current (IRMS).
Therefore, the appropriate value is used in place of “I” in the following equation.
(29) P diss + I 2(R m)
The sum of these “Pdel” and “Pdiss” determine total power requirements.
Example: Power required during the acceleration portion of the movement profile can be obtained by
substituting in Equations (8) and (9):
13.77(2, 000)
P del + (746) + 325W
63, 025
P diss + (2.86) 2(4.5)(1.5) + 55W
P + P del ) P diss + 325 ) 55 + 380W
Note: The factor of 1.5 in the Pdiss calculation is a factor used to make the motor’s winding resistance “hot.”
This is a worst case analysis, assuming the winding is at 155 °C.
Continuous power required for the duty cycle is:
7.75(2, 000)
P del + (746) + 183W
63, 025
P diss + (1.61) 2(4.5)(1.5) + 17W
P + P del ) P diss + 183 ) 17 + 200W
Summary
The control selected must be capable of delivering (as a minimum) an acceleration (or peak) current of
2.86 A, and a continuous (or RMS) current of 1.61 A. The power requirement calls for peak power of 380
W and continuous power of 200 W.
To aid in selecting both motors and controls (amplifiers), many suppliers offer computer software programs
to perform the iterative calculations necessary to obtain the optimum motor and control.
