BS 6349-5:2016

BSI Standards Publication

Maritime works –
Part 5: Code of practice for dredging
and land reclamation
BS 6349-5:2016 BRITISH STANDARD

Publishing and copyright information

The BSI copyright notice displayed in this document indicates when the document
was last issued.
© The British Standards Institution 2016
Published by BSI Standards Limited 2016
ISBN 978 0 580 86795 8
ICS 47.020.99; 93.140
The following BSI references relate to the work on this document:
Committee reference CB/502
Draft for comment 16/30302061 DC

Publication history
First published May 1991
Second (present) edition December 2016

Amendments issued since publication

Date Text affected
BRITISH STANDARD BS 6349-5:2016

Contents
Foreword v
1 Scope 1
2 Normative references 1
3 Terms and definitions 2
4 Planning of dredging works 4
4.1 Main components 5
4.2 Project planning 5
4.3 Procurement of services 7
4.4 Engineering performance criteria 8
5 Dredging environmental design 14
5.1 General 14
5.2 Sustainable development 14
5.3 Potential impacts 16
5.4 Environmental design process 16
5.5 Use of numerical models for impact prediction 18
5.6 Minimizing environmental impact 19
5.7 Environmental monitoring design 21
6 Site investigation and data collection 24
6.1 General 25
6.2 Geotechnical investigations 26
6.3 Geophysical investigations 30
6.4 Unexploded ordnance (UXO) investigations 31
6.5 Hydrographic surveys 31
6.6 Metocean data collection 33
6.7 Environmental surveys 33
6.8 The human environment 36
7 Dredging plant selection 38
7.1 General 39
7.2 Characteristics of hydraulic dredging plant 40
7.3 Mechanical dredgers 51
7.4 Dredger selection 58
8 Maintenance dredging 62
8.1 General 62
8.2 Plant for maintenance dredging 62
8.3 Infill calculation 62
8.4 Design and planning of maintenance dredging 63
8.5 Methodology 63
8.6 Frequency of maintenance dredging 64
8.7 Soil density and maintenance dredging 64
8.8 Alternative and supplementary strategies 65
8.9 Disposal of material 65
9 Capital dredging 66
9.1 General 66
9.2 Capital dredging plant 66
9.3 Debris 66
9.4 Particular geotechnical conditions 66
9.5 Dredging of naturally well-graded sands 68
10 Rock dredging 68
10.1 General 69
10.2 Direct dredging 69
10.3 Plant for rock dredging 69
10.4 Dredging pre-treated rock 71

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10.5 Pre-treatment 72
10.6 Surface blasting 73
10.7 Drilling and blasting 74
10.8 Explosives and initiating systems 79
11 Dredging of materials for reuse 80
11.1 Marine borrow area development 80
11.2 Extraction of materials for aggregates 80
11.3 Land-sourced borrow and quarry development 81
12 Disposal, displacement and beneficial use of dredged material 82
12.1 General 82
12.2 Sediment constituents 83
12.3 Beneficial use 84
12.4 Disposal at sea 84
12.5 Displacement 85
13 Reclamation 88
13.1 Reclamation performance criteria 88
13.2 Site preparation 89
13.3 Placing of land-sourced fills 90
13.4 Use of rockfill 91
13.5 Bunds, revetments and breakwaters 91
13.6 Geotextile containers 93
13.7 Beach and foreshore recharge 95
14 Ground treatment 99
14.1 General 99
14.2 Types of ground treatment 100
14.3 Design process 103
14.4 Performance monitoring 106
15 Management and supervision 107
15.1 Project management 107
15.2 Execution planning phase 107
15.3 Mobilization phase 108
15.4 Early works and site preparation phase 109
15.5 Works implementation phase 109
15.6 Supervision 110
15.7 Health and safety 111
15.8 Environmental 111
15.9 Quality, documentation and reporting 111
15.10 Progress reporting 112
15.11 Site positioning and control 112
15.12 Measurement and testing against design 112
15.13 Dredged area quality control 114
15.14 Bar sweeps 114
15.15 Reclamation quality control 114
15.16 Demobilization phase 115
Annexes
Annex A (informative) Seismic geophysical investigation techniques 118
Bibliography 120
List of figures
Figure 1 – Scheme environmental design process 17
Figure 2 – Mitigation hierarchy 19
Figure 3 – Modern trailing suction hopper dredger 40
Figure 4 – Modern large cutter suction dredger fitted with submerged ladder
pump and spud carriage 42
Figure 5 – Rock cutters 45
Figure 6 – Dustpan dredger with suction head arrangement 46

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BRITISH STANDARD BS 6349-5:2016

Figure 7 – Water injection dredging (WID) 47

Figure 8 – Illustration of jet pump with suction intake incorporating water
jetting arrangement 49
Figure 9 – Illustration of air lift principle 50
Figure 10 – Small self-propelled grab hopper dredger with single crane 51
Figure 11 – Large grab pontoon dredger with all winch mooring system 53
Figure 12 – Hydraulic backhoe dredger 55
Figure 13 – Deployment method for bed leveller and typical bed leveller
assembly 57
Figure 14 – Typical over-side three-tower floating drilling pontoon with winch
location 75
Figure 15 – Self elevating H configuration drilling platform 76
Figure 16 – Common pre-treatment drilling patterns and terminology 77
Figure 17 – Example of the need to extend drilling and pre-treatment beyond
the depth and extent of required dredging 78
Figure 18 – Illustration of sequence of the overburden drilling method 78
Figure 19 – Reclamation – Typical edge details 92
Figure 20 – Long section showing geotextile tube being filled, inlet at left with
two vents towards the right-hand end 93
Figure 21 – Typical section of a geotextile tube with two flaps forming scour
aprons 93
Figure 22 – Geometric properties of a geotextile tube 94
Figure 23 – Typical arrangements for placing geotextile tubes 94
Figure 24 – Example grading envelope with examples of acceptable and
unacceptable sediments 97
Figure 25 – Vibro equipment working off barges/pontoons during a reclamation
project 104
Figure 26 – Range of soils suitable for treatment by vibrocompaction and vibro
stone column techniques 105
List of tables
Table 1 – Maintenance dredging – General performance criteria 9
Table 2 – General capital dredging – General performance criteria 9
Table 3 – Capital dredging for navigation – Performance criteria 10
Table 4 – Capital dredging for foundations – Performance criteria 10
Table 5 – Capital dredging for pipe trenches – Performance criteria 10
Table 6 – Dredging for seabed materials – Performance criteria 11
Table 7 – Disposal of excess materials – Performance criteria 11
Table 8 – Reclamation – Performance criteria 12
Table 9 – Typical working vertical accuracy for dredging plant under various site
conditions 13
Table 10 – Sampling and investigation methods for dredging purposes 28
Table 11 – Guidance on the selection of plant for maintenance dredging 59
Table 12 – Guidance on the selection of plant for capital dredging 60
Table 13 – Guidance on the selection of plant for land reclamation and beach
recharge 61
Table 14 – Characteristics of dredgers able to dredge some rocks without
pre-treatment 71
Table 15 – Optimum fragmentation and bulking of rock normally required to
allow satisfactory dredging 72
Table 16 – Geometric properties of geotextile tubes based on the diameter of
the basic geotextile tube 94
Table 17 – Beach slope – Approximate sediment size trends for natural
beaches 97

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Table 18 – Overview of reclamation properties to be measured and monitored

during construction 116
Table A.1 – Indicative penetration depths for a range of soils 119

Summary of pages
This document comprises a front cover, an inside front cover, pages i to vi,
pages 1 to 122, an inside back cover and a back cover.

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BRITISH STANDARD BS 6349-5:2016

Foreword
Publishing information
This part of BS 6349 is published by BSI Standards Limited, under licence from
The British Standards Institution, and came into effect on 31 December 2016.
It was prepared by Technical Committee CB/502, Maritime works. A list of
organizations represented on this committee can be obtained on request to its
secretary.

Supersession
This part of BS 6349 supersedes BS 6459-5:1991, which is withdrawn.

Relationship with other publications

BS 6349 is published in the following parts:
• Part 1-1: General – Code of practice for planning and design for operations;
• Part 1-2: General – Code of practice for assessment of actions;
• Part 1-3: General – Code of practice for geotechnical design;
• Part 1-4: General – Code of practice for materials;
• Part 2: Code of practice for the design of quay walls, jetties and dolphins;
• Part 3: Design of dry docks, locks, slipways and shipbuilding berths, shiplifts
and dock and lock gates;
• Part 4: Code of practice for design of fendering and mooring systems;
• Part 5: Code of practice for dredging and land reclamation;
• Part 6: Design of inshore moorings and floating structures;
• Part 7: Guide to the design and construction of breakwaters;
• Part 8: Code of practice for the design of Ro-Ro ramps, linkspans and
walkways.
This part of BS 6349 is related to prEN 16907-6, which is currently in preparation.

Information about this document

This is a full revision of the standard, and introduces the following principal
changes:
• substantial changes to reflect scientific and technological advances
since 1991;
• changes to take into account new and revised legislation;
• restructure of text to better facilitate use of the standard;
• changes for consistency with the updated suite of BS 6349 standards that
have been revised to take account of Eurocodes.

Use of this document

As a code of practice, this part of BS 6349 takes the form of guidance and
recommendations. It should not be quoted as if it were a specification and
particular care should be taken to ensure that claims of compliance are not
misleading.
Any user claiming compliance with this part of BS 6349 is expected to be able to
justify any course of action that deviates from its recommendations.

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BS 6349-5:2016 BRITISH STANDARD

Presentational conventions
The provisions of this standard are presented in roman (i.e. upright) type.
Its recommendations are expressed in sentences in which the principal auxiliary
verb is “should”.
Commentary, explanation and general informative material is presented in
smaller italic type, and does not constitute a normative element.
Where words have alternative spellings, the preferred spelling of the Shorter
Oxford English Dictionary is used (e.g. ”organization” rather than
“organisation”).

Contractual and legal considerations

This publication does not purport to include all the necessary provisions of a
contract. Users are responsible for its correct application.
Compliance with a British Standard cannot confer immunity from legal
obligations.

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BRITISH STANDARD BS 6349-5:2016

1 Scope
This part of BS 6349 gives recommendations for dredging and land reclamation
works.
In addition, this part of BS 6349 outlines environmental assessment procedures
and criteria in relation to the UK that are considered illustrative of similar good
practice in many international jurisdictions.

2 Normative references
The following documents, in whole or in part, are normatively referenced in this
document and are indispensable for its application. For dated references, only
the edition cited applies. For undated references, the latest edition of the
referenced document (including any amendments) applies.

Standards publications
ASTM D1586, Standard test method for standard penetration test (SPT) and
split-barrel sampling of soils
ASTM D2167, Standard test method for density and unit weight of soil in place
by the rubber balloon method
ASTM D2488, Standard practice for description and identification of soils
(visual-manual procedure)
ASTM D4253, Standard test methods for maximum index density and unit
weight of soils using a vibratory table
ASTM D4254, Standard test methods for minimum index density and unit weight
of soils and calculation of relative density
ASTM D7382, Standard test methods for determination of maximum dry unit
weight and water content range for effective compaction of granular soils using
a vibrating hammer
BS 1377 (all parts), Methods for test for soils for civil engineering purposes
BS 5607, Code of practice for the safe use of explosives in the construction
industry
BS 5930:2015, Code of practice for ground investigations
BS 6031, Code of practice for earthworks
BS 6349-1-1, Maritime works – Part 1-1: General – Code of practice for planning
and design for operations 1)
BS EN 933-3, Tests for geometrical properties of aggregates –
Part 3: Determination of particle shape – Flakiness index
BS EN 933-4, Tests for geometrical properties of aggregates –
Part 4: Determination of particle shape – Shape index
BS EN 1997-1:2004+A1:2013, Eurocode 7 – Geotechnical design – Part 1: General
rules
BS EN ISO 22476 (all parts), Geotechnical investigation and testing – Field testing

Other publications
[N1]PIANC MARCOM WORKING GROUP 144. Classification of soils and rocks for
the maritime dredging process. PIANC Report No. 144. Brussels: PIANC, 2016.

1)
This part of BS 6349 gives informative references to BS 6349-1-1:2013.

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BS 6349-5:2016 BRITISH STANDARD

3 Terms and definitions

For the purposes of this part of BS 6349, the following terms and definitions
apply.

3.1 agitation dredging

practice of moving sediment from the seabed and into suspension for dispersion
by local currents

3.2 beneficial use

use of dredged material for a useful purpose such as: engineering;
environmental enhancement or compensation; agricultural purposes; or the
manufacture of products

3.3 borrow area

source of the excavated or dredged fill material

3.4 bucket capacity

maximum volume of bucket when filled to the level of the cutting edge

3.5 bulking factor

factor representing the increase in volume of dredged material relative to its
in-situ volume before dredging

3.6 capital dredging

excavation of bed material underwater from an area never previously dredged
or not dredged for a very long period of time

3.7 capping (above water)

use of a compacted fill layer to cover the surface of reclamation fill above water
to protect against deterioration, erosion from flowing water and wind

3.8 capping (underwater)

use of a clean dredged material as cover for contaminated bed material or
dredged material placed underwateras a means of isolating the contaminated
material from the marine/aquatic environment

3.9 competent person

person suitably trained and qualified by knowledge and practical experience,
and provided with the necessary instructions, to enable the required task(s) to
be carried out correctly

3.10 confined disposal

deposition of dredged material which cannot be used, at a site (below water or
on land) which is constrained to prevent lateral displacement (escape) of the
materials

3.11 confined disposal facility

area for containing dredged sediments which prevents the material’s lateral or
vertical displacement (escape) either during or after the material’s movement
into the facility

3.12 dredged level/depth

3.12.1 design dredged level

level defined by the designer to achieve the function of the works

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3.12.2 maintained depth

minimum depth targeted taking into account all factors related to the seabed
including siltation, usually for navigational purposes

3.12.3 maximum dredged level

maximum acceptable depth below design depth

3.12.4 minimum dredged level

minimum acceptable depth above design depth

3.13 diffuser
device placed at the outlet of a discharge pipeline to reduce the velocity of
outflow and to reduce turbulence, by spreading or splitting the flow

3.14 displacement
transport of dredged material at or near seabed level

3.15 disposal
deposition of excess dredged material that cannot be reused for any other
purpose

3.16 draught
vertical distance from the vessel waterline to the deepest point on the keel

3.17 dredger
plant used for excavating or moving rock or soil under water

3.18 dredging
excavating or moving soil or rock underwater by dredger

3.19 fines
silt and clay soil fraction with a particle size less than 0.063 mm

3.20 ground treatment

enhancement of ground properties, principally by stiffening or strengthening
processes and compaction or densification mechanisms to achieve a specific
geotechnical performance

3.21 haul distance

one way distance that a vessel has to travel from the dredging location to a
placement area

3.22 hopper capacity

maximum volume that the hopper, on hopper dredgers or hopper barges, can
contain

3.23 in-situ density

unit mass of bottom materials in their undredged undisturbed state

3.24 land reclamation

process of creating new land from the sea, other masses of water, and areas
subject to inundation, by the raising of land levels primarily using materials
recovered by dredging processes

3.25 maintenance dredging

dredging of a site which has previously been dredged to remove sediment
deposits that have reduced the depth that existed previously

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BS 6349-5:2016 BRITISH STANDARD

NOTE Maintenance dredging is most frequently undertaken for the purposes of

maintaining an adequate water depth for safe navigation and also for maintaining
water circulation and flow regimes in water bodies such as rivers, channels, lakes
and at intakes.

3.26 nautical bottom

level where physical characteristics of the bottom of a navigation channel or
ship manoeuvring area reach a critical limit beyond which contact with a ship’s
keel causes either damage or unacceptable effects on controllability and
manoeuvrability
[SOURCE: BS 6349-1-1:2013, 3.1.28]

3.27 nautical depth

instantaneous and local vertical distance between the nautical bottom and the
undisturbed free water surface
[SOURCE: BS 6349-1-1:2013, 3.1.29]

3.28 over-dredging
dredging of material below the deeper tolerance limit on the design dredged
level

3.29 placement
placing of dredged material in reclamation or deposition of dredged material

3.30 seabed
ground at the bottom of the water column in any mass of water
NOTE This includes the bed of harbours, estuaries, rivers, lakes and similar masses
of water.

3.31 siltation
process of deposition of sediments onto the seabed under water

3.32 spud
vertically moveable post planted into the seabed for holding a vessel in position

3.33 vacuum consolidation

applying a vacuum to increase the effective stress of soil by reducing pore
pressure to accelerate consolidation

3.34 water injection dredging

practice of applying water jets under pressure into bottom sediments to cause a
dense fluid flow close to the bed as a density current

4 Planning of dredging works

COMMENTARY ON CLAUSE 4
Dredging schemes include:
• maintenance dredging;
• capital dredging;
• dredging for seabed material;
• disposal of excess material;
• reclamation.
Dredging for reclamation by hydraulic means is covered by prEN 16907-6.

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4.1 Main components

COMMENTARY ON 4.1
The main operations in executing dredging works are:
• excavation of bed material;
• transport of material;
• deposition of bed materials, either in land reclamation or for other beneficial
use such as beach nourishment, or in disposing of excess/unsuitable material.
When dredging works are formulated, the interrelation between these
operations should be assessed in conjunction with the mass balance between the
materials borrowed, dredged, deposited in placement areas and released into
the water column or onto the sea bed through the whole cycle of excavation,
transportation and deposition activities.
Planning and design should take into account that the main operations of
execution (excavation, transport and deposition) are connected:
• maintenance dredging and capital dredging require areas for the placement
of removed and excess materials;
• dredging for materials requires borrow areas and might also require areas
for placement of unsuitable materials;
• phasing of the works might require use of temporary intermediate locations
for temporary storage of excavated materials;
• dredging can be undertaken to provide adequate depths for access to
reclamation sites, and can also be required to prepare (improve) sea bed
conditions at reclamation sites in preparation for the placement of material;
• dredging equipment and support vessels require locations to moor, bunker
and transfer personnel.
At the start of the planning phase, the function of the works should be clearly
defined and appropriate performance criteria set, including environmental
design and performance requirements, to ensure that:
• the dredging and reclamation works fulfil their intended function;
• environmental constraints and requirements are taken into account from
the earliest stage of project planning and procurement.
NOTE Recommendations on operational considerations for planning and design of
maritime works are included in BS 6349-1-1.

4.2 Project planning

NOTE 1 The lead time for planned dredging projects, particularly capital works, can
be substantial.
The scheduling of a dredging project should typically go through the following
phases:
a) planning:
1) define project function (use of the works), such as navigation channel,
reclamation, coastal protection, port or shore approach for submarine
pipeline or intake;
2) identify licensing requirements, environmental requirements
[e.g. environmental impact assessment (EIA)] and functional
requirements such as water depth, load capacity and settlement criteria;

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3) identify performance requirements:

i) engineering performance criteria;
ii) environmental performance criteria, that focus on sustainable
designs and “win-win” solutions;
NOTE 2 Further information is given in the PIANC Position Paper Working with
nature [1].
4) establish boundary and baseline conditions necessary for engineering
design and environmental design and impact assessments:
i) metocean data;
ii) geotechnical conditions;
iii) ecosystems and other sensitive receptors;
iv) engage stakeholders;
v) risks and hazards;
vi) sediment transport assessment;
vii) potential effects on the shoreline evolution of the surrounding
area;
b) concept design:
1) initial feasibility and concept design, looking for “win-wins” between
infrastructure and the environment;
2) final decision to execute based on the aspects below:
i) financial;
ii) technical;
iii) environmental;
c) detailed design:
1) detailed design and engineering including site-specific data acquisition
and detailed planning for execution, in which the level of definition is
sufficient for construction;
2) finalize environmental design and complete EIA;
3) obtain pre-construction final consents and approvals;
d) execution:
1) implementation and construction of dredging or reclamation project;
e) operation and maintenance:
1) operational use of the completed maritime works by user, operator or
owner, and planned and unplanned inspection, and maintenance,
including maintenance dredging.
The design should be developed cyclically in progressive detail by repeating
phases a) to c) until a feasible project is developed.
The process for obtaining consents and approvals should be commenced as soon
as the scheme is sufficiently defined, so that as far as possible all permissions are
obtained prior to construction. The responsibility for obtaining consents and
approvals should be clearly defined and should be allocated to the party most
capable of obtaining the consent, taking into account the project timetable.

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During the project development, data collection and field investigations should
be carried out for both the environmental and the engineering assessments.
The extent and need for such investigation should be determined as early in the
process as possible, and an appropriate schedule established so that the project
timescale can be identified and the consequences understood.
Field work timing and durations should take account of seasonal restrictions
including:
• weather windows;
• seasonal sea conditions, particularly during winter field work;
• ecological concerns:
• migration patterns;
• breeding seasons;
• leisure activities:
• bathing water season;
• boating;
• commercial restrictions:
• fishing seasons.
For capital works, an EIA is generally required and sometimes for non-routine
maintenance dredging. The time taken for the EIA process and public and
stakeholder consultation should be included in the project programme and can
be a cause of considerable delay, even when undertaken diligently.
NOTE 3 On major projects the overall lead in time can exceed a year or more.
To minimize the risk and uncertainty the procedures described above should be
completed as far as practical before inviting tenders for the work, and
particularly before the commencement of the works, noting that the final
design can be the responsibility of the contractor under certain forms of
contract.
NOTE 4 The more tenderers understand the scope and physical constraints, the
lower the risk.

4.3 Procurement of services

Dredging is a specialist activity, and specialist advice should be sought when
procuring dredging and reclamation services. Contracts, specifications and
methods of measurement should each be carefully drafted by an appropriately
experienced person.
Procurement documents should include as a minimum:
• a description of the project to be carried out, as well as a clear definition of
the scope of the required services;
• the functional requirements of the end product, e.g. airport, port, housing;
• a definition of horizontal and vertical site datums, and respective survey
grid;
• a coordinated plan of works area, and site boundaries both on land and
at sea;
• the performance requirements, e.g. dredge (depth) tolerances in the case of
capital and maintenance dredging, and particle size distribution in the case
of aggregate dredging (many other potential criteria also exist; see 4.4);
• responsibility for and scope of final design;

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• the time frame in which the project is to be delivered, with milestones as

required;
• the likelihood of changes in requirements or externally enforced changes;
• any constraints, conditions, boundaries or responsibilities relating to the
works in question (e.g. in relation to licences and permissions, navigation,
safety);
• the allocation of risk (e.g. delays, unforeseen events) between the
contracting parties, together with associated conditions of contract;
• a measurement system that reliably and transparently shows how much
work has been done and what payment is due;
• the course of action to be followed in the event of problems arising;
• definition of payment terms and other relevant financial matters;
• information required for the management of environmental impact and
safety during the project, including the need for method statements and a
hazard identification (HAZID) workshop.
The measurement and payment system should take great care to define the
design level, such that the design dredged level is properly differentiated from
the maintained and nautical depths, taking account of the expected dredging
tolerances. This is particularly important where a thin layer of material has to be
removed to achieve a navigational depth, such that the over-dredged volume
risks being a very large proportion of the net dredged volume.
NOTE Engineering performance criteria are addressed in 4.4 and environmental
issues in Clause 5.

4.4 Engineering performance criteria

COMMENTARY ON 4.4
This subclause identifies the typical performance criteria for dredging and
reclamation projects based on the requirements for anticipated use.
Environmental performance criteria are covered in Clause 5.

4.4.1 General
The engineering performance criteria should be set to ensure that when
achieved the dredging scheme is suitable for the intended function.
The performance criteria depend upon the actual nature of the site and the
requirements of each project and so the guidelines provided here should be
taken as indicative and not exhaustive.

4.4.2 Maintenance dredging

Maintenance dredging should be undertaken to restore the bed to the original
design level required to meet the performance criteria for the original project,
or such other criteria that fulfil the current function of the project, as given
in 4.4.3 to 4.4.6.
NOTE The general performance criteria for maintenance dredging are given
in Table 1.

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Table 1 Maintenance dredging – General performance criteria

Parameters Performance criteria

Extent of works Define the limits and extent of works areas required to re-establish
depth to fulfil current requirements
Extent of dredged area Define area where to re-establish depth required to fulfil function and
to extent required
Minimum dredged level Re-establish depth or lesser depth required to fulfil function required
Maximum dredge level Maintain acceptable long term stability of side slope and/or edges
Maximum over-dredge Limit to ensure stable slope and edge structure stability and to avoid
deeper than tolerance excessive over-dredging
Over-dredge rectification Identify rectification measures-to restore stable slopes and bed levels if
needed
Vessel impact protection Maintain safe navigational distance to protect structures (such as quay
walls and jetties) from vessel impact
Structural stability Maintain safe depth to protect structures (such as quay walls and jetties)
from undermining
Side slopes angle Ensure stable side slopes
Limit erosion
Design for material and seismic/non-seismic conditions

4.4.3 Capital dredging

The performance criteria for capital dredging vary with the function of the
project. The typical performance criteria given in the relevant table for the
following types of capital dredging project should be taken into account when
identifying the performance requirements of a specific project:
• general dredging (Table 2);
• navigation depths and channels (Table 3);
• foundations (Table 4);
• pipe trenches (Table 5).

Table 2 General capital dredging – General performance criteria

Parameters Performance criteria

Extent of works Define the limits and extent of areas required for the works
Extent of dredged area See specific criteria in Table 3 to Table 5
Minimum dredged level Set to achieve design dredged level
Maximum dredge level Maintain acceptable long term stability of side slope and/or edges
Maximum over-dredge Limit to ensure stable slope and edge structure stability and to avoid
deeper than tolerance excessive over-dredging
Vessel impact protection Maintain safe navigational distance to protect structures (such as quay
walls and jetties) from vessel impact
Structural stability Maintain safe depth to protect structures (such as quay walls and jetties)
from undermining
Side slopes angle Ensure stable side slopes
Limit erosion
Design for material and seismic/non-seismic conditions
Contaminated materials Apply environmental performance criteria
Unexploded ordnance (UXO) Prescribe safety procedures

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Table 3 Capital dredging for navigation – Performance criteria

Parameters Performance criteria

As in Table 2 General dredging criteria remain relevant

Alignment, width Align to meet marine traffic requirements

Minimum dredged level Sufficient for under keel clearance (UKC A)) required, taking into account
vessel movements and wave conditions.
Navigable depth principle B)
Sedimentation infill allowance
Maximum dredge level Limit to control rates of siltation and infill
A)
See the PIANC report Harbour approach channels design guidelines [2].
B)
In muddy areas the seabed level is difficult to determine, with the soil density gradually increasing in density
from fluid to solid mud at deeper levels. The “navigational depth”, “nautical bottom”, should be carefully
defined in relation to the thickness and density of fluid muds acceptable for navigation; along with the method
for proving that this depth is achieved. This allows more economic capital dredging and reduces the need for
later maintenance dredging.

Table 4 Capital dredging for foundations – Performance criteria

Parameters Performance criteria

As in Table 2 General dredging criteria remain relevant

Bearing capacity Material with insufficient strength should be removed/improved
Settlement Material prone to settlement should be removed/replaced/improved
Differential settlement Material prone to variable settlement should be
removed/replaced/improved
Hard material Hard material should be removed that could:
• overstress the structure
• obstruct installation
Line and level The dredging formation should be trimmed to the specified tolerances to
spread the foundation load and avoid overstressing the structure

Table 5 Capital dredging for pipe trenches – Performance criteria

Parameters Performance criteria

As in Table 2 General dredging criteria remain relevant

As in Table 3 Same as for navigation depth and channels
As in Table 4 Foundation criteria remain relevant
Trench alignment The trench alignment should match the permissible pipe bending radii:
• achievable by the pipe installation method
• required for structural integrity
The trench profile The trench profile should match the radii:
• achievable by the pipe installation method
• required for structural integrity
Trench depth The trench depth should provide sufficient depth below seabed to:
• protect the pipeline
• allow for sediment movement and infill
• allow for bedding backfill, anchor and scour protection if needed
Trench width The trench width should be wide enough to allow:
• installation tolerances
• installation machinery and equipment
• backfill and protection

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4.4.4 Dredging for seabed material

The typical material properties criteria given in Table 6 should be taken into
account when identifying the performance requirements for winning seabed
material by dredging, typically for use as aggregates or fill.
Table 6 Dredging for seabed materials – Performance criteria

Material property Performance criteria

Extent of works Define the limits and extent of areas required for the works
Extent of dredged area Define the limits and extent of areas permitted and required for extraction
of materials
Maximum dredged level Set the depth limit permitted and required for extraction of materials
Dredging rates and Define any limitations on rate and volume of material extracted
volumes
Dredging plant Define any limitations on type and use of dredging plant
Soil type Ensure suitable for planned use of dredged material

Mineralogy Ensure suitable for planned use of dredged material

Chemical characteristics Limit:
• sulfates
• salt
• gypsum
• carbonate
• solubility
Grading distribution Limit:
• fines content
• maximum particle size
Particle density Limit low specific gravity
Seashell material Set limit
Contamination Set limit

4.4.5 Disposal of excess materials

The typical performance criteria given in Table 7 should be taken into account
when identifying the performance requirements for disposal of excess materials.
NOTE The disposal of excess materials is discussed further in Clause 12.

Table 7 Disposal of excess materials – Performance criteria

Parameters Performance criteria

Location and geometry Shortest haul distance to dredging site
Large enough to receive volumes
Minimum water depth Safe navigation depth
Maximum elevation Safe navigation depth
Form/type of material Suitable for containment or dispersal
Containment Ensure containment effective if required
Dispersal Ensure fate of dispersed material understood
Release of fine materials To meet environmental criteria
Release of contaminants – To meet environmental criteria
particles/solutes
Licensed disposal area To meet license criteria

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4.4.6 Reclamation
The typical performance criteria given in Table 8 should be taken into account
when identifying the performance requirements for reclamation.
NOTE 1 Reclamation is discussed further in Clause 13.
NOTE 2 Reclamation with dredged hydraulic fill is covered in prEN 16907-6.

Table 8 Reclamation – Performance criteria

Parameters Performance criteria

As in Table 4 Formation to meet foundation performance criteria

Fill material properties Select suitable material (see Table 6)
Fill mass properties Extract, place and treat material to achieve required properties
Total settlements Limit over design life
Differential settlements Limit over design life
Earthquake induced settlements Limit within acceptable return period
Liquefaction Ensure adequate resistance
Bearing capacity Sufficient for loading
Edge structure slope stability Adequate for loading, and retention of reclamation
Lateral movements Limit over design life
Drainage Ensure sufficient to maintain soil strength
Permeability Ensure sufficient to maintain soil strength
Ground water level Prevent soil strength reduction due to excessive rise in level

Ground treatment should be adopted as necessary to improve the reclamation

properties where the performance criteria cannot be achieved, as described
in Clause 14.

4.4.7 Dredging tolerances

When setting the design dredged level the designer should consider the
tolerance achievable with the proposed plant and method and the resultant
nature of the dredged surface. As the dredged surface can be variable in nature
and consistency, the following factors should be taken into account when
determining the accuracy of the dredged formation that can be achieved:
a) the height, length, direction and frequency of the prevailing waves and
swell;
b) the type and properties of the soil, e.g. strength, compaction, cementation,
cohesion and variability;
c) the type and size of the dredging equipment;
d) the experience of the operating personnel;
e) the depth of dredging and type of depth-indicating instrumentation on
board the dredger;
f) the rate of change of tidal level;
g) the strength of tidal or river currents;
h) the extent of automated control of the dredging.
The range of vertical accuracies that are normally achieved by different types of
dredging plant under varying site conditions is given in Table 9.

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Table 9 Typical working vertical accuracy for dredging plant under various site conditions

Site conditions Light Standard Cutter Grab Grab Backhoe

trailer trailer suction hopper pontoon
<10 000 m3 >10 000 m3
mm mm mm mm mm mm
Bed material
Loose silt 250 200 200 250 250 200
Cohesive silt 250 250 150 250 250 150
Fine sand 250 200 150 200 200 150
Medium sand 200 150 150 200 200 150
Gravel 200 150 150 200 200 150
Soft clay 300 250 150 300 250 150
Medium clay 300 250 150 300 250 150
Stiff clay 250 200 150 250 250 150
Very weak rock Na 300 300 N 300 300
Weak rock N N 300 N 350 350
Moderately weak rock N N 300 N N 350
Pre-treated rock N 350 350 350 350 300
Sea conditions
Sheltered water
Small plant 100 100 150 150 150 100
Medium plant 100 75 125 125 125 75
Large plant 75 50 100 125 125 50
Exposed water
Small plant 300 250 N 400 N N
Medium plant 250 200 300 350 350 250
Large plant 250 150 250 300 250 200
Currents
Moderate (0.5 m/s) 0 0 0 100 100 0
Strong (1.0 m/s) 100 100 50 200 200 0
NOTE 1 Accuracies are plus or minus.
NOTE 2 Sea and current condition adjustments should be added to “bed material” figures.
NOTE 3 None of the figures are absolute limits, but are reasonable expectations on most work. Difficulties might
arise where lower limits are specified.
N = Not appropriate. Na = Not usually appropriate.

The design should identify the minimum depth required and the maximum
allowable dredged level, and set the design dredged level accordingly.
NOTE The design dredged level in navigation areas is sometimes set with a zero
upward vertical tolerance and a relaxed downward tolerance in the order of −0.5 m
to −1.0 m. In this case, the net dredged volume can be calculated as that above the
design dredged level, thereby excluding the volume below, which varies with plant,
method and sea and soil conditions.
For simplicity, the volume of dredging in navigation areas should be calculated
as the in-situ volume of the material above the design dredged level; however,
this requires the operator of the dredger to make an allowance for the volume
within the tolerance and any possible over-dredging outside the tolerance.
The resultant unmeasured volume can be considerable, especially where thin
layers of material are to be removed, and the resultant implications for the
dredging and disposal of the total volume should be carefully evaluated.

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5 Dredging environmental design

COMMENTARY ON CLAUSE 5
Dredging and land reclamation have the potential to change the coastal and marine
environment positively or negatively over both spatial and temporal scales.
The environmental design requirements relating to dredging scheme licences and
permits are continually changing due to:
• new and amended legislation;
• re-organization of government departments and authorities;
• changes in responsibility for enacting legislation;
• changes in application procedures;
• changes in the environmental criteria.
Guidance is available from the appropriate government organization(s) – currently
the Marine Management Organisation (MMO) in England, Natural Resources Wales
in Wales, Marine Scotland in Scotland and Department of Environment, Northern
Ireland.
General guidance is given in Environmental aspects of dredging [3].

5.1 General
Potential environmental impacts should be identified and their resolution
addressed at the planning phase, prior to the design and execution of dredging
and reclamation works, to allow the design to accommodate the environmental
criteria, mitigation measures and monitoring required to achieve
environmentally acceptable and compliant projects (see 4.2).
The extent and scope of environmental impact assessment should be
commensurate with the magnitude of the dredging scheme and the sensitivity
of the area.
NOTE Environmental impact assessment follows a similar process regardless of the
actual type and form of the dredging and reclamation process. The best-practice
approach is to work with nature as part of design.
Responsibility for environmental permitting should be carefully defined to
ensure that the required mitigation and/or monitoring actions are planned in a
coherent and transparent manner.

5.2 Sustainable development

COMMENTARY ON 5.2
From a permitting and planning perspective, there is a general presumption to
decide in favour of development unless the adverse environmental impacts would
significantly and demonstrably outweigh the development’s benefits, when assessed
against environmental laws, policies and criteria (i.e. such that the development
could be considered unsustainable). Accordingly, the acceptability of environmental
impacts is partly a permitting and/or planning decision that needs to account for
environmental and social factors in addition to economic or strategic factors, to
determine whether development is sustainable.

5.2.1 General
Dredging and reclamation projects should be undertaken within the principles
underpinning sustainable development, and hence the following matters should
be balanced:
• the economic or strategic return on the investment should justify the
implementation;

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• the environmental impact should be acceptable or beneficial and meet

compliance criteria.
In terms of dredging and reclamation projects, permitting and planning
decisions necessarily require that a balance is struck between safeguarding the
environment and achieving the development’s objectives. Therefore, an
environmental scheme design approach should be adopted at the conception of
a project and environmental criteria should be integrated into the project’s
objectives. Objectives should be provided in terms of what the critical success
factors are and where there is flexibility such that the project can be
accomplished efficiently without unacceptably impacting on the environment
and society.
The judgement on the economic or strategic return on the investment is best
made by the scheme proponent, who should usually be responsible for
demonstrating either that the scheme is environmentally beneficial or that any
adverse environmental impact does not outweigh the benefits.
NOTE 1 Dredging schemes change both the physical environment and ecology in
the area of impact.
The acceptability of the changes should be judged against environmental criteria
developed on the basis of scientific evaluation, with a precautionary approach
taken where the science is not definitive.
NOTE 2 In the UK a substantial framework of legislation and regulation has been
established to judge the environmental acceptability of dredging schemes.

5.2.2 Stakeholder engagement

The relevant regularity authorities and stakeholders should be identified at the
outset and should be approached as soon as the scheme is sufficiently developed
for useful review and comment. A wide range of such stakeholders should be
addressed so that objections can be addressed before the scheme is fully
developed and committed.
The stakeholders that should be approached can include:
• the government and regulatory authorities;
• local and municipal government;
• landowners, especially Crown Estates;
• port, harbour, river and navigation authorities;
• utility and service providers;
• industrial interests such as outfall and intake operators;
• commercial interests – fisheries and shellfisheries;
• groups concerned with:
• marine ecology;
• migratory fish;
• marine mammals;
• seabirds waterfowl and birdlife;
• archaeology;
• recreation – watersports;
• leisure – beaches and seaside facilities.

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Engagement with stakeholders should be undertaken early in the process.

NOTE This might be limited to regulatory stakeholders, in a commercially
confidential project, as environmental scoping opinions can be sought that can
provide efficiency in prioritizing sustainability.
Consultation with regulators and other stakeholders should be undertaken and
specialist advice should be obtained when planning any marine ecology
investigations, to provide insights and information to the process, which
enhances environmental design intelligence.

5.3 Potential impacts

COMMENTARY ON 5.3
Dredging and reclamation projects can cause various impacts (i.e. changes) to the
physical, chemical, biological and socio-cultural environment at and around project
sites.
The scope for potential impacts relates to how specific dredging and reclamation
activities interact with the affected environmental parameters and their sensitivity
and vulnerability to change. The key activities associated with dredging and
reclamation can include substrate removal and burial, sediment releases and
underwater noise emissions.
Physical, chemical, biological and socio-cultural environmental parameters have the
potential to be impacted by dredging and reclamation.
Potential impacts should be identified and assessed to determine whether they
can be accommodated by the environmental design process, to ensure that
dredging and reclamation is acceptable in relation to the applicable
environmental criteria (see 5.2), and whether mitigation and/or compensation
measures are required (see 5.6).

5.4 Environmental design process

5.4.1 General
The environmental design process for dredging and reclamation should
investigate solutions for the key adverse environmental impacts (e.g. identified
by an EIA or other assessments) and opportunities for embedding and
implementing mitigation measures into dredging and reclamation activities.
Investigations should involve some form of written and/or illustrative
representation of the relationships between the sources (i.e. dredging and
reclamation activities) and receptors (i.e. the environment) of environmental
impacts, and the pathways that connect them (e.g. transport mechanisms or
exposure pathways).
NOTE This investigative approach can take the form of a conceptual model that
represents the environmental impacts and their consequences.
If a conceptual model is adopted this should be used as an iterative tool that is
developed and refined throughout the environmental design process as new
information becomes available (e.g. new baseline environmental data, updated
dredging methodology). A conceptual model’s detail should be proportionate to
the sensitivity, vulnerability and/or value of the environmental conditions and
the complexity and/or scale of dredging and reclamation activities.
The scheme design should follow an iterative process, as illustrated in Figure 1.

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Figure 1 Scheme environmental design process

5.4.2 Baseline data establishment

Baseline data should be collected and used to inform an environmental design
for dredging and reclamation projects. Baseline data collection should comprise
at least a two- to three-staged process involving:
• desk study, using available and accessible data sources to determine the
scope of surveys (if required) including any seasonal restrictions;
• site survey, using appropriate and relevant methodologies and equipment;
• ground-truthing or verification, to plug data gaps or address data
uncertainties.
Baseline data collection should be designed to accommodate requirements for
environmental impact assessment, longer term environmental monitoring,
statistical analyses and/or numerical modelling requirements, and
engineering/design information.
NOTE Further guidance on data collection is given in Clause 6. Further guidance on
environmental monitoring design is given in 5.7.

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Once the results of baseline data collection are available, the dredging scheme
design should be adjusted to address potential environmental constraints and/or
potential significant impacts. The baseline data should be used to inform
environmental impact assessment and other environmental assessments.
The outcomes of these assessments should be used to inform the dredging
scheme design in one or more of the following ways:
• develop pragmatic and robust mitigation measures;
• develop trigger levels with statistical robustness where required;
• develop an appropriate monitoring programme (see 5.7);
• identify potential beneficial uses of materials unsuitable for incorporation in
the works;
• develop compensation measures if required.

5.5 Use of numerical models for impact prediction

COMMENTARY ON 5.5
Numerical models can be used to simulate the physical effects of dredging
operations on the environment. The appropriate choice of numerical model (if any is
used) is dictated by the objective of the modelling, the parameter that is to be
modelled and the resolution and scale (both temporal and spatial) relevant to the
dredging activity and environment within which the dredging activity will occur.
Key parameters that can be modelled include: water levels and currents; wave
conditions; sediment transport (both fine and coarse fractions); sediment plume
dispersion (near-field and far-field dispersion); and sound.
The numerical modelling software chosen to simulate the effects of dredging
operations on the environment should accurately represent the physical
processes of relevance. The model domain should be sufficiently large to prevent
“edge” or boundary effects influencing model results in key areas. Quality
assured input data should be used to construct the model; this typically includes
the use of bathymetric and topographic data. Boundary conditions should be
obtained from observations, other models or synthesised. The model should be
appropriately resolved to represent both spatial and temporal scales relevant to
the parameter of interest.
NOTE 1 This requires skilled judgement by an appropriately qualified person –
excess temporal or spatial resolution can significantly increase numerical model
simulation times and lead to excessive data storage requirements. Insufficient
resolution means that the required output accuracy might not be achieved or might
lead to instabilities in the model.
The numerical model should be calibrated and validated.
Calibration or “tuning” of the model should be undertaken to ensure that the
key model parameters are influencing the model correctly, e.g. correct
representation of friction, correct lag function, and appropriate settling velocity
and critical shear stress for erosion and deposition. The mass balance should also
be checked to demonstrate that the model is reasonably representative. Where
data to inform the values of these parameters is not available, standard values
should be obtained from appropriate texts.
NOTE 2 Examples of appropriate texts include Dynamics of marine sands [4] and
Dynamics of estuarine muds [5].
Validation should be undertaken to provide confidence in the numerical models’
ability to simulate or predict. The process of validation should involve
comparison of specific model outputs with site specific measured values.

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NOTE 3 The validation process is relatively straightforward for hydrodynamics and

acoustics (e.g. comparison of water-levels, flow speeds and acoustic transmission
losses); however, where it is required to be performed, the process is more complex
for sediment transport models as, typically, only the excess (additional) sediment
load generated by the dredging activity is simulated.
Accurate validation of sediment transport should use high quality field data and
should distinguish between background and dredging induced sediment load.
Interpretation of numerical outputs should be performed by a competent
person.
NOTE 4 Verified results of numerical modelling can be used to plan future
dredging operations as well as part of an adaptive management programme.

5.6 Minimizing environmental impact

Mitigation measures should be applied to dredging and reclamation projects to
negate and/or minimize adverse environmental impacts. Mitigation measures
should contribute to achieving environmentally acceptable dredging and
reclamation projects that meet the relevant environmental criteria.

5.6.1 Mitigation hierarchy

Mitigation should be addressed through a hierarchical, stepped approach of
avoiding, reducing and, if possible, remedying environmental impacts, such that
the residual impacts meet the relevant environmental criteria.
NOTE 1 A typical mitigation hierarchy is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2 Mitigation hierarchy

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The hierarchy should be applied as follows.

a) Mitigation measures that avoid impacts should be preferred over reduction
and remediation measures because they prevent impacts and, therefore, can
be the most effective.
NOTE 2 Avoidance measures are more likely to relate to the earlier
(i.e. planning) stages of the project lifecycle.
b) Mitigation measures that reduce impacts should be preferred over
remediation measures as both the impact and the consequent remediation
are reduced.
NOTE 3 Reduction measures are more likely to relate to the progressive
(i.e. implementation) stages of the project lifecycle.
c) Mitigation measures that remedy impacts should be adopted that correct or
restore impacts that cannot be avoided or reduced.
NOTE 4 Remediation measures are more likely to relate to the later
(i.e. completion) stages of the project lifecycles.
The residual impacts remaining after mitigation should be environmentally
acceptable.

5.6.2 Mitigation measures

While many measures are available to mitigate the impacts associated with
dredging and reclamation projects, they should be selected carefully to ensure
that they are environmentally effective and socially and economically
acceptable.
Mitigation should be identified from the outset of project lifecycles.
NOTE This approach allows for mitigation to be taken into account during concept,
feasibility, planning and design phases, and thereby facilitates the early selection of
effective measures that are higher up the mitigation hierarchy and can be integrated
and embedded into projects.

5.6.3 Compensation and enhancement measures

Compensation and enhancement measures should be applied to residual impacts
remaining when mitigation measures have been applied but cannot achieve
environmental acceptability.
NOTE 1 These measures are lower down the mitigation hierarchy because there is
an inherent risk associated with their effectiveness; for example, artificially created
compensatory habitats might not be successful and/or fulfil the ecological functions
of impacted natural habitats.
Compensation measures should be applied to dredging and reclamation projects
where residual impacts are environmentally unacceptable and/or positions of no
net environmental loss are required, but cannot be achieved through mitigation
alone.
NOTE 2 Compensation is distinguished from mitigation as compensation involves
measures to replace or offset unavoidably adversely impacted or lost environments.
Enhancement measures should be applied to dredging and reclamation projects
where positions of net environmental gain are required.
NOTE 3 Enhancement can be applied on and off dredging and reclamation sites.
In relation to dredging and reclamation projects, enhancement measures typically
relate to the natural environment and include, for example, improvement measures
such as extending and restoring habitats.

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5.6.4 Mitigation and compensation implementation

COMMENTARY ON 5.6.4
Mitigation and/or compensation measures can be required by environmental
legislation (e.g. environmental quality standards), permit/licence/consent conditions,
con-tract/specifications, and/or for best practice and environmental gain objectives.
Mitigation and/or compensation measures should be implemented through a
planned framework of activities relating to dredging and reclamation activities.
This framework should take the form of a management plan, such as a
construction environment management plan or a dredge environmental
management plan. A management plan should cover the following aspects:
• overarching management framework, identifying how the environmental
management plan integrates with a project’s wider management
framework;
• Context, identifying how dredging and reclamation relates to the local
environment, including a history of dredging and reclamation at the site;
• project description, providing information on dredging and reclamation,
including the location, timing, methodologies, etc. of activities;
• permit/licence/consent conditions, including details of relevant
environmental conditions and any other statutory requirements for
legislative compliance;
• baseline environment description, characterizing the environmental
parameters of the dredging and reclamation sites and adjacent areas;
• impact description, covering potential environmental impacts (and any
uncertainties) associated with dredging and reclamation;
• environmental management, describing the strategies and actions to
mitigate and/or compensate for impacts, including specific and auditable
measures, performance indicators, monitoring requirements, corrective
actions, responsibilities and a programme for management and monitoring
activities;
• contingency arrangements, identifying corrective actions and contingency
plans to be implemented in the event that unacceptable or unforeseen
impacts occur (i.e. non-compliance);
• auditing requirements and reporting, setting out reporting and
documentation standards, timing, and responsibility of any auditing or
reporting;
• management plan reviews, making provisions for regular reviewing and
updating of the management plan if considered necessary to achieve the
dredging and reclamation objectives and to allow for continuous
improvement.

5.7 Environmental monitoring design

5.7.1 Monitoring philosophy
COMMENTARY ON 5.7.1
Monitoring can be focussed on one or more specific environmental parameters,
depending on the sensitivity of the local environment and the potential impacts of
the dredging and/or reclamation.
Depending on the scope of monitoring required, the monitoring strategy can be
implemented to characterize the baseline environmental conditions and,
subsequently, detect and quantify changes to those conditions (i.e. environmental
impacts) during dredging and reclamation.

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Monitoring should involve the detection and evaluation of actual environmental

changes against the baseline conditions (see 5.7.2) and predicted impacts and/or
the compliance criteria established by the permitting process (e.g. environmental
quality standards). Accordingly, monitoring should be used to inform
decision-making before, during and after dredging and reclamation works and,
in particular, it should be used to inform the need to adapt working practices
and methods to achieve environmental objectives and avoid non-com-pliance.

5.7.2 Why and when to monitor

Monitoring should be undertaken to achieve one or more of the following
outcomes in relation to the project cycle:
• baseline monitoring (pre-dredging and reclamation works) to obtain
baseline data on:
• the initial site conditions, to inform design and engineering
investigations;
• the initial environmental conditions, to inform design and
environmental assessment investigations;
• surveillance monitoring for any areas likely to be impacted (during dredging
and reclamation works) to detect and evaluate environmental change and
performance in relation to environmental requirements and compliance
criteria, thereby providing a feedback mechanism to inform an adaptive
management approach to enable appropriate environmental mitigation and
protection measures;
• surveillance monitoring (during and/or post-dredging and reclamation
works) to inform comparisons between predicted environmental impacts
and realized environmental impacts, thereby improving the effectiveness of
future impact assessments and the implementation of mitigation measures;
• compliance monitoring (during and/or post-dredging and reclamation
works) to provide evidence to demonstrate environmental performance
against licence and permit conditions, and relevant environmental quality
standards.

5.7.3 Monitoring design

Monitoring design should be:
• tailored to the particular environmental parameters associated with the
potential environmental impacts of a particular dredging and reclamation
project (i.e. physical, chemical, biological and/or social-culture parameters,
as identified in 5.3;
• informed by consultation and consensus with relevant regulators and
stakeholders;
• commensurate with the scope and magnitude of the project;
• should accord with the principle of using specific, measureable, achievable,
relevant and time-related (SMART) criteria.
Where significant impacts could occur, a conceptual model should be used to
assess the transport, fate pathways, and environmental receptors affected by the
dredging and reclamation operations (see 5.4).
The assessment should generate information and/or data that can be recorded
and assessed against environmental performance and/or compliance
requirements to demonstrate the acceptability or unacceptability of the
dredging and reclamation works.
Environmental monitoring resources should be deployed efficiently, focussing on
major parameters with high potential impact to ensure maximum effectiveness.

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NOTE 1 This approach can facilitate the design of a monitoring scheme that
balances environmental protection and compliance requirements, technically sound
monitoring methods and data generation, and proportional cost-effectiveness.
Given the scale of dredging and reclamation projects, it is unlikely that a single
monitoring point/sample or occasion will be sufficient to represent the affected
environment either temporally and/or spatially. Therefore, monitoring design
should identify the need for sufficient multiple monitoring points/samples
(i.e. replication to cover spatial scales) and occasions (i.e. repetition to cover
temporal scales) to accommodate data confidence and, if necessary, statistical
assessment.
Where relevant, controls and reference points should be used to record the
environmental changes that occur without being affected by dredging and
reclamation works, so that natural variability can be recorded and factored into
the monitoring results. Care should be taken to ensure that controls and
reference points are suitably comparable to the monitoring points within the
influence of the dredging and reclamation works, and are not subject to
alternative anthropogenic effects that could compromise their use as a control
or point of reference.
Monitoring design should take into account the relevant temporal and spatial
scales. In terms of temporal scales, monitoring should adequately cover the
period of potential environmental impacts, so it can be appropriate to design
monitoring to account for the temporal variability of the sources
(e.g. continuous or sporadic dredging works), pathways (e.g. tide and current
patterns, diurnal and seasonal weather conditions) and/or receptors (e.g. fish
migration, bathing water seasons).
NOTE 2 These variations can affect the duration of the monitoring and the
frequency and intensity of monitoring over that duration.
In terms of spatial scales, monitoring design should be informed by the positions
and extents of sources, pathways and receptors and whether or not validated
model predictions exist (these can help to reduce monitoring requirements).
In addition, for some environmental parameters the spatial extent of monitoring
should accommodate additional controls or reference points that are situated
beyond the area of potential environmental impacts.
NOTE 3 For some environmental parameters, such as physico-chemical water quality
(e.g. dissolved oxygen, suspended solids), it can be appropriate for monitoring to
generate real-time data to detect adverse impacts and enable rapid adaptive
management decisions (e.g. changing the dredging activity, reducing the production
rate or overflow, or ceasing operations until the impact level is reduced). Real-time
monitoring systems can be connected to alarm systems that signal when the works
are approaching and/or breaching the environmental limits. For other environmental
parameters (e.g. marine mammals, archaeology), it can be appropriate to have
dedicated, trained personnel in place to provide in-situ monitoring (e.g. marine
mammal observers, archaeological watching briefs) to generate continuous recording
of environmental encounters as they occur.

5.7.4 What and how to monitor

COMMENTARY ON 5.7.4
As identified in 5.7.3, monitoring needs to be tailored to the particular
environmental parameters, potential environmental impacts, the dredging and
reclamation project, and the monitoring objectives. For this reason, there is not a set
list of parameters to be monitored for each and every dredging and reclamation
project.
Monitoring should incorporate appropriate methodologies, standards, best
practice and relevant guidance, and use appropriate equipment and
technologies.

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Monitoring equipment (e.g. vessels, side-scan sonars, turbidity meters, dissolved

oxygen meters, acoustic Doppler current profilers, sound pressure level meters,
water samplers, grab samplers, beam trawls, underwater cameras, remotely
operated underwater vehicles, laboratory equipment, data loggers) and data
interpretation equipment (e.g. geographical information systems, mapping
software, numerical modelling software, statistical analysis software) should be
appropriate, fully functional and, if relevant, calibrated to the local site
conditions.
Monitoring personnel should be appropriately qualified and experienced to
undertake the tasks required (e.g. as field scientists, laboratory technicians,
marine mammal observers or fishery liaison officers).
Monitoring activities and services should be undertaken in accordance with a
recognized quality assurance and/or management system.
Monitoring activities and services should be planned and executed in accordance
with an environmental management and/or monitoring plan or programme.
A plan should provide a transparent delivery mechanism for the monitoring
scheme. A plan should define the responsibilities of the monitoring team
(e.g. project proponents, contractors, monitoring personnel), and provide the
means for communicating the monitoring requirements (e.g. locations, methods,
equipment) and parameters (e.g. specified contaminants, sound levels, species).
In addition, a plan should include an evaluation system by which monitoring can
be improved if required, and by which the project’s environmental performance
and compliance can be assessed and reported.

5.7.5 Environmental management plan

If appropriate, an environmental management plan should be established to
define a monitoring strategy to be undertaken to assess compliance with
environmental legislation, permit/licence/consent conditions, and/or
contract/specification requirements.
The environmental management plan should identify the monitoring to be
undertaken at spatial and/or temporal scales, as appropriate, for the affected
environmental parameters. The results of monitoring should feed into a
management plan and be used to inform decision-making during dredging and
reclamation, including the need for corrective actions and adaptive management
to achieve environmental acceptability and avoid non-compliance.

6 Site investigation and data collection

COMMENTARY ON CLAUSE 6
This clause describes the various stages of a site investigation. It shows the diversity
of techniques and the necessity to combine them in an optimal way in order to
obtain meaningful and representative results. This clause does not constitute a
handbook for site investigation, nor does it provide guidelines for the setting up of
a correct site investigation programme. There is abundant literature available on site
investigation techniques. For dredging and land reclamation in particular, guidance
is given in the following publications:
• PIANC PTC2 Report WG23 [6];
• Geotechnical and geophysical investigations for offshore and nearshore
developments [7];
• Facts about site investigation [8];
• PIANC Report No. 144 [N1].

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6.1 General
Site investigation should be undertaken for all major land and marine
construction projects.
NOTE 1 For large projects in particular, site investigation is a complex sequence of
operations involving many different techniques. Site investigation consists of
collecting all the site-specific information required to design, plan and realize a
construction project. In general, it encompasses meteorological, ecological, water
column, seabed and ground data.
NOTE 2 Reclamation with dredged hydraulic fill is covered in prEN 16907-6.
General recommendations for site investigation are given in BS 6349-1-3.
The scope of work for desktop studies, geophysical and geotechnical
investigations, and any other relevant data collection should be integrated to
ensure consistency and avoid duplication.
All persons planning any dredging or reclamation work should have suitable and
sufficient knowledge of the site conditions. If information exists as a result of
earlier work on or in the vicinity of the site, this should be evaluated by means
of a desk study and, where possible, interviews with local specialists.
The identified data gaps should be filled by further from the site investigation.
The site bathymetry and soil conditions should be determined, and checks
should be made for:
• excessive debris or foreign matter;
• services;
• munitions and unexploded ordnance (UXO);
• sensitive structures or installations;
• possible draught, air draught, width restrictions or traffic limitations to the
passage of dredging or ancillary plant;
• as an extension of the soils investigation, the possible presence of boulders,
which might have an excessively disruptive effect on dredging operations;
• other environmental factors such as prevailing weather conditions, tidal and
river currents, and the presence of restricted areas due to environmental
designations;
• working time restrictions, e.g. for the purposes of wildlife conservation,
water depth, limitations owing to tides or reduction of noise close to
populated areas.
A site investigation should typically comprise the following steps:
• preliminary activities, such as desk studies, selection of techniques and
planning;
• fieldwork, such as hydrographic surveys, geophysical surveys and in-situ
geological and geotechnical works;
• laboratory testing;
• interpretation and reporting.

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Offshore site investigation is a highly specialized and constantly evolving field.

Setting up, realizing and interpreting a site investigation campaign should be
undertaken with advice from professionals with adequate multidisciplinary
knowledge, training and experience. Geophysical techniques should be adopted
as necessary to establish the likely geology over a large area, to help plan a
borehole grid pattern and subsequently to “fill in” details between borings and
drillings. Interpretation of the site investigation data plays an important role in
providing a usable model of the sub-surface conditions. Interpretation should be
carried out by experienced and competent individuals, based on the reports
provided by the specialist site investigation contractor(s).
Factual field data and laboratory results should be reported separately from
any interpretation of that data. The contents of the ground investigation report
should follow the guidelines in BS EN 1997-1:2004+A1, 3.4. The contents of
the geotechnical design report should follow the guidelines
in BS EN 1997-1:2004+A1, 2.8.
NOTE 3 The separation between factual and interpretive reports is required to
avoid constant revisions of the field data reports when the interpretation is refined
or developed to cover different aspects, noting that designers focus on the
permanent works design and contractors on dredgeability.
Similarly the responsibility for collecting the factual and interpretative data
should be clearly defined.
For some projects the complexity of the geology, or other special circumstance,
might warrant the use of test dredging. Experience from previous dredging
contracts should be used where relevant and available. In all cases, details of all
relevant and available information should be provided, both quantitative and
qualitative. Care should be taken to obtain reliable information and to interpret
this correctly.
Field investigations for capital dredging in particular should be performed in
stages, e.g. preliminary and detailed. Investigative work should be performed at
coarser spacing to begin with, and this should be refined as results (both field
and laboratory) are obtained and geological conditions are understood.
NOTE 4 It might be necessary, especially for larger projects, to separate
mobilizations for the stages in order to assimilate and understand the generated
data and adequately plan the following stage. While site investigations often do not
proceed this way due to time and/or budget constraints, staged investigations result
in a higher quality of information and less risk to both employer and contractor.

6.2 Geotechnical investigations

6.2.1 General
The geotechnical properties of the ground to be dredged fundamentally
affect the performance of all dredging plant. These properties should therefore
be defined in advance of dredging works in accordance with PIANC Report
No. 144 [N1].
NOTE 1 Recommendations for geotechnical design are given in BS 6349-1-3.
NOTE 2 Further guidance on undertaking ground investigations can be found in
BS 5930:2015, for investigations over water in BS 6349-1-3, and BS EN ISO 19901-8.
The ground conditions are important to a wide range of parties and the
following factors should be taken into account throughout the life cycle of a
project.
• Ground conditions constitute a major consideration at the construction
design stage.
• Ground conditions have a major impact on the timing and costing of the
works (selection of equipment, production rate, wear and tear, etc.).

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• The high mobilization and capital cost of dredging equipment means that
an incorrect or incomplete assessment of the dredgeability of the seabed
materials might result in major cost or schedule overruns.
• The majority of disputes and claims related to dredging works are related to
unexpected ground conditions.
• Site characteristics, particularly soil type, have a significant influence on the
environmental impact of the dredging and placement process.
NOTE 3 In most cases, where dredging is required, the depth of ground to be
removed is limited to a few metres. In these instances, subject to ground conditions,
a relatively simple method of ground investigation, such as vibrocoring, might be
adequate. In contrast, where difficult materials such as rock have to be removed by
dredging there is no alternative to obtaining samples by drilling from a floating or
fixed structure. Where vibrocoring is employed in mixed granular soils, such as sand,
gravel and cobbles, it is important to recognize and to highlight the fact that the
results can be skewed towards the finer fraction of the size distribution, due to the
tendency of the vibrocore to deflect from larger sizes and not sample sizes larger or
close to the core diameter.
The investigation should be made within the planned areas of dredging. It is not
normally sufficient to rely upon other investigations outside the proposed
dredging areas, although the results of such investigations should be examined
and made available where relevant.
NOTE 4 The geology of the coastal margins is almost invariably complex.
The apparent economic savings that might result from a cursory ground
investigation are in many cases outweighed by the increased costs arising from
disruption of the works due to unforeseen ground conditions.

6.2.2 Geotechnical survey and site investigation methods

A suitable sampling and investigation procedure should be chosen for marine
investigations.
NOTE 1 Many of the methods and tools widely employed in the investigation of
ground on land can be adapted to marine applications. Ground investigation
practice is described in detail in BS 5930:2015. Table 10 gives details of some
common procedures.
Site investigations should be planned and carried out by a competent person.
The work should be supervised by well-qualified and experienced geotechnical
engineers or engineering geologists, and appropriate health and safety
procedures should be followed.
Geotechnical specification and execution should where practical collect relevant
data for other processes that might affect dredging performance, such as coastal
or sediment transport processes and equipment suitability.
NOTE 2 Investigations for dredging projects normally involve work over water, and
engineers and drillers who might be experienced on land-based operations do not
always adapt to operations from floating craft with its many additional hazards.
As much information as possible should be obtained on the levels and the
configuration of the deposits and on their origin.
NOTE 3 Deposits of complex structure need more detailed investigations than
deposits having very regular profiles and structures. The scope of investigations
depends on the size of the area to be dredged.
For dredging in in-situ material, test borings should extend a sufficient distance
below the proposed design dredged level, particularly for capital dredging, to
examine the material within the tolerance over-dredge depth range. Deeper
borings should be undertaken where necessary to gain an understanding of the
general geology, especially where relevant to slope and edge structure stability
during dredging.

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28
Table 10 Sampling and investigation methods for dredging purposes

•
Rock or Rotary drilling A) Shell and auger Underwater (sea Undisturbed Disturbed Cone penetration Standard In-situ vane testing
soil type boring bed) devices sampling representative tests (CPT) B) penetration tests
samples (SPT)

Rock and Best method of NA C) Useful for obtaining Cores represent Cuttings in drill NA NA NA
some obtaining core core samples of undisturbed fluid can be used
very samples of intact limited penetration samples of intrinsic for identification of
BS 6349-5:2016

stiff/hard rocks in in-situ rock non-recovered

materials condition for layers
examination and
test
Boulders Can be used to Chiselling required NA Individual cobbles NA NA NA NA
Cobbles penetrate and to penetrate strata can be retained
obtain core samples
Gravels NA NA Not practicable to Very difficult to Very difficult to NA
retain gravel as an penetrate coarse penetrate coarse
undisturbed sample gravel gravel
unless in cemented

© The British Standards Institution 2016

condition
Sands NA Patent samplers NA
available, difficult
Method employed to sample in Obtained from
for site undisturbed borings in tins or
investigation in condition bags. Have to be Useful method for
order to obtain “representative” determining in-situ Useful method for
Silts NA If cohesive in Used for estimate of
representative and Various devices are (i.e. only from a properties and determining in-situ
nature can use shear strength but
undisturbed available to obtain single horizon or “hard” strata levels. properties,
undisturbed core great care needed in
samples and to representative stratum). Essential In areas with very disturbed samples
samplers for clay, interpretation
carry out field samples, but are for identification of wide soil variation and “hard” strata
otherwise see Sands
(in-situ) tests generally of limited various strata can be useful to levels in areas with
Clays NA penetration Variety of supplement very wide soil Very useful for shear
undisturbed core borehole variation strength evaluation
samplers available information in alluvial clays
Peats, NA Variety of Used for estimate of
etc. undisturbed core shear strength but
samplers available great care needed in
interpretation

NOTE For guidance on rock and soil type, see PIANC Report No. 144 [N1].
A)
Normally 55 mm maximum (or equivalent) core size is commonly used in massive rocks and a minimum of 70 mm is normally recommended for weak, weathered or fractured rocks.
However, it is suggested that 100 mm to 150 mm will give improved results.
B)
CPTu is generally preferred, with cone, sleeve and pore pressure measurement.
C)
NA = Not applicable.
BRITISH STANDARD
BRITISH STANDARD BS 6349-5:2016

In sand searches (e.g. for aggregate and reclamation purposes), borings should
penetrate to adequate depths to identify the nature, volume and extent of the
available in-situ material.
NOTE 4 Most site investigations for dredging work are necessarily carried out from
pontoons or vessels. However, the use of a self-elevating platform permits work to
be carried out in a similar way to that for a land-based investigation and
considerably improves the quality of the information, particularly in exposed sea
conditions.
In projects where the complexity of the geology or other special circumstances
warrants, the use of test dredging might be essential. In any case the results of
previous dredging contracts should be reviewed if available. In all cases, details
of all relevant circumstances should be obtained, including quantitative and
qualitative information on the spoil and where appropriate a description of the
dredger(s) previously used.
Care should be taken in handling and preserving samples. Where possible,
samples of rock should be retained in conditions approximating to the in-situ
state. Undisturbed and disturbed samples of soil, particularly core samples of
cohesive materials, should be protected from loss of natural moisture.
Samples should be clearly labelled as described in BS 5930:2015, 25.11.2.

6.2.3 Soil classification

NOTE Soil classification is the arrangement of soils into groups that have similar
properties. All soil classifications have their merits and particular applications.
Soil should be classified in accordance with PIANC Report No. 144 [N1],
supplemented by BS 5930:2015. When describing soil samples, it should be made
clear which classification system has been used.

6.2.4 Laboratory and in-situ tests for soils

The testing of soils should be in accordance with BS 1377. Laboratory testing
should be undertaken on fresh samples and great care should be taken that
samples are fully representative.

6.2.5 Laboratory and in-situ tests for rock

6.2.5.1 General
Owing to the many properties of rock that affect how it might be drilled,
blasted or dredged, rock should be classified and tests should be carried out to
identify the properties.

6.2.5.2 Laboratory tests

The following rock properties should be determined to provide the information
necessary to assess whether, or how, rock can be dredged, with or without
pre-treatment:
• compressive strength;
• tensile strength;
• quality (fracture spacing and openness);
• density;
• hardness;
• abrasiveness;
• porosity.

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BS 6349-5:2016 BRITISH STANDARD

These properties should be tested in accordance with the appropriate parts

of BS 1377, BS 5930:2015 or BS EN ISO 22476. Specialist geotechnical advice
should be sought on which tests are most appropriate for providing information
for dredging projects and how this information should be interpreted.

6.2.5.3 Field tests and descriptions

When the dredging of rock, with or without pre-treatment, is intended, an
accurate assessment and description should be made of the condition of rock in
relation to fracture state and rock quality. In-field assessments should be made,
particularly in sedimentary rocks, to assess strength or resistance to cutting.
NOTE 1 These can include the following:
• borehole logging;
• point load index tests;
• fracture state;
• fracture frequency;
• solid core recovery (SCR);
• total core recovery (TCR);
• rock quality designation (RQD);
• drillability;
• velocity of propagation of sound;
• standard penetration tests.
The rock strength, quality and degree of fracturing should be taken into
account when determining the need to use heavier or more powerful plant than
normal, or whether to drill and blast.
NOTE 2 The purpose of any tests undertaken is to determine the effect of the type
and condition of the rock on drilling and dredging. If fracturing is sufficiently close
and open, pre-treatment might not be necessary. If pre-treatment is necessary,
fractured rock might impede drilling by causing the drill to jam. Rock strength
affects the energy required to achieve removal and abrasiveness affects the rate of
wear of dredger components.

6.3 Geophysical investigations

COMMENTARY ON 6.3
Geophysical investigations are used to remotely ascertain sub-surface properties of
the seabed materials, and are often supported and verified by the geotechnical
techniques described in 6.2. Subject to sea conditions, geophysical investigations can
be carried out rapidly over large areas at modest cost relative to intrusive
investigation by boreholes or other methods described in 6.2.
Seismic profiling techniques are described in Annex A.
For major projects, geophysical investigations should be carried out to
cross-correlate the site investigation data, boreholes, probing and sampling over
the whole site area.
The interpretation of sub-bottom profiler data should be undertaken in
conjunction with the results of geotechnical investigations performed over the
survey area.
However, such methods require careful interpretation, and are very useful where
relatively simple soil/rock conditions exist (i.e. soft alluvium over rock). Where
only slight changes in strata density occur (i.e. in fine sediments), great care
should be paid to the interpretation of the geophysical record.

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The geophysical and geotechnical data should be integrated to produce a

ground-truthed model of the sub-surface where necessary.

6.4 Unexploded ordnance (UXO) investigations

For dredging work round the UK, the presence of UXOs should be presumed
unless clearly demonstrated otherwise, usually by specialists working with
reference to the military authorities. In most jurisdictions specialist contractors
are responsible for locating UXOs and the military authorities for their
neutralization and disposal. Where doubt exists, UXO investigations should
always be undertaken.
UXO investigations should be conducted by qualified, experienced specialists in
this discipline in all dredging studies where unexploded ordnance might occur.
Such investigations should be carried out and concluded in advance of any
intrusive site investigations e.g. boreholes, etc.
Assistance from specialist contractors should be sought before embarking on
works in areas where UXOs might lie.

6.5 Hydrographic surveys

6.5.1 General
Hydrographic surveys carried out in connection with dredging work should have
the following specific objectives:
• to determine the volume of seabed material to be removed by the dredging
process;
• to determine bed levels prior to and on completion of dredging work and
demonstrate that the specified levels have been achieved;
• to determine the volume of seabed material actually removed by the
dredging process.
A hydrographic survey should also include the measurement of currents, waves,
water properties and seabed characteristics.
NOTE 1 The choice of dredging plant, working times and safe navigation are all
affected by sea bed levels.
The general topography of the seabed can be found on Admiralty charts,
published by the UK Hydrographic Office (UKHO) which should be consulted in
the first instance.
NOTE 2 Where these charts have been prepared from surveys of UK origin, more
comprehensive information might be obtainable directly from the UKHO. The UKHO
also holds some additional information on wrecks, and other seabed features in
addition to those shown on the published chart. However, Admiralty charts are
prepared for navigation rather than for engineering purposes. Detail is often sparse
and imprecise in relation to engineering works. The survey information might be
many years out of date. In particular, navigation charts are shoal-biased and deeper
areas might not be shown at the scale of publication.
For engineering purposes, a suitably detailed and accurate survey should be
made if it does not already exist.
Hydrographic survey and data collection should be undertaken at routine
intervals throughout the life of a dredging project to monitor the extent of
dredging.

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6.5.2 Bathymetric surveys

Bathymetric surveys should be carried out in accordance with BS 6349-1-1.
While the IHO standards referred to in BS 6349-1-1 provide a good basis for
understanding errors and accuracies, in the case of bathymetric surveys being
conducted for the purposes of measurement, higher accuracies are achievable
and necessary to avoid potential volume miscalculations, and a more rigorous
accuracy should be specified where necessary to minimize the error.
Bathymetric surveys for dredging projects should be undertaken using one of
the methods described in BS 6349-1-1, but are most likely to employ one of the
following:
• single beam echo sounder (SBES), which might be using a single or dual
frequency transducer;
• multi-beam echo sounder (MBES), which usually comprises an array of
receiving transducers and a single pulse generator forming a swath of depth
soundings of typically three times the water depth. Care should be taken to
choose an appropriate instrument for the work, paying special attention to
beam width, beam forming technique and sound frequency. Professional
advice should be obtained in this respect as the technology is constantly
evolving and complex.

6.5.3 Topographic surveys

Topographic surveys should be carried out in accordance with BS 6349-1-1.

6.5.4 Density surveys

COMMENTARY ON 6.5.4
If the level of the sea bottom cannot be satisfactorily determined by conventional
methods, such as in areas of soft or fluid mud, it might be more appropriate to
determine the relative level of material of a particular density.
If density surveys are to be carried out, the objectives of the data collection
programme should be clearly defined.
NOTE Further guidance on soil density is given in 8.7.

6.5.5 Horizontal control

COMMENTARY ON 6.5.5
Accurate position fixing is essential during the execution of dredging works and its
measurement. Unless the seabed is perfectly horizontal, an error in position will also
produce an error in depth due to offsetting of apparent slope positions.
Horizontal control should be carried out in accordance with BS 6349-1-1.

6.5.6 Side-scan sonar

Side-scan sonar surveys should be carried out in accordance with BS 6349-1-1.

6.5.7 Seabed conditions

COMMENTARY ON 6.5.7
Some characteristics of seabed condition can be measured remotely by instruments,
such as side-scan sonar and echo sounder. Others might require a visual inspection,
either directly by a diver or by using a remotely operated camera. An indication
of the texture of the seabed can be provided by side-scan sonar and in some cases
with MBES. Side-scan sonar technology is best suited to indicate the presence of any
upstanding rock outcrops, dune formations, ripples, pipelines, wrecks or general
debris.

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The mapping of areas of dense coral, algae, dense sea grass, etc. can be carried out
using satellite imagery. This passive technique analyses the reflections of the sun’s
rays from the seabed at depths from 3 m to 25 m, depending upon water clarity.
Generally it is necessary to confirm the more important features using
remote-camera inspection or, in cases where this is not possible, by using divers.
Evaluation of seabed sediment transport should be carried out in accordance
with BS 6349-1-1.
The nature of the seabed is important to both the design of works that involve
dredging and the selection of dredging plant, and seabed conditions should be
confirmed before work begins.

6.6 Metocean data collection

Metocean data collection should be carried out in accordance with BS 6349-1-1.
NOTE This includes water levels, currents and waves.

6.7 Environmental surveys

6.7.1 Water quality
COMMENTARY ON 6.7.1
Water quality monitoring is a major part of many construction projects where
dredging is involved since regulators and developers require advanced warning of
potential changes and impacts that the dredging and construction activities might
cause. Indeed such monitoring is often a formal requirement of the consenting
process as well as a key interest to stakeholders.
Water quality monitoring should be carried out in accordance with BS 6349-1-1.
NOTE This includes water quality, sediment, water temperature, salinity and
chemical composition.
For monitoring to be meaningful, there should be a clear understanding of the
environment in which the works will be undertaken and its natural variability.
Baseline data collection should be undertaken, identifying not only the sensitive
receptors within the area of the works, but also the thresholds below which
parameters such as light and oxygen which should not fall, and how a managed
response could be implemented.
Where the construction project can be expected to run over one or more annual
cycles, the pre-construction baseline monitoring should span a similar range of
seasonal variation such that the natural variation of both the hydrodynamics
and water quality can be determined and the linkages between the forcing
processes (waves, tides, currents, river flow and meteorology) and the response
of the system fully understood.

6.7.2 Suspended solids

COMMENTARY ON 6.7.2
Sediment in suspension can affect the design aspects of dredging works.
Any dredged formation which arrests the passage of mobile deposits is exposed to
potentially heavy rates of siltation, whilst sediment released into the environment
has the potential to impact on the environment through:
• reduction in the propagation of light into the water column;
• deposition of material on sensitive receptors such as spawning grounds;
• the exertion of an oxygen demand on the water column by chemicals associated
with the sediment;
• generation of turbidity currents.

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BS 6349-5:2016 BRITISH STANDARD

The effects of turbidity and suspended solids should be assessed in accordance

with BS 6349-1-1.

6.7.3 Sediment quality

COMMENTARY ON 6.7.3
Dredging releases sediment that can relocate at a different location.
The measurement of sediment quality is fundamental for the environmental
design of a dredging scheme (see Clause 5).
Attention is drawn to the Water Framework Directive [9].
Sediment quality should be measured by field sampling and laboratory analysis.
The results should be used to define the content and potential release of
contaminants.

6.7.4 Bedload transport

An evaluation should be made of the rate of infilling of dredged works due to
bedload transport. This evaluation should be carried out in accordance
with BS 6349-1-1.
NOTE Bedload transport is of particular concern for granular sediments located in
the surf zone or within the area of wave influence.
The potential impacts of dredging on bedload transport should be carefully
evaluated in relation to the near-shore zone, where littoral drift is intercepted
by navigation channels or harbour works and where the dredging activity
deprives the downdrift shoreline of renourishment material with subsequent
shore-line regression.

6.7.5 Marine ecology

NOTE Marine ecology includes birds, marine mammals and marine reptiles.
Surveys of marine ecological components of the environment should be planned
with some thought as to the timing, as many show pronounced seasonality.
Consultation with regulators and other stakeholders should be undertaken and
specialist advice should be obtained when planning any marine ecology
investigations.
The impact on project lead in time should be evaluated and included in the
planning.

6.7.6 Birds
Bird life surveys should be planned to account for seasonal variations where
required to provide an adequate characterization.
NOTE For example, bird usage of an area can be split into overwintering
populations, breeding populations, nesting populations and use of the area for
feeding and loafing. Likewise, tidal state is also linked to feeding activity,
e.g. waders exploiting intertidal mud and sand flats. An understanding of such
temporal sensitivities is essential for adequate survey planning.

6.7.7 Fish and shellfish

There should be a clear purpose with regard to the need for fish and shellfish
surveys, especially whether they are to address the fish and shellfish ecology of
an area, or concerns regarding commercial fisheries species. Specialist advice
should be obtained when planning such surveys.
NOTE 1 Commercial fisheries are addressed in 6.8.1.

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NOTE 2 Various techniques are available for measuring fish stocks and include:
• acoustic methods, e.g. echo sounders (especially multi-beam);
• trawling;
• tagging;
• grab sampling;
• remotely operated underwater vehicle (ROV), still and video cameras.
Information should be collected to describe local fish and shellfish resources
both at the site and in the surrounding area. The presence and relative
importance of fish and shellfish resources should be described and assessed.
Important fish and shellfish resources should include:
• the major species of fish and shellfish in the area that are of significant
importance in commercial and recreational fisheries;
• those species of fish and shellfish in the area that are of conservation
importance;
• species that have a restricted geographical distribution and are locally
abundant in the area.
For these resources, the following aspects of their ecology should be taken into
account:
• spawning grounds;
• nursery grounds;
• feeding grounds;
• migration routes.
NOTE 3 Methods for examining spawning grounds, nursery grounds, flat fish
populations or demersal populations are highly specific to the aims of the
monitoring.

6.7.8 Airborne noise

The presence of sensitive receivers subject to potential noise impacts should be
identified and appropriate limits set where necessary. In sensitive areas a
background noise survey should be undertaken before works commence.
Particular attention should be paid when working close inshore at dusk and
dawn when noise can travel further due to the moisture gradient and
background noise levels are often low.

6.7.9 Underwater noise

COMMENTARY ON 6.7.9
Underwater noise can influence the behaviour of fish and marine mammals but the
significance is very site-specific, being dependent on the physical characteristics of a
site and the permanent or transient population. With the exception of underwater
blasting, the operation of most types of dredging plant is unlikely to cause harm to
marine life but might affect behaviour. For some species noise can be a deterrent,
perhaps influencing migratory movement.
Expert opinion should be obtained to establish the potential for adverse effect.
If there is good reason to believe that noise during dredging might have
adverse effect, a programme of pre-project monitoring should be undertaken to
determine the baseline conditions.
Because in areas of proposed dredging, such as ports, noise is generated by
routine maritime traffic, in order to establish the baseline position, actual noise
measurements should be taken at a variety of locations within the immediate

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and adjacent areas of proposed dredging. Measurement should continue over a

representative range of tidal conditions for a minimum of 2 weeks. The
objective should be to determine the current noise characteristics of locations
likely to be affected by the noise level and frequency expected. The noise
generated by the type and scale of dredging plant to be employed should be
assessed, taking note of the working times and duration on the project.

6.8 The human environment

6.8.1 Commercial fisheries
The identification of commercially exploited fish resources should be
undertaken by:
a) the examination of landings data;
NOTE 1 Such data are available from MMO or Marine Scotland with more
regional data available from International Council for the Exploration of
the Sea (ICES).
b) liaison with commercial and recreational fishermen, and fishing
organizations operating in the vicinity of the proposed project.
NOTE 2 It is suggested that at least 5 years’ worth of landings data for the
period prior to the date of project commencement be examined. MMO and
Marine Scotland landings data often represent an under-estimation of the true
landings made within a fishery, as data from vessels under 10 m are not usually
included.
Consultation with the fishing industry should be undertaken as early as possible.
This should address fisheries issues as well as providing information relevant to
fishery resources. Key representatives should be kept informed of progress of
the project, so as to build a good working relationship with trust and
co-operation.

6.8.2 Industries
Identification of industries in any areas that might be affected by the proposed
project (such as water intakes) should be accomplished by liaison with local
authorities, utility companies, and local trade associations. Consultation with
industrial stakeholders should be undertaken as soon as possible, so that design
of the project can take into account possible interferences and minimize these
as far as practicable.

6.8.3 Leisure and recreation

Identification of leisure and recreation uses in any areas that might be affected
by the proposed project should be undertaken by liaison with relevant
stakeholders.
NOTE Stakeholders might include local authorities, the Royal Yachting Association,
sports clubs and non-governmental organizations (for example the RSPB for coastal
bird watching sites). Local resident consultation by way of internet websites,
newspaper advertisements, newsletters and local exhibitions is also advisable.

6.8.4 Archaeology
Any sites of archaeological interest/significance should be identified and
described, as should the sites of known war graves. Dredging should be avoided
in any area known or suspected of containing material of potential
archaeological interest. Guidance should be obtained from the local curator.
If dredging is permitted, a procedure should be agreed with the curator
whereby any material of potential interest is recovered, labelled, appropriately
stored and the position of recovery recorded.

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NOTE 1 The presence on board of a marine archaeologist might be required.

NOTE 2 Advice on such matters can be obtained from the Crown Estate, the
Receiver of Wrecks, Historic Scotland, CADW (Welsh Historic Monuments), English
Heritage and Centre for Maritime Archaeology, Ulster University. Wrecks can
frequently be identified from navigational charts and built features are often
catalogued in national monument records for the specific country within the
United Kingdom, but other features such as drowned landscapes require specialist
knowledge.

6.8.5 Marine traffic

COMMENTARY ON 6.8.5
A number of data sources are available from which to obtain information about
local traffic conditions. The Maritime and Coastguard Agency (MCA) and UKHO
might have access to generic vessel track data which could help identify vessel traffic
densities. In the case of leisure craft and fishing vessels, local clubs and associations
might publish handbooks and diaries of events. Other resources include:
• port handbooks and other nautical publications such as “Admiralty sailing
directions (Pilots)” available from the United Kingdom Hydrographic Office for
the sea areas and coastline around the UK;
• commercial data providers such as IHS SeaWeb;
• automatic identification system (AIS) data from the automatic tracking systems
used on ships and by vessel traffic services (VTS) for identifying and locating
vessels by electronically exchanging data with other nearby ships, AIS base
stations, and satellites;
• online resources such as AIS Live and Marine Traffic (noting these tend to give
current snapshots, not historical data, unless a fee is paid for additional access).
However, by far the best source of data in harbour and coastal areas is the local
port, and in particular the Harbour Master, who is able to provide detailed
information on:
• numbers and types of vessel movements;
• restricted areas;
• special events;
• fishing activity, both recreational and commercial (e.g. drift netting);
• local regulations relating to navigation and environmental protection (including
bye-laws);
• details of other organizations to consult with (especially leisure organizations);
• details of any requirement for pilotage, and any costs associated with working
in the port area;
• details of any permits or consents required in the proposed work area; and
• frequently much other useful information including prevailing weather and tidal
conditions.
When project planning is complete, and the project commences, the Harbour Master
is able to provide assistance through the issue of Notices to Mariners to warn other
users of works in progress. Depending on the level of traffic management service
provided at the port [for example vessel traffic services (VTS)], it might also be
possible to manage the sailing times and routes followed by other vessels, in order
to avoid conflict with dredging operations.
Finally, in extreme cases, the Harbour Master might have powers to exclude other
vessels from the work area for some or all of the project duration or, in emergency
cases, to direct particular vessels to take certain courses of action to ensure that the
dredging operation can continue safely.

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Knowledge of marine traffic in the proposed work area should be obtained to

ensure the project can be completed safely and with manageable interruption
from other marine traffic that might need to continue using the same area.
In particular, activities should be carefully planned to ensure that dredging
operations within harbour areas and port approaches have a minimal impact on
other legitimate users of the sea.
A marine traffic impact assessment should be undertaken in congested areas
where required for safe navigation.
The Harbour Master should be consulted at the earliest opportunity and regular
contact should be maintained.

6.8.6 Vessel emissions

Dredging projects should take account of the increasing trend for vessels to be
subject to environmental control measures that limit emissions to acceptable
standards.
NOTE Sources of emissions include:
• exhaust fumes;
• waste, bilge and foul water;
• waste lubricants and oil;
• solid waste;
• ballast water;
• fuel quality.
The dredging operations should be planned to control such emissions as
required both at sea and at berth. Engines and equipment should be properly
maintained to minimize the release of noxious gases and particulates.
The suitability of reception facilities at nearby ports for the discharge of waste
should be determined. The availability of shore power supply should be
determined if and where required to limit exhaust emissions in port.
The fuel quality determines the release of exhaust fumes, and hence the fuel
should be selected to meet the required emission standards, typically in terms of
sulfur content.
These factors should be included in the environmental assessment and design
described in Clause 5.

7 Dredging plant selection

COMMENTARY ON CLAUSE 7
Types of dredging plant can be broadly divided into:
• hydraulic dredging plant that convey material by the flow of water;
• mechanical dredging plant that convey materials by mechanical means.
The selection of dredging equipment for reclamation with dredged hydraulic fill is
covered in prEN 16907-6. The general selection of plant for hydraulic and mechanical
dredging is briefly outlined in this clause.
Further guidance can found in Dredging – a handbook for engineers [10].

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7.1 General
The selection of plant should be based on physical factors including work type,
soil type, site and sea conditions and the volume of material to be dredged.
More than one type of plant can be capable of carrying out the required task.
The selection should take account of a range of factors, including but not
limited to:
• geotechnical conditions (see BS 5930:2015);
• dredgeability of soils and rock (see PIANC Report No. 144 [N1]);
• plant availability;
• duration required for mobilization;
• accuracy and tolerance of dredging and placement (see 15.13);
• vessel production rates, method and works programme;
• draught and keel clearance of the vessel empty and loaded;
• location of borrow and deposition area;
• water depth and bathymetry;
• depth and width of access routes;
• hydraulic and meteorological conditions;
• waves and currents occurrence and persistence;
• economic considerations;
• contract and physical interfaces;
• suspended solids release and overflowing;
• vessel emissions and noise;
• environmental impact and criteria;
• water quality and ecology;
• presence of shipping;
• manoeuvrability, navigation, obstruction and collision avoidance.
The characteristics of dredging plant and equipment, and their advantages and
disadvantages, are discussed in 7.2 and 7.3, and should be accounted for when
planning a dredging operation.
NOTE 1 A preliminary guide to the selection of dredging plant for particular tasks
is given in 7.4.
Estimates of productive dredging time should make a suitable allowance for the
following factors, which can result in a substantial reduction in output.
a) Each of the many types of dredging plant has evolved to meet a particular
requirement. As a result, some types of dredger are suited to only a narrow
range of applications, while others are more versatile. It is therefore
important that the methods of dredging are properly understood during
the design and planning stages of the proposed works.
NOTE 2 Guidance is given in Dredging – a Handbook for Engineers [10].
b) The time taken and the cost of mobilizing dredging plant often represents a
major proportion of the dredging expenditure.
c) As with other types of civil engineering plant, the daily production of a
particular dredger is not simply the product of its rated output and the
hours manned. Dredging time can be lost for a number of reasons, e.g. haul

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distance, adverse weather, sea conditions, mechanical breakdown,

maintenance, tide levels, adverse currents, shipping, bunkering, victualing,
crew changes and suction or bucket fouling. Owing to the marine
environment, the percentage of time lost can be significantly greater than is
normally experienced with land plant.
The implications of using hopper overflow, such as when loading a trailing
suction hopper dredger, should be carefully evaluated.
NOTE 3 Prolonged overflow can result in the release of a substantial quantity of
sediment to the local marine environment with potentially adverse effect. Prolonged
overflow or screening can be necessary to improve the grading of materials intended
for a specific use, such as concrete aggregate, land reclamation or beach recharge.

7.2 Characteristics of hydraulic dredging plant

NOTE This subclause gives guidance on the characteristics and selection of dredgers
whose principal mode of operation is hydraulic.

7.2.1 Trailing suction hopper dredger

COMMENTARY ON 7.2.1
The trailing suction hopper dredger illustrated in Figure 3 is a ship that is suited to
river, coastal or deep sea navigation, and that has the ability to load its own hold,
normally called a hopper, by means of a centrifugal pump(s). Loading takes place
with the ship under way. Discharge is by means of a bottom dumping arrangement
or by pump discharge to shore for reclamation.
The trailing suction hopper dredger is usually rated according to its maximum
hopper capacity, which can range from 750 m3 to over 45 000 m3.
The intake end of the suction pipe is fitted with a “draghead” designed to maximize
the concentration of solids entrained from the seabed. The bearing pressure of the
draghead on the seabed is usually controlled by an adjustable
pressure-compensating system, which acts between the draghead and the hoisting
winch. This system also serves to alleviate the effects of vertical movement of the
ship relative to the seabed due to waves or swell.

Figure 3 Modern trailing suction hopper dredger

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The particular advantages and disadvantages of the trailing suction hopper

dredger that should be taken into account are:
• advantages:
• straightforward mobilization procedure;
• minimal effect on other shipping when working in areas of shipping
movement;
• independence of operation;
• relative immunity to adverse weather and sea conditions;
• relatively high rate of production;
• ability to remove thin layers of material over large areas efficiently;
• ability to transport dredged material over long distances;
• disadvantages:
• inability to work in areas of very restricted navigation, and shallow
depth;
• depth of dredging limited by length of suction pipe;
• sensitivity to presence of debris and foreign matter;
• tendency to dilute fine materials severely during the loading process,
bulking the volume of material contained in the hopper or for
subsequent placement;
• limited ability to dredge materials with significant inherent strength;
• requirement for pre-treatment to facilitate dredging of material with
significant inherent strength;
• efficiency reduction in areas where suspended sediment release has to
be limited for environmental reasons.
To achieve optimum performance, the draghead should be selected according to
the type of material to be dredged and the dredger being used.
The plant selected should make due allowance for dredged material that is very
cohesive or contains large solids, as this cannot only be difficult to dredge but
can also be difficult to discharge, forming blockages at the hopper’s bottom
doors or valves and adjacent structure.
When the objective of the work is to reclaim land, the spoil should where
practicable be pumped directly from the hopper into the reclamation area, but
may alternatively be bottom-discharged to a temporary surge pit for subsequent
re-handling by other equipment.
NOTE 1 See prEN 16907-6 for further guidance.
NOTE 2 Most trailing suction hopper dredgers are specially constructed to permit
this operation.
Since most trailing suction hopper dredgers usually use relatively low head
pumps, intermediate booster pumps should be employed where necessary to
pump through very long pipelines.

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7.2.2 Cutter suction dredger

7.2.2.1 General
COMMENTARY ON 7.2.2.1
The more common form of construction of a cutter suction dredger is that of a
rectangular pontoon (see Figure 4), although the very large cutter suction dredgers
can be ships. A cutter suction dredger can be self-propelled but is more commonly
dumb (non-self-propelled). Dredging usually takes place with the dredger located by
spuds and swung using long anchor wires. The cutter head provides a powerful
cutting action with suction pumping to discharge the dredged material, usually via
pipeline, onto the seabed, re-handling pit, deposition area, onshore placement area,
or land reclamation and into barges.
The cutter suction dredger (CSD) is normally rated according to either the diameter
of the discharge pipe, which can range from 150 mm to 1 200 mm, or by the cutter
head driving power, which can range from 50 kW to over 7 000 kW, or in the case of
very large dredgers by the total installed power.

Figure 4 Modern large cutter suction dredger fitted with submerged ladder pump and spud carriage

Key
1 Spud hoist 7 Anchor or working spud
2 Service crane 8 Underwater pump
3 Control cabin 9 Spud carriage
4 Auxiliary spud 10 Cutterhead
5 Ladder 11 Anchor boom
6 Cutter service platform

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The cutter head, which can be electrically or hydraulically driven, encloses the
suction intake of a centrifugal dredge pump. The cutter head is mounted at the
extremity of a fabricated steel structure, termed the “ladder”, which also supports
the suction pipe. The ladder is attached to the main hull by heavy hinges, which
permit rotation in the vertical plane. The ladder assembly is lowered and raised by
means of a hoisting winch (or occasionally hydraulic cylinders) controlled from the
bridge.
The main pontoon structure contains the dredge pump(s), the main engines and all
ancillary engines, drives and equipment. An underwater pump may also be included
mounted within the ladder construction.
The positioning and control of the dredger is usually by means of a combination of
spuds and anchor winches. Most modern CSDs employ a centrally mounted spud
carriage (see Figure 4). Occasionally only winches can be employed. Even more rarely,
on very small dredgers only spuds can be employed.
The discharge from the dredge pump(s) passes over the stern (or opposite end to the
cutter) of the pontoon to a heavy hose or flexible coupling, to which is connected a
floating pipeline for discharge.
The particular advantages and disadvantages of the cutter suction dredger that
should be taken into account are:
• advantages:
• relatively high rate of production;
• operation in relatively shallow water;
• ability to dredge a very wide range of material, including weak to
moderately strong rock, subject to rock strength and quality;
• ability to convey by pumping the dredged material, with water, directly
to the placement or reclamation area;
• ability to produce a fairly uniform accurate level bottom;
• ability to deliver dredged material pumped directly from the cutter
suction dredgers to a trailing suction dredger or barge in
environmentally sensitive locations where overflow is prohibited
(although the resultant productivity is low);
• disadvantages:
• mobilization impacted by sensitivity to sea conditions;
• obstructs shipping when working in areas of shipping movement;
• relative sensitivity to adverse weather and sea conditions;
• dredging depth is limited by length of ladder;
• anchor spread can pose a navigation hazard;
• requires frequent anchor movements;
• operation relies on anchor booms, or anchor handling tugs and support
vessels;
• sensitivity to presence of debris and foreign matter;
• inability to efficiently dredge thin layers over large areas;
• requirement for pre-treatment to facilitate dredging of materials with
significant inherent strength;
• tendency to dilute fine materials severely during the dredging process
leading to bulking of materials for placement.

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7.2.2.2 Pipelines
COMMENTARY ON 7.2.2.2
The most flexible pipeline construction is of reinforced rubber. It normally
incorporates a jacket of buoyant material to provide a positive buoyancy when the
pipeline is loaded with a pumped mixture of high relative density. The high cost of
such pipelines can be reduced by using a composite construction, which mixes steel
and rubber pipeline lengths.
Sinker pipelines are less susceptible to weather, tidal and current action and, because
flotation jackets are not required, are significantly cheaper than floating pipeline
sections. Similar to floating pipelines, their strength (and wall thickness) are very
important. Sinker pipelines typically have a greater wall thickness than onshore
pipeline. Unlike onshore and floating pipelines, which are normally bolted together,
sinker pipelines are usually welded constructions.
Pipelines should be selected to ensure both the performance and the
operational efficiency of the cutter suction dredger, taking into account the
diameter of the pipeline which has a direct bearing on the efficiency of the
hydrotransport process.
Pipelines fall into the following three categories.
a) Onshore pipelines. Onshore pipelines are most commonly steel with bolted
flange connection with a compressible gasket between flanges, which
should provide a watertight seal. When there are significant changes in
elevation along the pipeline route, air valves (“snifters”) should be fitted to
allow the escape of trapped air, which can otherwise restrict performance,
and to avoid the creation of an excessive vacuum, which can damage the
pipe.
b) Floating pipelines. The strength of the pipe should be sufficient to resist
high internal pressures and bending stresses. This is usually achieved by a
fully flexible self-floating pipeline or a mixture of rigid steel pipe connected
by sections of flexible pipe or steel ball joints. The resistance to abrasion or
cutting should be balanced against the benefits of pipeline flexibility.
c) Sinker pipelines. Sinker pipelines should be adopted where needed to
connect sections of floating and onshore pipeline, and where the pipes have
to be laid on the seabed (as is often required to minimize navigation
impacts).
NOTE Pipelines can terminate with either a free discharge or other hydraulic
control mechanism such as a diffuser which is added to the pipeline outfall to reduce
the discharge velocity and to spread the flow, reducing erosion and ensuring a more
uniform placing of material.

7.2.2.3 Anchors
The choice of anchors to be used with a cutter suction dredger should be based
on the ground conditions at the work site.
NOTE 1 Usually the cutter suction dredger works with one of the types of anchor
that secure a hold by penetration into the seabed. Large cutter suction dredgers
working in rock can develop winch pulls in excess of 150 t, to which has to be added
the dynamic loading arising from cutter reaction and wave action.
When the seabed is hard, the need to use some type of gravity anchor, which
relies on mass and friction to resist the winch pull, should be assessed.
NOTE 2 Various anchor types are covered in BS 6349-6, which is undergoing
revision at the time of publication of BS 6349-5.

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7.2.2.4 Cutter heads

COMMENTARY ON 7.2.2.4
Most of the cutter heads in common use are of the “crown” type. The main body of
the cutter head is formed in a cast steel alloy. The types of cutter are as follows.
• Plain bladed cutters. Plain bladed cutters are used only in weak materials, such
as silts, sands and clays. Blade edges are normally replaceable. The number of
blades is selected according to the intended application.
• Serrated blade cutters. Serrated blade cutters are primarily for use in materials
such as medium to stiff clays, medium dense sands or occasionally in very soft or
heavily weathered rocks. Blade edges can be replaced when worn.
• Rock cutters (see Figure 5). Rock cutters are of heavy construction with a
generous blade section. The blades incorporate integral sockets for the
mounting of a variety of types of replaceable teeth. The shape of the blades is
designed to maintain the maximum number of teeth in contact with the face
regardless of dredging depth. The teeth can range from a chisel form for stiff
clay and very weak rocks to a pick point form for the dredging of weak to
moderately strong rocks. The teeth are made from a highly wear-resistant alloy
steel and are usually attached by means of a single sprung pin, or bolt, which
reduces the time needed to change a tooth to a few minutes.
Cutterheads should be selected to have suitable characteristics for their
intended purpose.

Figure 5 Rock cutters

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7.2.3 Dustpan dredger

COMMENTARY ON 7.2.3
The dustpan dredger is a suction dredger that usually discharges through a short
floating pipeline but occasionally discharges into barges. In many respects it is similar
to the cutter suction dredger (see 7.2.2).
The most significant difference between the dustpan dredger and the cutter suction
dredger is the design of the suction head, which has no mechanical cutting action
but relies instead on an array of water jets to loosen and fluidize the bed deposits
(see Figure 6).
In normal operation the dredged material is discharged via a pipeline into deeper or
rapidly flowing water a few hundred metres from the dredging area.
The dustpan dredger is similar to the cutter suction dredger but without the cutting
power of the cutter head.

Figure 6 Dustpan dredger with suction head arrangement

a) Side elevation b) Plan

Key
1 Jet nozzles
2 Water in
3 Water jets
4 Suction
5 Water manifold

The particular advantages and disadvantages of the dustpan dredger that

should be taken into account are:
• advantages (distinct from CSD):
• ability to remove thin deposits of granular and detritus material from
relatively large areas;
• suitable for the relocation of material forming shoals to nearby deeper
areas;
• special dustpan dredgers able to produce accurately a plane level
surface to the seabed for the founding of precast structures;

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• disadvantages (distinct from CSD):

• efficient operation limited to the dredging of recent unconsolidated
deposits;
• can resulting in bulking of dredged deposits;
• accurate dredging in plan is limited due to anchor wire slack.

7.2.4 Water injection dredger (WID)

COMMENTARY ON 7.2.4
WID can be appropriate for the removal of fine sediment and recent mud deposits.
The technique involves the injection of water, in high volume but low pressure, into
the top layers of sediment deposits in order to fluidize these and to create a density
flow (Figure 7). In this way the sediments are removed from the area to be dredged,
but remain in the natural ecosystem and therefore its equilibrium is much less
disturbed.

Figure 7 Water injection dredging (WID)

Key
1 Water level
2 Propulsion
3 Water injection nozzle bar
4 Water pumps to feed injection

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WID vessels are equipped with a central pipe or a U-pipe fixed to a horizontal jet
bar that is orientated perpendicular to the direction of motion. The jet bar is fed by
one or two low pressure jet pumps and can be lowered with a winch to the seabed.
The jet bar contains an array of nozzles over the whole length of the bar to spread
the water evenly into the top soil layer. The low pressure jet pumps supply the high
volume of water that is required to break the cohesion of the soil and to dilute the
soil into a fluidized soil layer. WID vessels are capable of dredging fine sediments in
water depths of up to 30 m.
Sailing speeds during a WID operation are usually low (1 to 2 knots). Some WID
units are not self-propelled and require a pusher tug for manoeuvring. The WID
vessel in these cases consists of a purposely constructed barge with pumps, a jet bar
and a WID control unit. Some WID vessels are equipped with heave compensators to
maintain the jet bar at a certain depth. The width of the beam can vary as well as
the nozzle layout. Good manoeuvrability is an important asset for each WID vessel.
Bow thrusters and double propulsion contribute to a large extent to the
performance of a WID vessel.
The particular advantages and disadvantages of the WID dredger that should be
taken into account are:
• advantages:
• ability to work in areas of very restricted navigation;
• operation in relatively shallow water;
• independent operation if self-propelled;
• relatively high rate of production;
• ability to move fine sediment (typically <100 µm), assisted by mainly
natural forces;
• ability to produce a fairly uniform level bottom;
• controlled release of suspended sediments in environmentally sensitive
areas;
• disadvantages:
• relative sensitivity to adverse weather and sea conditions;
• dredging depth is limited by reach of injection arm;
• not usually suitable for dredging coarse sand or gravel;
• sensitivity to presence of debris and foreign matter;
• not suitable for dredging of materials with inherent strength;
• requirement to understand fate of material;
• range of transport limited by natural forces at dredge location;
• careful evaluation needed where suspended sediment release has to be
limited for environmental reasons.

7.2.5 Jet pumps/dredgers

COMMENTARY ON 7.2.5
Jet pumps (see Figure 8) can be incorporated into any dredger that works on the
suction principle, but are normally confined to plain suction types, such as the cutter
suction dredger (see 7.2.2). They can also be used to assist in the ejection of gas
from dredged mixtures with important improvements in production of materials that
contain significant amounts of gas. The jet pump is positioned in the suction pipe,
normally at the extremity.

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Figure 8 Illustration of jet pump with suction intake incorporating water jetting arrangement

Key
1 High pressure feed to jet nozzle 5 Inspection hatch
2 Mixed flow discharge 6 Main jet nozzle within housing
3 Mixing chamber 7 Induced inflow of mixture
4 Suction duct 8 Optional water jets for soil disintegration

The particular advantages and disadvantages of the jet pump that should be
taken into account are:
• advantages:
• ability to dredge to greater depth;
• ability to continue dredging with a buried suction intake without undue
risk of cavitation (assuming a system designed to operate buried);
• much reduced risk of pipeline blockage when discharging through
pipelines;
• reduced costs due to wear if handling abrasive materials;
• disadvantages:
• significant reduction in the overall system efficiency when compared
with a solids-handling centrifugal pump;
• rather limited residual head available for the discharge of the dredged
materials through pipelines;
• maximum discharge distance is significantly less than with a centrifugal
solids-handling pump;
• for longer discharge distances or high heads, it becomes necessary to
employ a conventional solids-handling centrifugal pump in the
discharge line to provide additional head.

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7.2.6 Air-lift dredgers

COMMENTARY ON 7.2.6
The air-lift dredger (see Figure 9 for method of loading) achieves flow in a pipe by
the injection of compressed air at the submerged extremity of the pipe.
The entrained air results in a reduction in the density of the air/water mixture within
the pipe and an upward flow is induced. Fine loose soils, including silts and fine
sands, can be eroded and carried in suspension by the inflowing water. The system
works best when removing fine materials in deep water.

Figure 9 Illustration of air lift principle

Key
1 High-pressure air 4 Annular injection high-pressure air
2 Low-velocity mixture outlet 5 Seabed
3 Induced rising flow 6 Entrained solids

The particular advantages and disadvantages of the air lift dredger that should
be taken into account are:
• advantages:
• can be assembled from readily available components;
• great simplicity, including absence of submerged moving parts;
• suitable for removal of fine silts, and sands;
• small dredging assembly can be light in mass, to suit use by divers for
local excavation;
• useful as a simple underwater cleaner for the clearance of sediment
from around wrecks or structures and for the cleaning of submerged
foundations;
• disadvantages:
• operation not efficient in shallow water;
• low production rates;
• discharge local to dredging location;

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• limited to the dredging of recent unconsolidated deposits;

• can resulting in bulking of dredged deposits.

7.3 Mechanical dredgers

NOTE This subclause describes the characteristics of dredgers whose principal mode
of operation is mechanical. The size of mechanical dredgers are generally
characterized in terms of their bucket capacity.

7.3.1 Grab hopper dredger

COMMENTARY ON 7.3.1
As in the case of the trailing suction hopper dredger (see 7.2.1), the grab hopper
dredger is a ship (see Figure 10), but it is loaded by means of deck-mounted grab
cranes, or backhoe excavator, rather than by suction pumps. Loading takes place
with the dredger stationary at anchor and the number of loading cranes does not
normally exceed four. The hopper capacity is normally modest and capacities in
excess of 1 500 m3 are uncommon. The method of discharge is invariably via
bottom-opening doors.

Figure 10 Small self-propelled grab hopper dredger with single crane

Key
1 Grab crane
2 Stern mooring winch
3 Forward mooring winches
4 Hopper

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The particular advantages and disadvantages of the grab hopper dredger that
should be taking into account are:
• advantages:
• straightforward mobilization procedure;
• minimal effect on other shipping when working in areas of shipping
movement;
• relative immunity to adverse weather and sea conditions;
• well suited to the dredging of confined areas, such as alongside quays,
in dock entrances and around;
• depth of operation of the grab is only limited by the wire capacity of
the hoisting winch drum, allowing dredge to depths not possible with
other dredgers of comparable size;
• rubbish and debris can be handled with relative ease;
• potentially difficult rubbish and debris can be separated and stowed on
deck for subsequent disposal onshore;
• loads dredged material with minimal disturbance or dilution;
• hopper can be largely filled with solids, with low bulking;
• ability to transport dredged material over long distances;
• can be operated to limit the release of suspended sediments in
environmentally sensitive areas;
• disadvantages:
• certain types of debris, such as ropes, hawsers and chains, can obstruct
bottom door closure after discharge of spoil;
• anchor wires can be a hazard to other navigation;
• relatively low rate of production compared with most other types of
dredger;
• difficulty of producing an accurate and level bottom finish;
• requirement for pre-treatment to facilitate dredging of material with
significant inherent strength;
• efficiency reduction in areas where suspended sediment release has to
be limited for environmental reasons.
NOTE The grab hopper dredger is normally rated according to its hopper volume.

7.3.2 Grab pontoon dredger

COMMENTARY ON 7.3.2
The dredging equipment of the grab pontoon dredger (see Figure 11) is essentially
the same as that of the grab hopper dredger (see 7.3.1), but the maximum capacity
of the grab bucket and crane can be significantly greater. The dredger loads into
independent hopper barges. This permits an uninterrupted dredging operation with
the result that higher overall rates of production are possible.

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Figure 11 Large grab pontoon dredger with all winch mooring system

Key
1 Accommodation
2 Crane
3 Spare grab
4 Grab bucket
5 Moorings

The particular advantages and disadvantages of the grab pontoon dredger that
should be taken into account are:
• advantages:
• capable of operation in relatively shallow water;
• depth of operation of the grab is only limited by the wire length,
allowing dredging to greater depths than other dredgers of comparable
size;
• rubbish and debris can be handled with relative ease;
• potentially difficult rubbish and debris can be separated and stowed on
deck for subsequent disposal onshore;
• loads dredged material with minimal disturbance or dilution;
• barge can be largely filled with solids, with low bulking;
• can be operated to limit the release of suspended sediments in
environmentally sensitive areas;

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• disadvantages:
• mobilization impacted by sensitivity to sea conditions;
• relative sensitivity to adverse weather and sea conditions;
• obstructs shipping when working in areas of shipping movement;
• anchor spread can pose a navigation hazard;
• requires frequent anchor movements;
• operation relies on anchor handling tugs and support vessels;
• relatively low rate of production compared with most other types of
dredger;
• results depend on operator skill;
• difficulty of achieving a complete and overlapping coverage of the
bottom, particularly in deep water or where the strength of current is
significant;
• inability to efficiently dredge thin layers over large areas;
• difficulty of producing an accurate and level bottom finish;
• requirement for pre-treatment to facilitate dredging of material with
significant inherent strength;
• efficiency reduction in areas where suspended sediment release has to
be limited for environmental reasons.
NOTE The grab pontoon dredger is normally rated according to the maximum
capacity of grab (bucket capacity) that can be handled. This can range from 0.75 m3
to 200 m3, although the latter largest capacity is uncommon.

7.3.3 Backhoe dredger

COMMENTARY ON 7.3.3
The backhoe dredger (see Figure 12) has evolved from the common land-based
backhoe excavator, but whereas the land-based machine is normally mounted on a
tracked or wheeled undercarriage, the dedicated dredging machine is mounted on a
fabricated pedestal located at one extremity of a spud-rigged pontoon. For most
dredging applications the machine is much larger than common land-based
machines, being more comparable to large machines employed in the mining
industry.
Where a conventional backhoe machine with tracked undercarriage is installed
on a barge for dredging work, a secure, shock-absorbing pontoon mounting
should be employed if the full digging potential of the machine is to be
realized.
Spud location of the pontoon should generally be provided to create a positive
reaction to the hydraulic digging action, particularly when dredging in difficult
ground.
The backhoe dredger is normally rated according to the maximum size of
digging bucket that the machine can handle. This can currently be up
to 40 m3 for the largest dredgers. The size of bucket employed should be set
depending upon the nature of the material to be dredged and the maximum
dredging depth. Maximum dredging depth can range from 4 m to
approximately 30 m.

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Figure 12 Hydraulic backhoe dredger

Key
1 Propulsion units 3 Backhoe
2 Walking spud 4 Fixed spuds

The particular advantages and disadvantages of the backhoe dredger that

should be taken into account are:
• advantages:
• ability to work in areas of very restricted navigation;
• can operate close to quay walls and structures;
• reasonable rate of production;
• operation in relatively shallow water;
• ability to dredge a wide range of materials, including those that contain
debris;
• ability of larger machines to dredge boulders, stiff clays and weak,
weathered or fractured rocks, provided that the maximum required
dredging depth is not excessive;
• relatively accurate final dredged profile;
• ability to produce a fairly uniform level bottom;
• limited bulking of dredged material;
• dredged material retains more in-situ strength characteristics;
• can operate with a closed bucket to limit the release of suspended
sediments in environmentally sensitive areas;
• disadvantages:
• mobilization impacted by sensitivity to sea conditions;
• relative sensitivity to adverse weather and sea conditions;
• sufficient size and stability required in locations with significant waves
or swell;
• low rate of production when compared with dredgers with relatively
continuous dredging process (i.e. cutter suction and bucket dredgers);
• dredging depth is limited by length of boom and arm;

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• considerable dependence on the skill of the operator;

• limited efficiently dredged thin layers over large areas;
• requirement for pre-treatment to facilitate dredging of hard materials
with significant inherent strength.
NOTE The backhoe is most efficient when working from behind the face, which
means that the pontoon is located over the area to be dredged. If water depth is at
any time less than the maximum draught of the pontoon, this might not be
practical.

7.3.4 Bucket chain dredger

The particular advantages and disadvantages of the bucket chain dredger that
should be taken into account are:
• advantages:
• capable of operation in relatively shallow water;
• capable of dredging relatively hard materials, including weak rock,
subject to rock strength and quality;
• loads dredged material with low disturbance or dilution;
• barges can be largely filled with solids, with low bulking;
• can prepare relatively level bed;
• disadvantages:
• mobilization impacted by sensitivity to sea conditions;
• relative sensitivity to adverse weather and sea conditions;
• obstructs shipping when working in areas of shipping movement;
• anchor spread can pose a navigation hazard;
• requires frequent anchor movements;
• operation relies on anchor handling tugs and support vessels;
• depth of operation is limited by depth of ladder;
• low efficiency when required to remove only a small depth of material;
• possible failure of the buckets to discharge properly in certain cohesive
materials, which tend to be sticky;
• requirement for pre-treatment to facilitate dredging of hard materials
with significant inherent strength;
• noise levels that are higher than those generated by other dredgers.
NOTE Bucket chain dredgers have largely been superseded by cutter suction
dredgers (see 7.2.2).

7.3.5 Dipper dredger

NOTE The traditional dipper dredger is a heavily constructed, rope-operated
machine, that has to a limited extent been replaced by the hydraulic face shovel and
backhoe dredgers (see 7.3.2 and 7.3.3).
Dipper dredgers should be used where appropriate for any of the following:
• where forming a dredged face is beneficial;
• to dredge access for the dredger into shallow water;
• in stratified hard material, where the lifting action can break up material
that an equivalent backhoe cannot dredge.

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7.3.6 Bed-levellers, rakes and ploughs

COMMENTARY ON 7.3.6
Bed-levellers (see Figure 13), sometimes called ploughs, are not dredgers in the
conventional sense, but a means of moving material over the seabed, or causing it
to rise into suspension to be transported away by natural water flow.
The function of the bed-leveller can be best compared with that of the bulldozer or
grader on land. Like these land machines, the bed-leveller is only effective over
relatively short distances, generally up to about 100 m. Where it is necessary to
move material further, it is generally more economical to dredge the material and
transport it in a hopper or by pumping.
The bed-leveller is most commonly used to move material from high spots in shallow
water into deeper areas. It can be used to move material into sufficient depth for
removal by trailing suction hopper dredger, or to level off the high spots left by the
trailing suction hopper dredger due to “tracking” or some other problem (see 7.2.1).

Figure 13 Deployment method for bed leveller and typical bed leveller assembly

Key
1 To hoist winch 4 Cutter blade
2 Bed leveller 5 Open bottom
3 To tug forward

Bed-levellers should be used where appropriate for any of the following:

• to level uneven areas of bed subsequent to dredging by trailing suction
hopper dredgers;
• to remove debris by raking prior to dredging;

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• to draw material to areas accessible for trailing suction hopper dredgers;

• to create access for a trailing suction hopper dredger into shallow water.
NOTE Rakes and ploughs can be used to remove light debris that might interfere
with dredging activities prior to the commencement of works.

7.3.7 Trenching equipment

To protect offshore pipelines and cables, trenching techniques should be
adopted as necessary to avoid ship, anchor and trawl impact, to reduce
spanning, to avoid currents and sediment movement, such as:
• direct dredging;
• dredging and side casting;
• ploughs;
• jetting and burial machines.
NOTE Pipeline protection can be effected using equipment such as:
• side dump barges;
• fall pipes;
• rock placement fall pipes.
Particular care should be taken to avoid excessive fall velocities that can displace
and damage pipelines and cause seabed instability.
For pipelines and cable landfalls the appropriate equipment should be selected
to ensure effective production in shallow water and possible surf conditions.

7.3.8 Barges
The appropriate method of dredged material transport should be selected to
suit the dredger and site conditions.
NOTE Hydraulic dredgers, which typically discharge through floating pipelines
giving high productivity, are covered in 7.2.
For mechanical dredgers, a variety of barges are used to support dredging
operations, namely hopper, split hopper, and side dump. Specialist deep
placement barges should be deployed, particularly where accurate placement is
required at depth, such as when placing rockfill scour protection round seabed
facilities. Self-propelled barges should be adopted:
• for the efficient transport of material over greater distances;
• in areas of adverse sea conditions where dumb barges handled by tugs, are
slow and susceptible to sea conditions.

7.4 Dredger selection

Preliminary guidance on the selection of the more common items of dredging
plant is given in Table 11 to Table 13. More definitive advice should be sought
from dredging practitioners and professionals before committing to a particular
method or plant. The tables assume knowledge of various site conditions.
This knowledge should be used to determine the general suitability of each type
of plant in relation to the site characteristics.
It is intended that these tables provide only a general guide to plant suitability.
The tables are not definitive, and actual selection should be based on the
particular plant, sea, ground and project conditions. The simplistic approach
does not take account of all factors, but normally provides a reasonable
indication of the optimum plant type(s) for a particular task.

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 Table 11 Guidance on the selection of plant for maintenance dredging

Site conditions Trailing suction Cutter suction Grab pontoon Backhoe Barge unloader
<5 000 m3 > Capacity < >15 000 m3

Bed material
Loose silt 1 1 1 1 2 2 1
Cohesive silt 2 1 1 1 1 1 2
Fine sand 1 1 1 1 2 2 1
BRITISH STANDARD

Medium sand 1 1 1 1 2 2 1
Coarse sand 1 1 1 1 2 1 1
Sea conditions
Enclosed water 2 3 N 1 1 1 2
Sheltered water 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Exposed water 2 1 1 3 3 3 N
Disposal to:
Shore 1 1 1 1 32 3 1
Tide 1 1 1 1 N N N
Sea bed 1 1 1 3 1 1 N
Quantities
< 100 000 m3 1 2 3 1 1 1 1
< 250 000 m3 2 1 2 1 2 1 1
< 500 000 m3 2 1 2 1 3 3 1
3
> 500 000 m 3 1 1 1 3 3 1
Heavy traffic 1 1 1 2 2 1 1
Confined working 2 3 3 1 1 1 2
Key
1 = Most suitable; 2 = Acceptable; 3 = Marginal; N = Not usually suitable.

NOTE Other factors not referred to can influence the choice of dredger. The table provides only a general guide.

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60
Table 12 Guidance on the selection of plant for capital dredging

•
Site conditions Trailing suction Cutter suction Grab pontoon Backhoe
<5 000 m3 > Capacity < >15 000 m3

Bed material
Loose silt 1 1 1 1 2 2
BS 6349-5:2016

Cohesive silt 1 1 1 1 1 1
Fine sand 1 1 1 1 2 2
Medium/Coarse sand 1 1 1 1 2 2
Gravel 1 1 1 1 1 1
Soft clay 1 1 1 2 1 1
Medium clay 2 2 2 2 2 1
Stiff clay 3 3 3 3 3 1
Cobbles 3 3 2 2 1 1
Boulders N N N 3 2 1

© The British Standards Institution 2016

Very weak rock N 3 3 1 3 1
Weak rock N N 3 1 N 1
Moderately weak rock N N 3 1 N 2
Pre-treated rock 2 2 1 1 2 1
Sea conditions
Enclosed water 2 3 N 1 1 1
Sheltered water 1 1 1 1 1 1
Exposed water 2 1 1 3 3 3
Disposal to:
Shore 1 1 1 1 3 3
Tide 1 1 1 1 N N
Sea bed 1 1 1 3 1 1
Quantities
< 100 000 m3 1 2 3 1 1 1
3
< 250 000 m 1 1 2 1 2 1
< 500 000 m3 2 1 2 1 3 2
> 500 000 m3 3 1 1 1 3 3
Heavy traffic 1 1 1 3 3 2
Confined working 2 3 3 2 1 1
Key
1 = Most suitable; 2 = Acceptable; 3 = Marginal; N = Not usually suitable.

NOTE Other factors not referred to can influence the choice of dredger. The table provides only a general guide.
BRITISH STANDARD
 Table 13 Guidance on the selection of plant for land reclamationA) and beach recharge
A)
Site conditions Trailing suction Cutter suction Grab pontoon Backhoe
<5 000 m3 > Capacity < >15 000 m3

Bed material
Fine sand 1 1 1 1 3 3
Medium sand 1 1 1 1 3 3
Coarse sand 1 1 1 1 3 3
BRITISH STANDARD

Gravel 2 1 1 1 3 3
Cobbles 3 2 2 2 3 3
Boulders N N N N 3 3
Very weak rock N 3 3 1 3 3
Weak rock N N N 1 N 3
Sea conditions
Enclosed water 2 3 N 1 1 1
Sheltered water 1 1 1 1 1 1
Exposed water 2 1 1 3 3 2
Placing by:
Direct dumping 2 3 3 N 2 2
Direct pumping 2 N N 1 N N
Transport and pump 1 1 1 N N N
Barge and dump 3 3 3 3 1 1
Quantities
< 100 000 m3 1 2 3 1 1 1
< 250 000 m3 1 1 2 1 2 1
3
< 500 000 m 2 1 2 1 3 2
> 500 000 m3 3 1 1 1 3 3
Heavy traffic 1 1 1 3 3 2
Confined working 3 3 N 2 1 1
Key
1 = Most suitable; 2 = Acceptable; 3 = Marginal; N = Not usually suitable.

NOTE Other factors not referred to can influence the choice of dredger. The table provides only a general guide.
A)
Guidance on reclamation with dredged hydraulic fill in given in in prEN 16907-6.

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8 Maintenance dredging
COMMENTARY ON CLAUSE 8
Many aspects of maintenance dredging are covered in other clauses and
consequently only particular aspects are discussed here.
Maintenance dredging generally involves the removal (or relocation) of soils recently
deposited, usually comprising relatively fine sediments (sand and finer). Normally,
the material to be removed is of small thickness and low strength. When dredging
alongside quays or jetties, particularly in industrial areas, the sediments can contain
materials such as spilled cargo, cables, ropes and jetsam.
In maintenance dredging the strength of the soil to be dredged is generally low and
it is unnecessary for dredging plant employed to have a powerful cutting or
dredging action. In many instances, particularly where dredging volumes are small,
relatively lightweight equipment is adequate for the task.
Most kinds of dredging equipment can be used for maintenance dredging. The types
most commonly used are trailing suction hopper dredgers, small cutter suction
dredgers, grab dredgers, backhoe dredgers, ploughs and water injection dredgers
(see Clause 7 and Table 10).

8.1 General
Dredged areas should be designed such that operational needs are met and the
rate of infill into the areas is minimized. Applicability of channel/berth design
techniques such as over-dredging and the use of sediment traps should be
assessed in situations where accumulation rates are predicted to be high.
Channel/berth design with respect to dredging is a technical activity and should
be undertaken by a competent person.
The interval between maintenance dredging programmes can be as little as a
few weeks or as long as a few years, and should be determined on a
case-by-case (need) basis but with adequate forward planning.

8.2 Plant for maintenance dredging

Maintenance dredging (see Table 11) normally involves the removal of recently
deposited fine sediments. Consequently, operators should take into account the
reduced need for exceptionally powerful or heavily built equipment. If the
distance to the disposal area is long, the operators should ensure that the
maximum sailing speed and design of the hopper or dredger is suitable for the
efficient loading and transport of fine materials.
The operational factors required when setting maintenance dredging strategy
should be determined in accordance with BS 6349-1-1.
NOTE For regular maintenance dredging, the ranges of quantity to be dredged
that are listed in Table 10 are for each separate campaign.

8.3 Infill calculation

Infill calculations should utilize bathymetric survey data collected over the area
to be subject to maintenance dredging (see Clause 6). Measurement of bed level
before, during and after maintenance dredging should be undertaken in a
careful and consistent way, with particular attention being paid to echo-sounder
acoustic frequency (see Clause 6).
To maximize the value of the surveys and the confidence in the infill
calculations, consistent methods should be used for the surveys in question. If it
is suspected that fluid mud might exist in an area then a dual frequency
echo-sounder should be used with acoustic frequencies approximating 33 kHz
and 210 kHz.

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8.4 Design and planning of maintenance dredging

In the design and planning of maintenance dredging, early attention should be
given to environmental aspects (see Clause 5), including sampling and testing of
the materials to be dredged for contaminants and particle size, as this informs
the dredging methodology and choice of dredging plant.
NOTE 1 The number of sediment samples required for testing, and the suite of
contaminants that are to be analysed, are usually informed by the relevant
regulatory body (requirements can vary according to region).
The planning process should include the investigation of available options for
the placement or use of the dredged material. Rather than placing dredged
material at a marine disposal site, thereby removing it from the sediment
budget of the estuary or coastal zone, beneficial use options should be
preferentially employed where practicable, whereby some or all of the material
is retained in the system. For example, there might be options available for
sediment to be placed within an estuary to feed intertidal areas or for use in
other forms of coastal defence or sediment cycling. Where the material is of
appropriate quality, options for its use in engineering works (such as
reclamations or general construction) should be investigated.
The planning of maintenance dredging operations should also take into account
the port usage and in particular the anticipated vessel traffic type and density of
movements.
NOTE 2 Certain vessels, such as LNG tankers, require that an exclusion, or buffer,
zone is maintained around them. The exclusion zone is an area of water where
access is restricted such that other vessels cannot enter, berth, moor or anchor.
Unauthorized entry into the zone, which extends below the water level to the
seabed and under any wharf adjacent to the zone, is classed as an offence.
Such exclusion zones can have significant implications for the planning of dredging
operations.
NOTE 3 Attention is drawn to the following legislation in respect of dredging
activities in general, and licensing and environmental impact assessments in
particular:
• Marine and Coastal Access Act 2009 [11];
• Marine Works (Environmental Impact Assessment) Regulations 2007 [12];
• Conservation of Habitats and Species Regulations 2010 [13];
• Offshore Marine Conservation (Natural Habitats, etc.) Regulations 2007 [14].

8.5 Methodology
The method of dredging and the particular type of plant to be employed should
be determined on the basis of the specific dredging requirement and the
particular characteristics of the site (see Clause 7).
If the planning and design of dredging shows that the release of sediment to
the environment needs to be strictly minimized then the viability of using plant
with low release rates (e.g. backhoe dredgers and grabs with visors) should be
assessed, along with the use of techniques such as placement via barges,
without overflow (see Clause 7).
When routinely using water injection dredging for maintenance activities,
planning should include provision for coarsening of the bed sediments at the
site over time, as this can be a consequence of the use of the technique
(ultimately a trailing suction hopper dredger might need to be employed
periodically to remove the coarse lag sediments; see Clause 7).

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Those involved in designing and planning maintenance dredging should bear in

mind that at certain sites such as quays and jetties it might be possible and
advantageous to position dredging plant on land.
Where dredging close to structures, dredging methodologies should clearly set
out how removal of material close to the structure is to be achieved, without
damage being inflicted on the structure. The regime for monitoring the
integrity of the structure should also be agreed and set out.
NOTE A guide to the selection of plant for particular types of maintenance
dredging activity is given in Clause 7 and Table 10.

8.6 Frequency of maintenance dredging

A maintenance dredging strategy should be developed taking into account the
practical constraints on navigation, dredging equipment, efficiency, availability,
weather, operational and environmental windows, to determine the economic
and environmentally preferred, or otherwise optimal, dredging method and
frequency.
The frequency of a maintenance dredging programme should be assessed taking
into account:
• the rate of sediment accumulation in the areas to be dredged;
• the operational requirements of the waterway (i.e. shipping for a
navigation channel, flow rates for a river channel).
The optimum timing of dredging (e.g. with respect to seasonal and tidal
variations) should be assessed, as dredging might not be possible or permitted
(via licences) under certain conditions, while its efficiency and benefit (with
respect to retention of materials in the sediment transport system) might be
increased under others. Numerical modelling should be used to inform such
assessments for projects of an appropriate scale.

8.7 Soil density and maintenance dredging

COMMENTARY ON 8.7
Some waterway bed sediments are of a semi-fluid nature, consisting of very fine
particles in a dense solution (referred to as fluid mud). Where such materials have
been shown to exist consistently and have been extensively investigated in terms of
their characteristics, ports sometimes operate a policy whereby vessels knowingly
navigate through such fluid muds. Operation of such a system is sometimes referred
to as the “nautical bottom approach”. The density of fluid mud deposits is at a
minimum at the upper surface and increases with depth. In these situations, the
position of the bed is difficult to define and therefore difficult to measure.
Determination of water depth purely on the basis of the record produced by a high
frequency echosounder (e.g. 200 kHz or higher) can occasionally result in dredging
being carried out at intervals that are shorter than is strictly necessary to preserve
safe and proper navigation depths.
Fluid mud is particularly likely during and immediately after dredging in some
environments. The materials can then consolidate and/or be subject to transport
beyond the dredging location.
The existence of fluid mud does not necessarily mean that the material is safe to
navigate through. The density of fluid mud is often used operationally
(measured) to provide a guide to its navigability (or otherwise). However, the
relationship between navigability and density varies between ports,
demonstrating that it is not simply density which governs navigability.
The rheological properties of fluid mud are important to navigability, as are the
characteristics and operation of the vessels making passage.

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For the adoption of the nautical bottom approach, the density and rheological
properties of fluid mud at the bed of a waterway should be established, with
due attention being paid to the way in which these properties vary spatially and
temporally (particularly tidally and seasonally) and the way in which the
properties are measured (rheology can be altered by sediment sampling and
transport).
Specialist advice should be sought with respect to the collection and
interpretation of rheology and density data in terms of vessel
navigability/manoeuvrability, bearing in mind that once data analysis and
interpretation has been undertaken it might be decided that a full scale trial is
needed using an agreed vessel. Following conclusion of the investigation, if it is
decided to use a nautical depth approach then fluid mud density and/or
rheology measurements should be used operationally in order to inform the
need for maintenance dredging. The optimum method of dredging in relation
to the allowable draught should be established through assessment and
experience built up at the site. The likely efficiency of water injection dredging
should be assessed; at some sites this is used to reduce the density of fluid mud
and enhance its navigability and propensity for transport.

8.8 Alternative and supplementary strategies

COMMENTARY ON 8.8
Hard engineering structures such as training walls and current deflecting walls are
sometimes used in order to try to reduce maintenance dredging requirements.
The use of training walls for this purpose is now relatively rare in the UK and many
other locations due to factors such as cost, performance of the structures and
unintended side effects arising from rigid structures.
Sediment traps are sometimes included in the design of dredged areas to increase
the interval between maintenance dredges. The purpose of a sediment trap is to
accommodate infill material that would otherwise have accumulated in a navigation
or berth area. The use of sediment traps does not negate the need for maintenance
dredging altogether, as the traps themselves require dredging in order to remain
functional. As traps fill and become less efficient, the infill rate of the navigation
area/berth can be expected to increase.
Specialist advice should be sought if alternative and supplementary measures to
maintenance dredging are being considered. The design of any alternative or
supplementary strategy should be subject to detailed study prior to its
implementation and can include numerical modelling. These studies should focus
not only on the effectiveness, cost and potential benefits but also on the
potential for negative impacts on the surrounding environment and
infrastructure.

8.9 Disposal of material

The disposal of dredged materials should be undertaken in accordance
with Clause 12.

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9 Capital dredging
COMMENTARY ON CLAUSE 9
Capital dredging occurs where an area is dredged for the first time or to a greater
depth than previously dredged.

9.1 General
The project site should be characterized by the investigation methods
in Clause 6 relating to:
• site bathymetry;
• soil conditions;
• metocean and sea conditions;
• environmental surveys.
The dredging scheme should be designed to meet the respective performance
criteria in Clause 4.4 and the environmental design criteria in Clause 5.

9.2 Capital dredging plant

COMMENTARY ON 9.2
In many cases, capital dredging involves dredging a range of different materials.
The unpredictability can be reduced by a good quality soils investigation.
The requirements of the work can also be very varied. Consequently, versatility can
be important, in respect of both the ability to tackle a wide range of ground
conditions and the ability to work in a variety of ways, e.g. employing varying
methods of spoil disposal.
A guide to the selection of plant is given in Clause 7 and more specifically the plant
commonly employed is given in Table 12.
Generally, plant to be employed upon capital works should be of more rugged
construction and greater power than plant of the same type designed
specifically for maintenance work, as the material is undisturbed with
consequently stronger in-situ strengths and higher densities.

9.3 Debris
Areas that are likely to contain appreciable quantities of debris, such as at
fitting-out, scrap and river berths, can be difficult to dredge with trailing
suction-type dredgers or cutter suction dredgers, and should be fully evaluated
so that the area can be cleared before capital dredging, by suitable equipment
such as grab or backhoe dredgers or cleared by means of a bottom rake or
plough (see 7.3.6).
NOTE Attention is drawn to the legal requirements in connection with the disposal
of debris.

9.4 Particular geotechnical conditions

9.4.1 General
The soil conditions illustrated in Table 11 to Table 13 can all affect capital
dredging works and should be taken into account during design, plant selection
and operations, as described in 9.4.2 to 9.4.6.

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9.4.2 Clays
NOTE 1 Certain clays of high plasticity adhere to the buckets of any bucket-type
dredger. As a result, the material can be difficult to discharge from the bucket and
subsequently can be difficult to discharge from the hopper into which it is loaded.
Special jetting facilities might be required to assist the release of dredged clays.
When the presence of highly plastic clays is suspected, hoppers should be
employed that have a regular internal construction with an unobstructed
opening for spoil placement to allow rapid discharge.
The appropriate plant should be selected for dredging the clays at the dredging
location (Clause 7 and Table 11 to Table 13).
NOTE 2 Selection of the incorrect plant can lead to production being substantially
reduced in areas of stiff and hard clays and where boulders are present.

9.4.3 Peat
Special measures should be applied as necessary when dredging peat due to its
low density, possible gas content and tendency to swell rapidly upon the
removal of any overburden.
If pumped onshore, the containment areas should have sufficient excess capacity
to cope with the high bulking that commonly occurs.
Suction methods should be avoided if possible.
NOTE When loaded into hoppers by pumping, the maximum load is governed by
the concentration of the peat in the incoming mixture. No increase in hopper load is
achieved by continued pumping after the hopper is filled with mixture.

9.4.4 Flints
The selection of plant should account for the highly abrasive nature of flint that
can cause exceptional wear rates in pumps and pipelines, especially where high
concentrations of flint cobbles or nodules are found, often on the surface of
weathered chalk deposits.
NOTE Dredging might be most economical using a bucket-type dredger.

9.4.5 Vegetation
Appropriate provision should be made in areas of heavy vegetation, such as
seaweed, reeds, rushes, mangrove, etc., which can cause serious problems for
suction-type dredgers.
Care should be taken to avoid vegetation causing pump blockage and engine
overheating on blockage of the cooling system of the dredgers or other craft on
the site.
NOTE Where high concentrations of weed are known to occur, it might be
preferable to employ bucket-type dredgers or to employ separate plant to clear the
weed in advance of dredging.

9.4.6 Dredging of cobbles and boulders

COMMENTARY ON 9.4.6
Cobbles and boulders do not usually occur in large volumes on their own.
When they do, appropriate plant can be selected. However, they are commonly
found in glaciated or volcanic regions, usually as a constituent of glacial tills or
agglomerates, in which identification of the boulders can be extremely difficult. It is
as a constituent of these materials that they pose the greatest problem in dredging.

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The most effective dredgers for dredging cobbles and boulders are those that would
be used for fragmented rock, generally the mechanical bucket-type dredgers, but
the material in which the cobbles and boulders lie, usually complex clay, sand and
gravel beds, might be best dredged by a suction, cutter suction or trailing dredger,
which is not suitable for cobbles and boulders.
Therefore, material containing cobbles and boulders can either be dredged as a
composite mass at low output by a mechanical dredger, which is only slightly
dependent on boulder percentage, or be dredged by suction, cutter suction or
possibly trailing dredger giving a high output. In the latter case, the high output can
fall sharply with an increasing boulder percentage and with the further risk that
large boulders cannot be dredged.
When the production of suction, cutter suction or trailing dredgers is reduced by
the presence of boulders the method should be adjusted, and if necessary the
equipment modified if reasonable production rates are required.
NOTE Boulders that have been left behind by a suction dredger, or that have been
pushed to one side by a mechanical dredger, might still have to be removed.
This can usually be achieved with a grab dredger, although there might be instances
when the boulders are so large that some alternative has to be found. The following
methods have been used successfully:
• blasting, followed by grab dredging;
• dredging alongside the boulder to make a pit into which the boulder falls,
below the dredge level (this can create problems for any future dredging work);
• trawling the boulders with wire nets from a specially adapted fishing boat
(unlikely to be successful except in ideal conditions).

9.5 Dredging of naturally well-graded sands

COMMENTARY ON 9.5
On some sites it is found that natural grading of sand has occurred in such a way
that the material packs together tightly with smaller particles filling most of the
interstices between the bigger particles. The resulting sand in its natural state has a
great resistance to penetration and, even when removed from the seabed and
placed in a hopper, can reform into a compact mass, which can be difficult to
discharge.
Such materials can also prove difficult to discharge from hoppers. In hoppers with
chain-operated bottom doors, the sand can consolidate around the chains to such an
extent that upon release of the chain tension the doors remain closed.
Alternatively, “arching” within the sand mass can resist discharge, even though the
bottom doors are open or, in the case of split hoppers, the hull is partially split.
Dredgers that exert a positive thrust in their digging action should be adopted,
to achieve satisfactory outputs in naturally well-graded sands.

10 Rock dredging
COMMENTARY ON CLAUSE 10
The dredging of rock often requires extensive pre-treatment, most commonly by
drilling and blasting, adding further activities that are difficult to exercise in marine
conditions even with modern custom-built plant and equipment. As a result rock
dredging is the most expensive type of dredging carried out in normal maritime and
fluvial engineering. In this context, rock is considered both as a solid rock mass, and
also as an extensive mass of material cemented together in a matrix.

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The ease, or otherwise, with which rock can be dredged is dependent on the rock
strength and rock quality. Rock comprising pieces of high strength is easily dredged
if the rock mass is highly fractured and fractures are open. Rock with few or very
tight fractures can only be dredged directly if of low strength. The limiting strength,
most commonly described by the compressive strength (UCS), is dependent on the
type, size and power of the dredger to be employed. For very large and powerful
cutter suction dredgers, the upper limit for direct dredging of good quality rock is
typically taken as about 70 MPa, but with a low production rate.

10.1 General
Site investigations should be carried out within the areas to be dredged to
determine whether rock is present in any quantity, however small. For example,
agglomerated and cemented sands should be treated as rocks, while boulders
need not. The dredging of cobbles and boulders should be carried out in
accordance with 9.4.6.
It should be determined whether any rock found can be dredged directly
without pre-treatment, or whether pre-treatment is necessary, and if so to what
degree. Rock that cannot be dredged directly should be pre-treated to facilitate
dredging, usually by drilling and blasting.
NOTE Pre-treating of rock greatly increases the complexity and time taken to
execute a project, as non-explosive methods are slow and laborious, and explosive
methods require special safety measures, licences and additional specialist plant.

10.2 Direct dredging

Dredgers for the removal of rock that has not been pre-treated should be
selected for their ability to penetrate and break up the rock during the
excavation process (see Table 11).
The classification of soil and rock for dredging should be in accordance
with PIANC Report No. 144 [N1]. Soil descriptions should be in accordance
with BS 5930:2015.

10.3 Plant for rock dredging

COMMENTARY ON 10.3
Direct rock dredging is possible only with very rugged and powerful dredgers.
Some rock can be dredged directly; others can require pre-treatment (see 10.5).
Rock that can be dredged without pre-treatment can best be dredged by large
cutter suction dredgers (see 7.2.3), dipper dredgers (see 7.3.5), backhoe dredgers
(see 7.3.3) or bucket chain dredgers (see 7.3.4). Very large grab pontoon dredgers
(see 7.3.2) can occasionally be used. Guidance on the ease with which rock can be
dredged is given in PIANC Report No. 144 [N1].
If the area of dredging is continuously exposed to moderate or heavy wave attack,
the use of stationary dredgers other than grab dredgers can be impractical. A large
trailing suction hopper dredger (see 7.2.1) fitted with rippers in the draghead can be
used in some circumstances if the rock is very weak (<5 MPa) and weathered
(RQD <70%).
Most rocks that can be dredged directly are sedimentary rocks and corals. Generally
igneous or metamorphic rocks can be made suitable for dredging by pre-treatment.
However, the in-situ state of the rock has a profound influence on the ease with
which it can be dredged.

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10.3.1 Rock characteristics

The following rock characteristics should be taken into account.
a) Thickness of rock layer. Thin layers or lenses of rock, even if moderately
strong, might be dredgeable if the dredger can get under the lower surface
to break up the mass.
b) Weathering. The degree of weathering affects rock strength. Highly
weathered rock often becomes quite friable and relatively easy to excavate.
Weathered layers might be dredgeable, but other layers might not
(see PIANC Report No. 144 [N1]).
c) Jointing and fracture planes. The natural jointing and discontinuity of a
rock, described as rock quality, are highly significant when determining the
ease with which the rock can be dredged. The spacing, orientation,
continuity, tightness and surface texture of fracture planes also have an
effect. These parameters are assessed by rock quality designation (RQD) and
total core recovery (TCR).
d) Rock strength. Rock strength is usually expressed by reference to the
uniaxial compressive strength of the rock. The point load index tests
(see The point load strength test [15] and ASTM D5731) are also used as
parameters for assessing rock strength with regard to the ease with which
the rock can be dredged

10.3.2 Limiting factors

The following limiting factors should be taken into account when planning rock
dredging operations.
a) Sea state. The exposure of the dredging site due to the effects of weather
and sea action is of great importance when selecting plant for the dredging
of rock. In exposed locations the effect of swell on the hull of the dredger
can cause the vessel to rise and fall and thereby give rise to excessive forces
on the excavating head or anchoring system of the dredger. This can cause
damage and loss of production, which is more severe when dredging rock
than when dredging weak materials.
b) Water depth. Dredging depth is limited by the dredger’s operational
draught and the maximum downreach. The backhoe is more susceptible to
limitation in deep water, due to the twisting forces imposed on the boom
during the digging part of the dredging cycle and reducing tear out force
with depth.
c) Excavation face height. Most dredgers benefit from having a moderate
depth of material to excavate. However, thicker cuts can be more difficult to
excavate by backhoe and dipper because these machines operate best by
breaking off slabs of rock and thinner slabs are easier to break. Bucket and
cutter suction dredgers chip away smaller fragments of rock and benefit
from a good depth of cut. Bucket dredgers can remove up to 2 m thickness
of material but the optimum depth of cut is very dependent on the nature
of material.
NOTE The above factors are directly related to dredging rock. More general
limiting factors for dredgers are set out in Clause 7.

10.3.3 Dredger characteristics for dredging rock

For a preliminary assessment of suitable dredger characteristics for dredging
rock, the factors listed in Table 14 should be taken into account.

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Table 14 Characteristics of dredgers able to dredge some rocks without pre-treatment

Dredger type Fragmentation/excavation Type of rock dredged

Cutter suction Rock is chipped away by cutter teeth. Strong sedimentary rocks, sandstone,
Production is relatively high. siltstone, mudstone, chalk and marl,
corals and moderately strong limestone
and igneous rock
Bucket chain High point loads on bucket teeth, Most sedimentary rocks up to
continuous process. Tendency to break moderately strong
out slabs of rock in certain conditions
of bedding. Alternate buckets can be
replaced by ripper teeth.
Dipper Very high point loads on teeth. Rock is Thin lenses of sedimentary rocks and
levered out, which can result in large
weakly cemented conglomerates.
slab formation in certain types of
Massive chalks, marls, weak sandstone,
bedding. corals and volcanic tuffs
Hydraulic backhoe Positive bucket action with strong Moderately weak sandstones and shales
leverage through bucket “crowding”. at shallow depths. Weak sandstones,
Tear out falls off sharply with corals and conglomerates at greater
increasing depth. Method tends to depth
produce large slabs in certain bedding
conditions.
Trailing suction Heavily constructed vessels with high Chalk, weak sandstone, breccia,
hopper dredger propulsion power can be employed conglomerates, very weak limestone
with ripper teeth in the draghead.
Grab pontoon Very heavy bucket of reduced capacity Very weak sedimentary rocks and corals
necessary to achieve initial tooth
penetration. Very variable and often
unpredictable results.
Low production.
NOTE For fragmentation and bulking recommendations, see Table 15.

10.4 Dredging pre-treated rock

The degree of rock pre-treatment required to enable dredgers to excavate
should be determined according to the type, power and size of the dredger and
the form and strength of the rock.
When determining the ease of dredging pre-treated rock, the following factors
should be taken into account.
a) Fragmentation. This varies considerably in broken rock. The maximum size
of dredgeable rock is usually controlled by the dimensions and power of the
machine, so it is important that most of the rock is below a specified size.
Production rates might be governed by the size of the largest rocks rather
than the median.
It is prudent to have plant available to dredge the oversize fragments or to
break down to within the acceptable size range. Whether or not it is
necessary to provide additional plant depends on the size of the project.
b) Bulking. This is important as it results in a looser rock mass that is more
easily penetrated by the cutting action of the dredger. Higher bulking
results from increased explosive charge size.
NOTE Table 15 provides guidance on the relative importance of fragmentation and
bulking required for the various dredgers.

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Table 15 Optimum fragmentation and bulking of rock normally required to allow satisfactory
dredging

Dredger type Optimum fragmentation Bulking

(diameter refers to D95) required
%

Cutter suction, 1 200 mm Up to 300 mm. The smaller the better for pumping. 10 to 15
suction pipe Large pieces are unacceptable
Bucket 650 L rock buckets Up to 300 mm. Some larger pieces are acceptable if 10 to 20
not too large to pass through the well
Dipper 5 m3 bucket Up to 800 mm. Larger pieces can be raised depending 10 to 20
upon bucket size and power available
Backhoe 5 m3 rock bucket Up to 500 mm. Larger pieces in isolation are 10 to 20
acceptable depending on bucket size and power
available
Grab pontoon 5 m3 rock bucket Up to 300 mm with occasional larger pieces 20 to 30
Trailing suction, 800 mm suction Less than 100 mm. Any significant occurrence of 25 to 40
pipe larger pieces is liable to block draghead.
NOTE 1 The table refers to pre-treatment by drilling and blasting.
NOTE 2 Bulking means increase in rock volume (or heave) from voids resulting from the explosion.
NOTE 3 Suction and bucket sizes under “Dredger type” are not absolute limits, but operation with smaller sizes
can be difficult.

10.5 Pre-treatment
Pre-treatment of rock prior to dredging should be carried out for most igneous
and metamorphic rocks and also for strong sedimentary rocks. The necessity for
pre-treatment should be determined according to:
a) the rock state and the type of dredger to be used;
b) the quantity to be dredged;
c) restrictions on blasting and noise levels.
When dredging small quantities the option to pre-treat and dredge with a
smaller, more easily mobilized dredger should be balanced against the option of
bringing in a larger dredger that could dredge without pre-treatment.
A suitable method of pre-treatment should be selected, of which the following
are typical examples.
1) Percussion, chiselling, or rock breaking by percussive methods is one of the
oldest forms of pre-treatment. In its simplest form a heavy needle or chisel,
weighing from 5 t to 30 t, is dropped vertically onto the rock. This method
is slow.
2) Power driven rock breakers fitted with pneumatic or hydraulic rock
hammers, which drive a chisel into the formation, are more productive.
These can be attached to the dipper arm of large backhoe dredgers.
3) Rock ripping can be carried out by modifying the equipment on a dredger
to take one or more ripper teeth in place of, or attached to, the standard
excavating unit. Examples of this are the single teeth that can be fitted in
place of the bucket(s) on hydraulic backhoe or bucket dredgers and the
rows of teeth that can be attached to the draghead of trailing suction
hopper dredgers. Pre-treatment by rock ripping is usually slow. For backhoe
dredgers, production deteriorates sharply with increasing water depth.

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4) Rock splitting is conducted by drilling closely spaced holes in a continuous

line to provide an accurate cut face, usually enhanced by explosives or
expanding agents. Rock splitting is slow, with a low production rate, and
should be adopted only for the removal of small volumes.
5) Surface blasting relies on explosives charges laid on the rock surface, often
with limited results.
6) Drilling and blasting is usually conducted with holes drilled into the rock,
charged and blasted to fragment the rock.
Pre-treatment methods in items 1) to 3) or similar should be applied in cases
where the use of explosives is not permitted or the volume to be pre-treated is
small. Power-driven rock breakers should be used for higher production rates.
The methods in items 5) and 6) are more common, and are addressed in more
detail in 10.6 and 10.7. The pre-treatment method should be selected according
to the volume and thickness of rock and the fragmentation and bulking
required to enable the dredger to excavate the material.
Drilling and blasting is the most widely used method of pre-treatment and
should normally be adopted for bulk rock excavation, where permitted, as the
method is effective and can achieve a high production rate.
The recommendations in BS 5607 should be followed when explosives are to be
used.
The charge load, spacing and drill pattern should suit the rock type and degree
of fragmentation required.

10.6 Surface blasting

COMMENTARY ON 10.6
Pre-treatment of rock underwater can be achieved in a limited number of cases by
contact or surface blasting. In surface blasting, explosive charges are laid in contact
with the rock surface and the charges are detonated in such a manner that the
explosive shock wave travels towards the rock face. The efficiency of this method
depends on the water depth and the intimacy of the contact between the charge
and the rock. It can only be used where rock is exposed or where overburden can be
cleared before the charges are positioned. The effect is improved by increased water
depth since the additional water pressure serves to confine the blast.
Since surface charges release energy in every direction, a considerable proportion is
lost to the surrounding water causing a high waterborne shock wave and, in shallow
water, a waterspout and an airborne shock wave.
Surface blasting can be effective for fragmenting boulders, weak sedimentary rocks
and thin layers of rock and cemented soil, particularly when overlying weak
material.
Charges require to be accurately positioned by means of specially constructed spacer
frames or mattresses and to be weighted or fixed in areas of surf or strong currents
to prevent movement.
A special type of surface charge is available in the form of the shaped charge.
The shaped charge utilizes the Munroe effect, which concentrates the shockwave
into a localized jet and thereby improves its ability to achieve penetration into the
rock. It is used in the same manner as a surface charge.
In general, surface blasting gives poor fragmentation and little or no bulking of the
rock. Secondary blasting is frequently required to achieve satisfactory results.
However, it is sometimes advantageous for very small volumes of rock, particularly in
remote areas where the mobilization of drilling equipment might not be justified.
All pre-treatment methods which employ the use of explosives are very costly.
These are complicated by the necessity for stringent safety measures, compliance
with regulations and protection of the environment and nearby structures.

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For satisfactory production, surface blasting should only be adopted for thin
layers of rock and where the equipment for higher production cannot be made
available economically and in the required timescale.

10.7 Drilling and blasting

COMMENTARY ON 10.7
Drilling and blasting consists essentially of drilling holes in the rock to a regular,
predetermined pattern and depth, charging them with explosives and detonating a
group of charges, either instantaneously or separated by millisecond delay intervals.
The drill holes are usually vertical, but angled drilling can be successfully employed
in special circumstances.
Drilling is usually carried out from a floating or elevated pontoon, but for very small
or otherwise inaccessible areas it can be performed by divers. The drilling pattern is
primarily controlled by the amount of explosive required to give the desired
fragmentation of the rock and the diameter of the holes drilled.
A typical drilling pontoon and a typical drilling platform are shown in Figure 14
and Figure 15 respectively.

10.7.1 Drilling patterns

Subject to the degree of fragmentation to be achieved and the characteristics of
the drilling barge employed, drilling patterns should be such that the burden
and spacing are similar, and holes should be drilled beneath the design level by
an amount equal to the greater of the burden or the spacing. The extent of
over-drilling should be sufficient to ensure that full fragmentation occurs to the
design dredge level.
NOTE The pattern itself can be rectangular or triangular, depending on how the
pontoon and drills are moved (see Figure 16). A triangular pattern is likely to give
more consistent fragmentation since the maximum distance that the rock can be
from any blast hole is reduced for any pattern area. However, rectangular patterns
are often used because they are easier to execute and might be more appropriate
for specific purposes, such as pre-treatment for trenches. Common drilling patterns
and illustration of the terminology used are shown in Figure 16.

10.7.2 Extent of drilling and blasting

Drilling and blasting should extend to a point outside the rock dredging area
(see Figure 17).
NOTE The necessity to blast outside the periphery of the delineated rock dredging
area depends on the behaviour of the rock during blasting. It is possible for rock
adjoining the blasted area to be cracked and to heave by bulking so that the rock
surface moves upwards.

10.7.3 Depth of rock

The site conditions should be assessed to determine the depth of rock that can
be blasted in one cut. As rock thickness increases, particular care should be
taken with respect to control of deviation from vertical drilling.
NOTE 1 Excessive deviation from the vertical affects the burden and spacing of the
charges and thus the fragmentation. It can also cause sympathetic detonation
between holes.
NOTE 2 Very small thicknesses of rock require the same overdrilling and charging as
large thicknesses.
NOTE 3 The sequence of overburden drilling is shown in Figure 18.

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Figure 14 Typical over-side three-tower floating drilling pontoon with winch location

Key
1 Drill towers 5 Operator platform
2 Light masts 6 Mooring wires to anchors
3 Power units 7 Pontoon
4 Mooring winches 8 Drill tower unit

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Figure 15 Self elevating H configuration drilling platform

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BS 6349-5:2016

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Key
1 Moving tower carriage
2 Drill tower
3 Jack-up legs
4 Seabed
5 “H” pontoon structure
BRITISH STANDARD
BRITISH STANDARD BS 6349-5:2016

Figure 16 Common pre-treatment drilling patterns and terminology

Key
1 Spacing
2 Burden
3 Rectangular
4 Direction of movement of pontoon or bridge unit carrying drills
5 Triangular

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Figure 17 Example of the need to extend drilling and pre-treatment beyond the depth and extent of
required dredging

Key
1 Water level 4 Design level
2 Rock outcrop 5 Overdrill
3 Drill holes 6 Marginal drifting

Figure 18 Illustration of sequence of the overburden drilling method

Key
1 Deck level 4 Drilling completed
2 Outer casing 5 Explosive charges
3 Inner drill string 6 Retrieving fuse

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10.7.4 Drilling systems

Drilling for underwater blasting should be carried out using one of the
following methods, choosing the most appropriate method according to the site
conditions.
a) Sea surface operations. Drilling operations from the sea surface are carried
out from floating or elevated pontoons. In shallow water areas, land-based
equipment can be used from a temporary working surface formed by filling
the area with material to a level just above high water.
b) Underwater systems. Divers are able to operate hand drills underwater.
However, difficulty can be experienced in positioning and penetration rates
are low. In addition, the site has to have little or no overburden.
Provided that they can be positioned, crawler rigs are more efficient than
divers with hand drills. Their disadvantage is that the seabed has to be
reasonably flat and this is seldom true of a virgin rock outcrop. The seabed
might therefore require some levelling before a crawler rig can be used.
All underwater diver-controlled systems are adversely affected by heavy
swell, strong currents and high turbidity, which all conspire to lower the
output and to make accurate positioning more difficult.

10.8 Explosives and initiating systems

10.8.1 Explosives
For underwater use, explosives should be of the high strength gelatinous or
slurry type. For efficiency and safety, the explosive should be sufficiently
water-resistant to remain underwater for up to 24 h without being unduly
affected by the water.
NOTE 1 It is expected that after immersion for a long period, the explosives are
rendered inert.
The explosive should be chosen to be compatible with the method of initiation
selected.
NOTE 2 Explosives with high velocities of detonation (VODs) are usually preferred
as they give good fracturing in strong rock.
NOTE 3 Some explosives have two VODs; one high and another lower. High water
pressure affects ease of detonation and can cause the explosive to detonate at its
lower velocity. In such circumstances boosters might need to be inserted in the
detonating system to overcome the problem.
A detonating explosive charge is capable of detonating another explosive
charge placed in near proximity to it. This is called sympathetic detonation and
depends on the sensitivity of the explosive, the separation distance and the
medium(s) through which the explosive shock wave is transmitted. This effect
should be avoided because of the uncontrolled detonation of charged boreholes
that can result, perhaps causing misfires or leading to excessive vibration when
delayed detonation has been planned in order to limit vibration.
Manufacturers of explosives should be consulted when selecting explosives and
detonating systems.

10.8.2 Initiating systems

A suitable initiating system should be chosen, of which the two main types are
detonating cords and long lead electrical detonators.

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When using detonating cord, it should pass through all of the cartridges being
used in a particular borehole. The cords from each borehole should be
connected together at the surface. Care should be taken that cords do not cross,
as a cord can be severed before it has propagated the detonation.
NOTE A preferred method is the use of long lead electrical detonators which
minimize the risk of boreholes not detonating and, when short delay detonators are
used, enable vibration to be controlled.
There are various types of electrical detonation systems, and manufacturers of
explosives and accessories should be consulted to determine the best system to
suit a particular site and proposed blasting pattern.

11 Dredging of materials for reuse

11.1 Marine borrow area development
COMMENTARY ON 11.1
The area where materials are dredged for subsequent use is known as a marine
borrow area.
The following parameters should be determined for dredging operations
relating to marine borrow areas for reclamation with dredged hydraulic fill:
• borrow area and location;
• geotechnical and geophysical data and investigation;
• soil conditions;
• fill characteristics;
• availability of suitable reclamation material;
• quality and testing of fill material;
• disposal of excess materials.
NOTE Requirements for such operations are given in prEN 16907-6.

11.2 Extraction of materials for aggregates

The quantity of suitable material to be removed from the borrow area should
be sufficient to ensure efficient extraction and of a quality such that the
minimum of post-processing is required to produce acceptable clean aggregate
materials for the construction industry or other relevant use.
The available quantity of suitable material that can be extracted from a borrow
area should be estimated taking into account:
• layer thickness;
• extent and geometry of the area;
• requirement for post-dredge processing and washing.
The gross volume of available material should be calculated as the area
multiplied by the layer thickness, or by using ground modelling. Corrections for
bulking and losses should be taken into account.
NOTE 1 The following aspects can reduce the extractable quantity of material:
• water depth too shallow/too deep for dredging plant;
• the presence of an unsuitable overburden layer;
• build-up of a layer of fines in the borrow area resulting from extraction
methods. This layer of fines can disturb the extraction of the underlying layers.

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NOTE 2 If the suitable material occurs as layers or lenses within unsuitable material,
selective dredging is required. This results in a reduction in the recovery rate of
suitable material with an adverse impact on production and cost.
NOTE 3 If the borrow area contains a significant amount of boulders, a situation
can occur where only the finer fraction is retrieved from the borrow area. In this
case an accumulation of boulders can take place preventing the extraction of the
underlying layers.
The volume of extractable material should take account of the required slopes
for stability of the borrow area, which needs to be factored in to the calculation
of the available quantity of material.
For major extractions, site investigation should be sufficient to provide a 3D
model of the borrow area so that the extraction of suitable materials can be
optimized, taking account of the geometry and side slope stability. To maximize
the yield, the model should be updated throughout the dredging operation and
modified to suit the as-found site conditions.

11.3 Land-sourced borrow and quarry development

COMMENTARY ON 11.3
Land-sourced fill can comprise the full range of geotechnical materials including:
• fines comprising clay and silt;
• granular materials: sand, gravel, rocks, and rockfill.

11.3.1 General
For engineered reclamations and coastal protection works, granular materials
should be used to provide better mass fill properties, most particularly strength,
and stiffness as far as is practical.
Low fines fill is preferred to provide good engineering mass fill properties.
High fines content fill should be adopted where required to meet environmental
constraints or where low permeability is required.
NOTE 1 A difficulty arises whenever significant percentages of fines are present, as
the natural tendency is for the fines to segregate during placing.
NOTE 2 A well-graded material containing a high percentage of coarse particles is
better able to absorb higher percentages of fines without any adverse effect due to
the greater voids ratio.
The maximum percentage of fines that is acceptable in materials for land
reclamation depends to some extent on the overall grading of the material, and
should be carefully assessed to ensure the performance criteria are met.
Land-sourced granular fill should be used on major reclamation projects, if
available and where economically viable, with particular application for:
• bulk fill;
• heavy load areas, where a specified bearing capacity is required;
• areas where low settlement is required;
• seawall core.
Land-sourced rockfill should be used on major reclamation projects where
suitable for:
• seawall core and revetment construction;
• heavy load areas where high bearing capacity and very low settlement are
required;
• reclamation temporary bunds.

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11.3.2 Land-based quarries

Land based borrow areas should be located as close as is practicable to the area
of filling where land access is available, or to the marine load out point where
transhipment is required.
Where possible fill should be sourced from nearby or related projects that have
excess spoil.
The selection of the borrow or quarry should take into account the following:
• volume of fill required;
• available materials for land reclamation works;
• volume of suitable fill material;
• volumetric change during dredging and reclamation;
• transport distance;
• re-handling of material;
• disposal of unsuitable materials;
• quality control of the dredged materials.
NOTE 1 The characteristics of the fill material within the borrow area determine
the fill properties which in turn control the engineering performance of the fill mass
forming the reclamation.
The selection of the borrow area should be based on the analysis of the results
of an adequate soil investigation and an assessment of the properties and
performance of the resultant reclamation.
This design should further identify the need for and feasibility of ground
improvement and the disposal of unsuitable material.
NOTE 2 CIRIA publication C683 [16] gives guidance on the identification and
development of borrow and quarries for use in marine and similar works.

12 Disposal, displacement and beneficial use of

dredged material
12.1 General
NOTE 1 Further information on this subject can be found in Environmental aspects
of dredging [3].
Planning and implementation of dredge material disposal, displacement and
beneficial use should be undertaken by individuals with sufficient knowledge
and experience to ensure that these activities are successfully achieved.
All disposal, displacement and use (including beneficial use) has the potential to
be subject to licensing and should be assessed for such.
NOTE 2 A major use of dredged material is in reclamation, which is covered in
more detail in Clause 13 and Clause 14.
Material removed for capital or maintenance dredging by mechanical or
hydraulic dredging methods is commonly disposed of at licensed disposal sites;
however, this sediment should be identified as a potential resource by those
responsible for its dredging.

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The method of beneficial use/disposal of material arising from dredging should

be treated as one of the most important considerations at the design stage of
any dredging work. Disposal, dispersion and beneficial use of dredged sediment
should be evaluated as part of the planning of the project and should be
addressed in the environmental assessment phase. To inform such planning and
assessment the sediments to undergo disposal, displacement or beneficial use
should be appropriately characterized, as described in Clause 6.
In any beneficial use or disposal operation, the means by which the dredged
material is to be transported to the point of use or disposal should be
determined.
In the UK, the Marine Management Organisation (MMO) should be consulted, as
the MMO licenses the disposal of dredged material at sea. Additionally,
landowner consent is likely to be required in the UK, where the Crown Estate
owns almost the entirety of the seabed out to the 12 nautical mile limit.
NOTE 3 Attention is drawn to the waste hierarchy given in the Water Framework
Directive [9] applied by MMO, with disposal at sea being a last resort:
• prevention;
• re-use;
• recycling;
• other recovery;
• disposal at sea.
NOTE 4 Examples of environmental beneficial use include material placement for:
• feeding intertidal areas in an estuary to maintain their sediment budget;
• promoting the growth of saltmarsh and mudflats;
• habitat creation;
• maintenance of longshore and other sediment processes;
• beach renourishment;
• coastal protection;
• flood defences.

12.2 Sediment constituents

NOTE 1 More than 90% of the sediment from navigation dredging is relatively
uncontaminated, natural, undisturbed sediment, and is considered acceptable for a
wide range of uses (see Environmental aspects of dredging [3]).
Planning with respect to the disposal, dispersion and beneficial use of dredged
sediments should take account of the sediment constituents, not just in terms of
physical characteristics such as particle size but also in terms of likely
contaminants present, and of meeting the criteria essential for the protection of
the environment. The testing (characterization) of the materials in question
should be appropriate for the activities planned and the environments where
dredging is being undertaken and those which will receive the materials.
Planning of contaminant testing should take into account the potential need for
both chemical testing and microbial testing.
An iterative approach to characterization of materials to be dredged should be
assessed in terms of its potential benefits, e.g. the first chemical analyses in a
project may be undertaken on a relatively small number of samples for a
comprehensive suite of analytes, with the results of such an investigation being
used to inform more detailed investigations on a smaller list of analytes for all
samples.

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If materials to be dredged are found to be contaminated to such an extent that

their use could be unacceptable or have to be restricted then treatment of the
sediment should be assessed as an option, to evaluate whether this improves the
potential for the materials to be used and whether this is a viable and practical
option.
Remediation dredging involves the removal of contaminated sediments with the
potential to cause harm, and in such cases the need for specialist control
measures (e.g. silt curtains) should be carefully assessed.
NOTE 2 Disposal options can broadly be divided into three categories: unconfined;
confined disposal (3.10); and confined disposal facilities (3.11). Sometimes
semi-confined placement options are also referred to.

12.3 Beneficial use

Whenever and wherever possible, dredging schemes should seek to adopt a
beneficial use strategy for the dredged material. There are often advantages to
retaining dredged material within the sediment transport cell from which it was
removed rather than permanently removing it from the sediment transport
system, and beneficial use schemes of this type should be assessed for viability.
NOTE Examples of beneficial use include:
• feeding intertidal areas in an estuary to maintain their volume;
• promoting the growth of saltmarsh;
• maintenance of longshore and other sediment processes;
• beach renourishment;
• coastal protection;
• use of dredged material as a construction aggregate;
• flood defences.

12.4 Disposal at sea

COMMENTARY ON 12.4
Disposal at sea is a common practice for material arising from both capital work and
maintenance dredging, with the dredged material to be disposed of within a
specified licensed area. Such licensed areas are monitored and managed in the UK.
In the UK, as in many other parts of the world, disposal at sea is controlled by
legislation.
If beneficial use of dredged materials is not a viable option then disposal should
be assessed as an option. Familiarity with the licensing process for disposal
should be gained at an early stage such that the timescales and requirements
(and the consequences of these) are properly understood and addressed.
Early steps should include assessment of contaminant levels in the material
being considered for disposal (is sampling required) and investigation of where
licensed disposal sites presently exist and their status in terms of the amount
and type of material they are capable of receiving.
NOTE In some circumstances it might be possible for a new disposal site to be
opened (licensed); however, this typically requires substantial investment in terms of
characterization of potential locations, and consequently timescales are long and
outcomes uncertain.

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12.5 Displacement
12.5.1 Side casting
COMMENTARY ON 12.5.1
Side casting involves the discharge of dredged material via the dredger bucket or by
pumping to an area adjacent to the dredging zone.
The system can be used in certain maintenance dredging situations (see Clause 8).
Side casting is most commonly used for new works when the dredged formation is
only temporary, such as in the dredging of a trench for the placing of a pipe or
cables. It can also be convenient in these cases to re-dredge the side cast material for
use as backfill to the trench.
When dredged material is to be placed by side casting, the placement should be
sufficiently remote from the dredged area and on the downdrift side to
minimize the risk of re-entry of the side cast material to the dredged area.
For granular materials, deposition should be well outside the limits of the
natural side slopes of the dredged area.
NOTE Fine granular materials often disperse widely during settlement through the
water column and can easily be re-mobilized from the seabed; thus, as a result of
tidal currents and wave action, a significant proportion of the dredged material
sometimes has the potential to re-enter the dredged area. Expert design of such
works is required to prevent such inefficiencies.

12.5.2 Agitation
COMMENTARY ON 12.5.2
Dredging by agitation involves forcing material into suspension by mechanical or
hydraulic means in order that it can be transported away by the naturally occurring
currents.
The success of agitation methods depends upon the distance and area over which
the suspended solids are transported and dispersed. This is dependent on the height
to which the bottom sediments are raised in the water column, the fall velocity of
the particles, their threshold of motion and the current/wave climate.
The design and potential environmental impact of agitation dredging should be
evaluated by a competent person.

12.5.3 Bypassing
When granular sediments are removed by dredging from the coastal sediment
transport system, such as in the maintenance of channels that intercept and trap
littoral drift, assessment of sediment management options should include the
return of the dredged sediment to an area nearby within the downdrift
sediment system. Assessment of the potential effects of such activities should be
undertaken in advance by a competent person.
NOTE In this way, potentially harmful effects on the downdrift coastline can
potentially be avoided or at least reduced. This process is referred to as bypassing.

12.5.4 Onshore/intertidal containment (confinement) areas

COMMENTARY ON 12.5.4
Onshore/intertidal containment (confinement) areas are specifically constructed to
contain material which cannot be used (land reclamation is a form of use and is
covered in Clause 13). Drainage of material consisting of fine particles of silt and clay
can be a prolonged process, and any areas of land set aside for use as containment
area are likely to be rendered unsuitable for development for a significant period if
they receive materials of this type.

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12.5.4.1 General
The containment area should be located as close as is practical to the point at
which the discharging dredging vessel is moored, ideally in sheltered waters to
facilitate discharge.
Routes should be determined for pipelines conveying the dredged slurry to
minimize disruption to marine and land-based activities.
The location of containment areas should be selected following detailed
assessment by a competent person of potential environmental and social
impacts.
The containment area design should ensure that the total capacity is sufficient
to accommodate the increase in material volume due to the reduced density of
the material and the need for sufficient retained depth of water to capture the
sediment during the discharge of the supernatant water.
NOTE Moisture is most readily released when the surface area of the deposit is
large relative to its depth.

12.5.4.2 Depth of deposition in containment area

COMMENTARY ON 12.5.4.2
For free-draining granular materials it is often not necessary to regulate the depth
of deposition. For fine materials, particularly those that contain an appreciable
fraction of clay particles, some limit is necessary if drainage and consolidation within
a reasonable time are to be achieved.
The optimum depth of deposition varies according to circumstance but, as a
general guide, any area that is to be filled in a single process should not exceed
a finished infilled depth of 1.5 m. For permanent sites, progressive infilling can
be carried out, in which case each intermediate lift of the fill area elevation
should be confined to approximately 1 m.
NOTE 1 These depths refer to the thickness of deposit immediately following the
effects of rapid dewatering and initial consolidation.
The total containment area capacity should be 10% to 20% greater than the
final volume of dredged material that is to be accommodated.
The containment area, layout depth and weir settings should be configured to
settle out the suspended soils while discharging suitably clean supernatant water
to the environment.
NOTE 2 Such discharges can, in some cases, have sediment concentration and
contaminant thresholds applied by regulators.
NOTE 3 Various methods are available for the determination of containment area
capacity. Guidance is given in Long term management of confined disposal areas [17]
and Dredged material confinement facilities as solids liquid separation systems [18].
NOTE 4 Fine sediments that are transported into the containment area by pumping
release their moisture very slowly and consequently high bulking can persist for
relatively long periods, resulting from the increased moisture content. Actual bulking
depends upon the particular characteristics of the dredged material. There is a fairly
rapid initial settlement of the fine materials and an accompanying progressive
appearance of clear water, followed by much slower consolidation of the settled
solids.

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12.5.4.3 Containment area enclosure

It is usual to contain dredged material onshore within purpose-built retaining
embankments. Where practicable, these should be constructed using the
material that naturally exists across the site. If the site is overlaid with a
reasonable depth of topsoil, this topsoil should be stripped off in advance of
any deposition, so that it can be used at the end of the disposal area’s life for
top dressing.
The overall enclosed area can be subdivided to permit filling on a sequential
basis. If this is done, the degree of subdivision should be determined according
to the minimum size of enclosed area that is necessary to achieve settlement of
all fine materials, or of all materials above a certain specified size that are to be
retained within that particular area (the quality of discharge waters which is to
be achieved can also be a controlling factor).
The height of the enclosing bunds should be adequate to contain:
a) all the dredged material that is to be retained in the area;
b) an adequate depth of water to allow the deposition of the final material
pumped into the area;
c) an additional freeboard against over-topping or breaches resulting from
weathering of the top section of the bund.
NOTE 1 In practice, a freeboard of between 300 mm and 500 mm is normally
adequate.
NOTE 2 Retention lagoons which are designed to hold, or are capable of holding,
more than 25 000 m3 of water above the natural level of any part of the adjoining
land are subject to the control and provisions of the relevant legislation. Attention is
drawn to the Reservoirs Act 1975 [19], the Mines and Quarries Act 1954 [20] and the
Mines and Quarries (Tips) Act 1969 [21].

12.5.4.4 Containment area drainage

COMMENTARY ON 12.5.4.4
Drainage of the supernatant water during the filling process can best be achieved by
means of a temporary or permanent weir structure. A common form of temporary
construction consists of a steel fabricated weir box, rectangular in plan, with three
solid sides and a front constructed to accommodate drop-boards, which allows the
level of the weir to be raised as the filling of the containment area progresses.
For permanent overflow structures, large-diameter, precast concrete manhole rings
provide a convenient method of achieving both a progressively higher overflow level
and a long weir surface within a relatively small, confined area.
The release of moisture from the material subsequent to deposition can be achieved
by evaporation, vertical drainage and lateral drainage. Of these three, evaporation is
the most important, and hence there is a need to keep the deposit thickness to a
minimum. The process of evaporation can be accelerated by increasing the surface
area exposed to the atmosphere. This can be done by regular ditching at very close
centres creating a corrugated section to the deposits. Owing to the soft nature of
the deposits, special equipment is required for this ditching process.
Bottom drainage occurs naturally when the containment area is sited over a
granular, free-draining subsoil. Alternatively, some form of bottom drainage can be
installed before filling commences. In many cases, however, the permeability of the
deposited dredged material is very low, and consequently any drainage system needs
to be at very close centres to be effective. Traditional drainage methods, such as clay
or tile drains, are unlikely to be effective unless precautions are taken to prevent the
ingress of fine material. Such measures can include the use of a synthetic filter
membrane.

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The design of containment areas should take into account the need for both:
a) drainage of the supernatant water during the initial filling process; and
b) the long-term drainage that has to occur to allow adequate consolidation of
the infilled material.

12.5.5 Offshore containment (confinement) areas

COMMENTARY ON 12.5.5
Offshore containment (confinement) areas are specifically constructed to contain
material which cannot be used to achieve the function of the project and whose
nature is such as preclude other methods of disposal.
The general recommendations for confinement areas given in 12.5.4 should be
followed, excepting that offshore containment areas are usually formed by
dredged pits in the seabed, often taking advantage of worked out borrow
areas. Where the free mixing of the deposited sediments is considered
undesirable for environmental reasons, a capping layer of uncontaminated
suitable material should be provided to contain the material below. The type,
form and thickness of the capping layer should be set by a careful evaluation of
the site conditions to ensure that containment is effective.

13 Reclamation
COMMENTARY ON CLAUSE 13
This clause covers reclamation works including:
• reclamation with land-sourced materials;
• reclamation of edge structures and bunds;
• geotextiles in reclamation;
• beach and foreshore recharge.
The placement of fine materials, such as those arising from maintenance dredging in
ports, is dealt with in Clause 12.
Reclamation with dredged hydraulic fill is covered in prEN 16907-6. Additional
information on reclamation with hydraulic fill is given in the CUR/CIRIA Hydraulic fill
manual [22].
Land reclamation can require that areas that are permanently submerged or subject
to regular tidal inundation be raised to levels that are permanently above sea level,
or can require that existing land be raised to a higher level to improve bearing
capacity, quality or accessibility.
Dredged fill can also be used for forming embankments and for filling caissons,
gravity structures and sheet pile cells.

13.1 Reclamation performance criteria

The fill selected and the method of placing should meet the reclamation
performance criteria in Table 8, that primarily relate to stability, settlement,
strength and drainage.
In order to determine the rate and amount of settlement that results when
strata are loaded by the placing of fill, the characteristics of the in-situ soils to
be loaded and of the fill material should be determined.
Normally this should be done through a site investigation and subsequent
laboratory testing in order to establish a baseline for the existing soil conditions
and to identify if there are any potential contaminants in the sediment.

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Fill materials undergo a change of density, resulting in the final placed fill
density being greater or, more commonly, less than the in-situ density of the
source material, termed the bulking factor. Calculations to determine the rate
and extent of foundation settlement subsequent to the placing of fill should
therefore be based upon the maximum in-place density of the fill material,
where possible determined by laboratory or site testing.

13.2 Site preparation

NOTE Site preparation might be unnecessary if the ground upon which the
dredged fill is to be placed is firm and provides a reasonable foundation.

13.2.1 General
Where the existing site is characterized by excessive weak superficial deposits,
these should be removed before filling commences, or a method to improve the
soil should be employed. (see Clause 14). The decision on which approach to
follow should be influenced by engineering and economic judgements.
Predicting and controlling settlement in the in-situ soil might not be practical,
and this should be accommodated in the scheme design.
Removing soils in the preparation of the reclamation area inevitably leaves a
layer of soft disturbed soil behind over the formation that should be addressed
either practically or by design.

13.2.2 Fill materials

Where practicable, granular fill materials should be used for land reclamation
projects, as discussed in Clause 11.
Occasionally, long-term land reclamation can be carried out using cohesive
materials that arise from maintenance dredging (see 4.4.2). In such cases, the
consolidation period for the fill is usually measured in years and the resulting
land is only capable of supporting light loads unless the fill is stabilized or
modified to reduce the water content. If the use of pumped cohesive soils
results in a semi-fluid deposit, the design of the containment enclosure should
take account of the initial high loading caused by the hydrostatic pressure
exerted by the contained material.

13.2.3 Land-sourced fill materials

COMMENTARY ON 13.2.3
The choice of material for use in land reclamation is influenced by the materials that
exist locally or that can be obtained within an economic radius of the site.
The optimum material is a well-graded, free-draining sand with particle sizes in the
range of 0.10 mm to 0.60 mm. Sand and gravel mixtures are normally also suitable.
Materials that are not well graded consolidate less well.
In many instances limits are placed on the solids content of discharge water.
When fill is placed in water without containment bunds, the free escape of draining
water normally removes most of the fine particles.
The construction of a reclamation using tipped fills placed using conventional
earthmoving plant, with the fill sourced from spoil heaps, quarries or
excavations formed for other aspects of a project, should be designed in
accordance with BS EN 1997-1:2004+A1 and carried out in accordance
with BS 6031.
Cohesive fill >15% fines passing 63 µm sieve should be used with care, as
materials that are finer than 63 µm can be subject to excessive losses during
handling and placing.

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Care should be taken with carbonate sands as these can suffer significant
degradation when loaded or mechanically compacted (see PIANC Report
No. 144 [N1], Section 5 for intermediate materials).

13.2.4 Volumetric change

COMMENTARY ON 13.2.4
Changes in bulk density arise at various stages of the quarrying, handling and
placing processes. When the in-situ material in the borrow area is disturbed and
broken up by the quarrying process, the bulk volume of the material increases,
giving a commensurate increase in the bulk density. Volumetric change can be
influenced by several factors and is very dependent on both the characteristics of the
material and the nature of the transport and handling processes. The volume
increase is particularly marked for rock fill where the drilling and blasting operations
significantly increase the volume.
The scheme design should assess the likely change in volume due to bulking.

13.3 Placing of land-sourced fills

The simplest method of placing land-sourced fills is by end tipping from trucks
into the water in the reclamation area. Particular care should be taken with end
tipping to:
• ensure that the fill slope is sufficiently stable to support the loaded and
unloading truck;
• provide sufficient width for truck turn around by-passing and reversing;
• prevent trucks accidentally driving off the reclamation down the tip face;
• control the inclusion of soft in-situ bed materials under the reclamation;
• limit the amount of fines released into the adjacent waters.
The end tip stability should be fully assessed, with an evaluation of the
geotechnical conditions of the in-situ soils on which the fill is placed, both for
shallow and deep seated slope failures. Where there is a possibility of slope
failure, an alternative method of placement should be sought, such as pushing
the fill over the tip face by front end loader or bulldozer.
End tipping fill onto a soft or muddy formation both overrides the seabed soils
and drives the softer soils seaward. Potential consequences that should be
addressed are that:
• the stability of reclamation is reduced by the inclusion of the weaker soils
under the formation interface leading to end tip failure;
• the softer soils are pushed ahead as a bow wave build-up and increase in
stiffness as they drain, such that the reclamation overtakes and subsumes
the bow wave leaving a permanent weakness and source of high settlement
within the reclamation.
End tip failures should be avoided wherever possible both on safety and quality
grounds. If end tip failure is considered a possibility, appropriate measures
should be taken that might include:
• better cleaning of the substrate prior to placing fill;
• inclusion of a strong geotextile or geogrid at the base of the fill to reinforce
the interface and to prevent mixing of fill with the foundation soils;
• barge dumping a fill layer blanket over the formation to reduce the end tip
height and improve stability;
• using coarse angular rockfill with a high voids ratio to absorb the fines.

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NOTE 1 Once the end tip has failed, the resulting soil is a mixture of fill and soft
material that can take considerable reworking to achieve the required engineering
performance.
Great care should be taken not to allow a substantial bow wave of disturbed
mud to form, as once formed treatment is difficult.
Care should also be taken when removing the soft soil bow wave, as the bow
wave provides support to the tip face and removal can promote an immediate
collapse.
NOTE 2 In rare cases the material under the reclamation can be forced out to well
up in front of the tip face, again requiring difficult removal.
The arrangement of bunds and control structures should ensure that the flow
paths and settlement times allow the solids to settle into the reclamation area
such that the discharge water meets environmental criteria requirements for the
amount of suspended solids in the discharge.

13.4 Use of rockfill

COMMENTARY ON 13.4
Rockfill is suitable for use in reclamation areas where the following is required:
• erosion protection from waves, currents and wind;
• high bearing capacity;
• low settlement;
• absorption of fluid mud.
When placing rockfill, the following factors should be taken into account.
• Rockfill dumped from the surface reaches considerable velocities before
impacting the seabed. Where a rapid release is required and less accurate
placement is acceptable, side dump barges should be used as necessary for
the controlled release of rockfill.
• In shallow water, the draught of the placing vessel limits the height of the
rockfill to typically around 3 m to 5 m depending on the plant. Placing at
higher levels requires tidal working or lifting plant such as cranes, loaders or
conveyors on shallow draught barges.
• Levelling of rockfill for caisson and similar foundations requires specialist
equipment to provide a flat even surface that can receive the structure
without local overstressing.
• Historically divers have been used to prepare a bed of levelling stone for
structure foundations. The use of mechanical underwater screeding and
levelling systems is becoming increasingly common; especially as air diving
becomes very ineffective at depths below 20 m and hyperbaric diving
methods are needed, greatly increasing the complexity of operations at
depths greater than 20 m.

13.5 Bunds, revetments and breakwaters

The edges of the reclamation area should be designed to ensure that slope
stability is maintained and that erosion of the newly placed fill and or the
retaining bunds is minimized.
NOTE 1 The details shown in Figure 19 can be used as typical details subject to
detailed design for waves and water movements.

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Figure 19 Reclamation – Typical edge details

a) Conventional revetment to protect reclamation fill placement

b) Rubble containment dyke to protect reclamation fill placement

Key
1 Geotextile filter 5 Firm foundation
2 Reclamation fill 6 Wave forces
3 Rock armour 7 Rubble containment dyke
4 Calm water

Rockfill bunds are often used to contain the edges of reclamations, and should
be designed to:
• be geotechnically stable;
• have a grading or filter layers to retain reclamation material;
• be resistant to erosion by waves, currents and run-off.
Rockfill revetments placed on the surface of bunds, slopes and other fill areas
should be adopted as necessary to prevent erosion from water, wind or other
forces.
NOTE 2 Revetments are normally hard materials which can resist the erosion forces
and can include:
• precast concrete units;
• armour rock – see CIRIA publication C683 [16];
• rockfill – loose placed or grouted with hot poured bituminous grout;
• precast concrete units in linked mats;
• open stone asphalt – small graded stone with bituminous binder;
• stone pitching;
• rock-filled gabions.

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Geotextile or granular filters should be used where required with all types of
revetment to ensure that the base materials are not washed into the pores or
open spaces in the revetments by water movements, tides, waves or flowing
waters.
When rockfill is often used to form breakwaters, designers should take into
account the rapid increase in volume with depth due to the necessary side slope.
NOTE 3 For instance, a breakwater with a 10 m wide crest and 1:2 side slopes has a
cross-section volume of 300 m3/m when 10 m high, 1 000 m3/m when 20 m high,
and 2 100 m3/m when 30 m high.
Breakwater value engineering studies should review the benefits of placing a
vertical wall above a submerged rockfill mound formed by caisson, counterfort,
blockworks and similar walls.

13.6 Geotextile containers

COMMENTARY ON 13.6
When the dredged spoil is very fine, containing a large percentage by volume of silt
and clay size particles which have to be retained, the spoil can be pumped into
tubular geotextile containers. The geotextile tubes are formed using high strength
woven geotextiles. The tubes typically have a diameter of 2 m to 5 m and can be
stacked or manoeuvred to form cylindrical structures up to (and exceeding) 200 m in
length. The fill is pumped into the tubes through an entry valve; water is filtered
from the spoil through the pores in the geotextile leaving the drained material as a
stable fill. As shown in Figure 20, the tubes can be located by placing on a prepared
formation or held in place with geotextile flaps that can act as scour aprons, as
shown in Figure 21. Typical dimensions of a filled geotextile tube are shown
in Figure 22 and Table 16.
Geotextile tubes can be stacked to form bunds which can be used to form the
perimeter bunds of lagoons into which dredged spoil can be placed as reclamation
areas on shore or in tidal conditions.
Typical layouts are shown in Figure 23.
Geotextiles are durable when covered, or can be left exposed for several years in
moderate climates, but should be covered as soon as possible when used in
regions with high intensity sunlight, e.g. between the tropics.

Figure 20 Long section showing geotextile tube being filled, inlet at left with two vents
towards the right-hand end

Figure 21 Typical section of a geotextile tube with two flaps forming scour aprons

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Figure 22 Geometric properties of a geotextile tube

a) Empty geotextile tube parameters b) Filled geotextile tube parameters

Key
1 Geotextile tube
2 Cross-sectional area, AT
3 Average vertical stress at base, σv'

Table 16 Geometric properties of geotextile tubes based on the diameter of the basic
geotextile tube

Parameter In terms of In terms of

theoretical diameter, circumference, CT
DT
Maximum fill height, hT hT ≈ 0.5DT hT ≈ 0.6CT
Filled width, WT WT ≈ 1.6DT WT ≈ 0.5CT
Base contact width, bT bT ≈ 1.1DT bT ≈ 0.35CT
Cross-sectional area, AT AT ≈ 0.57Dγ2 AT ≈ 0.06Cγ2
Average vertical stress at base, σv' σv'' ≈ 0.6γDT σv' ≈ 0.19γCT

Figure 23 Typical arrangements for placing geotextile tubes

a) Gentle slope b) Steep slope c) Triangular stacking

NOTE 1 For gentle slopes, the weight of the upper tubes does not impact the stresses on the lower tubes. For
steep slopes, the stresses imposed by the upper tubes impact the stresses on the lower tubes. For
triangular-shaped stacked tubes, the upper tube impacts the stressed on the lower tubes, and additional stresses
are imposed at the base of the upper tube.
NOTE 2 Stacking geometry is also governed by foundation soil strength.

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13.7 Beach and foreshore recharge

COMMENTARY ON 13.7
The terms nourishment, replenishment, and recharge can be used interchangeably,
so for clarity, the term recharge is used in this standard. Beach and foreshore
recharge involves replacing sediment lost through erosion with imported sediment.
Beach recharge involves adding sediment above the high water contour, producing a
wider and higher beach which improves the amenity value of the coastline. In
contrast, foreshore recharge typically only results in the raising of beach or
nearshore seabed levels below high water, and sometimes just below the low water
line.
Beach recharge can be used to increase beach levels to reduce wave attack or for
amenity purposes, or can be required to create a barrier for sea defence purposes. It
has certain advantages over “hard defence” methods, including environmental,
recreational, financial (distributed costs), lower local disruption and less chance of
detrimental effect on adjoining beaches.
Beach and foreshore recharge is controlled and licensed in the UK. The Marine
Management Organisation represents a useful source of information.

13.7.1 General
Testing of material (particle size analysis and contamination) should be
undertaken to meet licensing requirements and inform design and contract
specification.

13.7.2 Design specification

COMMENTARY ON 13.7.2
Sediment from many different sources can be used for recharge, including sediment
from dredging navigation channels or from areas on the seabed licensed for
aggregate winning.
The design of a recharge project should be based on a knowledge of the
physical conditions of the site and the reason for recharge; whether for coastal
defence, the creation/refurbishment of beach amenities, or other reasons.
Both long-term average and short-term extreme weather and sea conditions
should be used to determine the life expectancy of any recharge. Numerical
modelling of the beach should be carried out to establish the effects of the
grain size and resultant profile on the beach. The models should be carefully
calibrated using the baseline data to demonstrate the validity and accuracy of
the model.
Knowledge of the physical conditions of the site should be based on several
years of monitoring of the processes affecting the beach. The baseline
monitoring should include:
• topography (including seasonal and storm responses);
• the wave climate;
• water levels;
• meteorological conditions (see Clause 6); and
• the sedimentological grading of the site (see 13.7.4), and potentially that of
the proposed recharge material if it is subject to change.

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13.7.3 Material sources

COMMENTARY ON 13.7.3
Materials used in recharge can come from several different sources, including but
not limited to:
• existing licensed marine sources;
• new marine sources, for which new licences are required;
• materials arising from maintenance and capital dredging activities;
• land-based sources.
Within the Water Framework Directive [9], there is a waste hierarchy which
comprises:
• prevention;
• re-use;
• recycle;
• other recovery;
• disposal.
The source of materials used in recharge should be selected such as to ensure
that the type of sediment chosen creates and maintains the required beach
morphology, and also that the extraction licence allows sufficient sediment to be
supplied.
NOTE 1 The beneficial use of material from maintenance and capital dredging is
actively encouraged in the UK.
The type of dredger to be used should be chosen according to the dredging
requirements, location, water depths at both source and at the delivery location,
placement method required, volume of sediment required and the sediment
used in the recharge.
NOTE 2 The choice of plant is covered in Clause 7.

13.7.4 Material grading

COMMENTARY ON 13.7.4
The range of gradings that are acceptable for a particular application are normally
referred to as a grading envelope. The grading envelope is determined by the beach
slope required and the physical processes at the beach. When using dredged
sediments, there can be no guarantee that the sediment loaded into the dredger
will match samples taken from the same area at a different time because of the
natural variability in the seabed sediments. The process of dredging also has the
potential to alter grain sizes. It is generally impractical to make refined changes to
the particle size distribution of material loaded onto dredgers through sorting, even
if the return to the seabed of the unwanted sizes is permitted.
The chosen envelope should take into account the natural variability of
sediment and the different processes that it will go through before it is sampled
on the beach.
NOTE An example grading envelope, including examples of acceptable and
unacceptable sediments, is shown in Figure 24.

13.7.5 Materials
COMMENTARY ON 13.7.5
Usually beach recharge utilizes sand (0.063 mm to 2 mm) and gravel (2 mm
to 60 mm) sized materials.
Soils are classified by grain sizes. Definitions of soil types are given in BS ISO 11277.

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Figure 24 Example grading envelope with examples of acceptable and unacceptable

sediments

Key
x Grain size, in millimetres (mm)
y Cumulative percentage
Grading envelope
Acceptable
Unacceptable

Material for beach recharge should be of such a size that the losses that occur
naturally under the influence of waves, tides and currents are not excessive.
The grading of the material should be similar to, or coarser than, that occurring
naturally on the beach to be replenished or on stable beaches that are subject
to similar conditions.
NOTE 1 The addition of even small amounts of gravel or coarser particles to a sand
beach can be detrimental to the amenity of the beach.
NOTE 2 The optimum grading of material for a stable beach is totally dependent
on the site. As a rule of thumb, the use of coarser material than the natural beach
results in a steeper beach slope and the use of a finer material results in a less steep
beach slope. In reality, there are many other factors which affect beach slope, such
as permeability and sediment sorting. Empirical relations have been established that
provide an estimate of the effect on beach slope of different sediment size
(see Table 17).

Table 17 Beach slope – Approximate sediment size trends for natural beaches

Median sediment size D50 Mean beach slope

Moderate wave climate Severe wave climate
mm
0.2 1:50 1:100
0.3 1:25 1:50
0.5 1:20 1:25
5 1:8 1:20
10 1:7 1:8
20 1:4 1:7
NOTE Data taken from HR Wallingford Report SR 350 [23].

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13.7.6 Monitoring of recharged beaches

The spacing of the beach profile locations depends on the shape and size of the
beach, but once agreed upon, the locations of the profiles to be monitored
should be assumed to be fixed for the duration of the works. The cross-sections
should be at centres close enough to be representative of local variations and
should extend over the alongshore distance which can be affected by the
recharge. The profiles should also include the adjacent beaches where there is a
chance that they are connected with respect to sediment transport.
NOTE 1 The surveys of the adjacent beaches do not need to be as detailed as for
the recharged frontage.
The offshore extent of the survey profiles should be determined by the historical
data which shows depth of closure.
NOTE 2 The depth of closure is the seaward extent of any profile change.
If such data exist, a sensible lower limit can be determined from the profiles,
however in the absence of these data, the profiles should extend to a nominal
closure depth (see the article Field data on seaward limit of profile change [24])
of 10 m or to a maximum of 10 km offshore.
The results of the monitoring should be used to evaluate the performance of
the beach recharge and the need for further recharge.
The two main objectives of sampling of sediments on the beach for recharge
schemes should be to:
• determine the grading of the sediment and how it changes with time; and
• ensure that the sediment delivered to the beach fits into the required
grading envelope.
The locations of the samples should remain consistent for the duration of the
works and subsequent monitoring so that trends in the grain size can be
identified easily.
A sufficient number (and size) of beach samples, for particle size analysis, should
be taken to provide a representative picture of the beach sediments. Sampling
should extend from above high water to the closure depth and extend into the
adjacent areas where the beach is not well separated from these with respect to
sediment transport.
The monitoring of the beach before, during and after the recharge should
provide morphological and sedimentological data:
• to give an understanding of the annual variability of the natural beach, via
baseline surveys;
• to give assurance that the sediment properties and volumes are as required,
during the recharge works; and
• to give an indication of the success of the recharge, via post-placement
surveys.
Since profiles are seasonably variable, comparison of levels can be of only
limited value. A more reliable indication of change is given by measuring the
change in beach sectional area above an arbitrary reference elevation, which
should be below the closure depth.
NOTE 3 From these beach sections, changes in beach volume can be calculated.
The shoreline management plans and other documentary sources can assist with
understanding of the wider sediment transport system.

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Beaches formed of dredged gravel can form small “cliffs” if the material
dredged is not well matched to that on the beach in terms of the detail of the
constituents of the sediment. These cliffs can be hazardous and should be
avoided.

13.7.7 Beach recharge scheme management

The management of any beach recharge scheme should have oversight of the
quantity of the recharge material and its quality, the accuracy of placement and
changes soon after placement; if the sediment grading changes, profiles are
affected.
A procedure should be put in place that sets out clearly the actions to be taken
in the event of the placement of sediment not meeting the agreed standard
during the course of the works.
The volume of sediment deposited is different from that dredged, due to
bulking and losses. Specialist advice should be sought as part of the early design
process to address the potential implications of changes in volume and particle
size as a consequence of the dredging process. It should be agreed, at an early
stage, which volume of sediment, that extracted or that deposited, will be used
as the design measure; the latter is more meaningful, particularly if volume in
the finished profile is referred to.
Sediment grading should be monitored regularly and accurately, to ensure that
the sediment deposited is within the grading envelope stipulated in the design.

14 Ground treatment
14.1 General
The need for ground treatment should be based on:
• the nature and method of placement of the reclamation fill;
• the properties of the fill material;
• any underlying soft/weak in-situ materials left in place;
• the functional requirements of the end user.
The extent of ground treatment should be determined largely by the functional
requirements stipulated by the end user, taking account of the bearing capacity
and settlement restrictions of the proposed development.
NOTE 1 Use for bulk storage of materials has a bearing capacity requirement, but a
settlement limit is probably not required. Container stacking areas where the shifters
are programmed or controlled by a central computer system have small ranges for
variations in bearing capacity and post-construction settlement. Imposition of
excessively onerous limits within the functional requirements can result in excessive
ground treatment, which is reflected in cost to the developer.
The fill to be placed in a reclamation should ideally be a granular material with
a limited amount of fines. However, it is frequently necessary (for either
environmental reasons or disposal issues) for granular fill to be placed above
soft compressible clays that form the foreshore or river flood plain. Both the
reclamation fill and any soft in-situ material left in place should be assessed for
treatment to satisfy the functional requirements of the development.
NOTE 2 The nature of the ground treatment depends upon the materials involved.
Where fine-grained materials, such as any in-situ soils, are left in place before
placement of the reclamation fill, settlement is a major concern. Settlement has
three phases: immediate, consolidation and secondary. The largest element is the

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consolidation phase, where porewater is squeezed out of the soil by pressures

induced by the placement of load from the fill. Drainage of these excess (pore)
water pressures can take a significant period of time to occur.
Potential for soil liquefaction of fine-grained soils used for reclamation should
be examined, particularly in highly seismic zones. Suitable ground treatment
methods should be selected when liquefaction is an issue.
Weak saturated fine-grained materials are not typically amenable to vibratory
methods of treatment; normally, consolidation should be promoted by
application of load (a surcharge) and by the improvement of drainage by
installing band drains, or vibro stone replacement.
NOTE 3 Placement of granular materials by hydraulic methods frequently results in
a loose material with limited bearing capacity and potentially significant creep
settlement characteristics. These are commonly treated by vibratory methods.
The choice of ground treatment method should be influenced by the
geotechnical requirements and engineering performance objectives.
Appropriate site supervision, quality control and monitoring procedures should
be put in place during execution of ground treatment techniques to ensure
successful implementation, and an appropriate level of pre- and post-treatment
testing should be carried out to determine whether satisfactory performance has
been achieved.

14.2 Types of ground treatment

14.2.1 General
When planning and designing a reclamation, a balance should be sought
between the quality of the available fill and the need for ground treatment,
especially where only higher fines content fills are available. The designer should
take into account the benefits and application of the full range of ground
treatment methods available to improve the strength and compressibility
characteristics of materials within reclamation.
NOTE Typical methods include:
• pre-loading and surcharging;
• drainage;
• soil replacement;
• vibration;
• inclusions.
It is not intended to give a full description here; these methods are described in
detail in the ICE Manual of geotechnical engineering [25] and advice can also be
sought from specialist contractors.
The level at which the ground treatment is executed should be selected with
care, taking the following factors into account.
• Below water, ground treatment is logistically more challenging and less
effective due to the low effective stress from soil particle buoyancy.
• Above water level, placing and compacting fill material in layers is
straightforward by conventional roller or similar methods as given
in BS 6031.
• Working from the reclamation surface both reduces the depth of the
applied treatment and avoids having to penetrate the dense compacted
near surface layer.

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• Working from the surcharge top level maximizes the effective stress, but
increases the depth of penetration.
• Working platform height should be limited to ensure that edge structures
remain stable.
The selection of ground treatment method should take full account of:
• the time required to achieve the planned soil improvement;
• the influence of water level and pore pressures on the submerged weight of
soil and reduction in effective stress;
• possible conflicts with major earth movements, dredging and other works
on the site;
• the consequent implications for the construction programme.
Typical ground treatment options that should be taken into account when
designing ground treatment include those described in 14.2.2 to 14.2.6.

14.2.2 Pre-loading and surcharging

To pre-load a site, fill should be placed such that the loads applied to the
foundations are at least the same as the long-term final loads for the fill and
any service loads.
A settlement allowance should be added to the reclamation levels to ensure that the
required load is applied and maintained and that the final level remains at or above
the design formation level. The fill should be left for a sufficient period of time to
allow settlement to take place and for the bearing capacity to improve under the
fill’s self-weight before final development.
NOTE 1 Where subsequent consolidation of the underlying or reclamation material
is liable to exceed the allowable settlements, pre-loading the site is rarely sufficient,
as the soil remains compressible even after a long time. To reduce the compressibility
an additional surcharge can be placed, or other ground treatment method adopted.
The surcharge should be placed above the required finished levels, to provide
sufficient additional load to over-consolidate the compressible soils and densify
the non-compressible soils, with loads preferably greater than the final in-service
loads of the development. Where practicable the surcharge material should be
the same as the reclamation fill, to avoid quality issues of mixed soils and to
simplify management.
NOTE 2 The surcharge loading is used to accelerate primary consolidation
settlements of fine-grained foundation materials and to reduce secondary
consolidation (creep) type settlement, with an increased bearing capacity resulting
from the increased effective shear strength.
NOTE 3 Particular care is needed when surcharging adjacent to existing quay walls
and edges of structures to fully evaluate and ensure their stability.

14.2.3 Drainage
Where the foundation soils are fine-grained materials with low permeability, the
drainage of excess porewater and settlement under the loading for both
pre-loading and surcharge can take a considerable time to complete. Where
required, the time for consolidation should be reduced by improving the
drainage.
The horizontal drainage path should be reduced by the installation of a close
grid of vertical drains [normally pre-fabricated band drains (PVD) of geotextile
encasing a PVC core].
NOTE 1 Drains do not alter the secondary creep characteristics of the material but
do advance the onset of creep, thus reducing post-construction movements.

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The ground treatment design should take account of the importance of

maintaining the granular drainage blanket’s function during the consolidation
process, especially if any non-granular permanent or temporary surcharge is
placed above the blanket.
If large settlements are expected, care should be taken that the compression of
the band drains does not cause kinking of the drain which can result in a
significant loss in drainage capacity.
NOTE 2 This can be achieved either by using specialist non-kink band drains or by
installing a second set of band drains to restore drainage capacity.
The design of vertical drains should take into account that the horizontal
permeability of laminated estuarine clays is often higher than the vertical
permeability due to the presence of silt and sand partings.
NOTE 3 The spacing of the drains can be increased where the horizontal
permeability is high.
NOTE 4 The vacuum consolidation method uses a system of PVD drains installed
from the ground/treatment surface, with an impermeable cover membrane to allow
a vacuum to be developed over the area being consolidated. A vacuum is applied to
the ground surface to simulate the loading to be applied in service without the
requirement for application of a conventional surcharge load. Vacuum dewatering
can be advantageous where placement of a pre-load or surcharge is not practical,
such as in inter-tidal zones, areas too weak to support surface plant, or where either
surcharge material is in short supply or there are concerns with stability of any
placed surcharge.
NOTE 5 Application of the vacuum produces a pressure on the soil which facilitates
accelerated isotropic consolidation in the soil mass. The resultant reduction in pore
water pressure increases the effective stress. Where the vacuum method is used in
near-shore applications, the resulting effective stress increase also includes the
overburden pressure of the seawater. Information regarding vacuum pre-loading is
given in BS EN 15237:2007, Annex B.

14.2.4 Soil replacement

Soil replacement should be undertaken by the excavation of in-situ soft
compressible materials and replacement by better quality reclamation fill,
compacted as necessary to achieve the required engineering strength and
settlement criteria.
NOTE 1 Where suitable the excavated fill can be relaid and compacted.
NOTE 2 The costs of this process can be offset by a reduced scale of ground
treatment required, and the relatively shorter timescale to achieve the required
strength. For projects where particularly stringent limitations on settlement are
imposed, this method can be a necessity.

14.2.5 Vibration – Vibro compaction, dynamic compaction, impact rolling

To ensure that reclamation fills placed hydraulically are compacted to give the
required properties for development, vibro compaction using surface rollers or
deep compaction plant should be used to densify the fills.
To densify loose fills and natural soils, the application of vibration or dynamic
impact loadings should be used to compact the materials by rearranging the
granular soil particles into a denser state to give greater strength and stiffness.
NOTE 1 The densification reduces void ratio and compressibility with
a corresponding increase in the angle of shearing resistance. The improved soil
allows higher imposed design loadings, smaller settlements and increased seismic
resistance.
Vibro compaction techniques should only be used when the layer to be
compacted is more than 1.0 m thick.

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NOTE 2 Vibro compaction involves the penetration of a vibrating poker into the
ground to densify materials to the depth of the poker. Some soils only require
compaction using a vibrating poker, but the same or similar plant is often used for
the construction of vibro replacement or displacement stone columns. In some
circumstances, vibro stone columns act as vertical drains. Information regarding vibro
techniques is given in BS EN 14731.
Dynamic compaction and rapid impact compaction should only be used when
the large intensity vibrations will not damage adjacent structures.
NOTE 3 Dynamic compaction involves the dropping from height of a heavy weight
on pre-determined grid patterns, involving one or more treatment passes to improve
soil stiffness. Rapid impact compaction is similar in effect to dynamic compaction but
involves dropping a weight onto a plate with a diameter of about 1.5 m using a
hydraulic actuator to lift the weight.
NOTE 4 Compaction using impact rollers can be used on fills up to 2 m thick.
The rollers have an eccentric shape which imparts a sudden force to the ground
surface.
NOTE 5 Dynamic compaction treatment can also be performed below water using
barge-mounted cranes and stream-lined weights with holes cut out to reduce water
resistance and increase impact velocity on the seabed.
The pattern and spacing of compaction treatment should be tailored to the
project design requirements.
Vibro compaction and vibro replacement should be carried out through fill from
above high tide levels, but may also be carried out near-shore, working from
barges or pontoons, or sometimes using large cranes reaching out from existing
quays (see Figure 25).

14.2.6 Inclusions
When the site conditions are not suitable for simple vibro compaction to achieve
the design strength or stiffness, vibro replacement (stone columns), jet grouting
(soil/cement columns) and deep mixing (soil/cement columns) techniques should
be used to form a stiff column of material at close centres within the soil mass
extending to more competent materials at depth.
NOTE The installation of stiff soil elements rely on a load transfer system
(BS 8006-1 describes the design of the load transfer system) near the surface which
distributes a large part of the applied load to the stiff columns or piles, resulting in a
reduced load being applied to the soil. The transfer system usually comprises layers
of compacted fill, sometimes reinforced with geotextiles or geogrid. The spacing of
the columns together with the thickness of the load transfer system are variables in
the design. Vibro replacement (stone columns) has an additional advantage in that
the columns can also act as vertical drains allowing a greater rate of settlement.

14.3 Design process

14.3.1 General
The design process should be determined on a case-by-case basis according to
the individual project, but this subclause outlines the procedure that is
commonly followed.

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Figure 25 Vibro equipment working off barges/pontoons during a reclamation project

Key
1 Stone aggregate feed hopper 6 Vibrator probe
2 Hopper and pressure vessel 7 Completed stone columns
3 Barge 8 Varying depth
4 Extension tubes/feed pipes a Stone column grid spacing
5 Seabed level

14.3.2 Pre-contract ground investigation and preparation of functional

requirements
An initial ground investigation should be carried out to enable preliminary
assessments of the need and/or degree of ground treatment required and to
inform preparation of the functional requirements. This also allows contractors
to assess the risk posed by the ground conditions. This investigation should at
least be sufficient to identify the nature and extent of materials beneath the
future reclamation and to identify the potential nature of the materials to be
used as reclamation fill. The investigation should include strength and
compressibility tests (which should include either permeability testing and/or
rate of consolidation determination) of in-situ soils.
The functional requirements should be formulated taking cognisance of the type
and extent of ground treatment shown by the investigation as likely to be
required, together with the operating conditions required of the end user.
The imposition of onerous requirements has a major effect on the degree of
treatment required, and the functional requirements should be determined with
care to avoid unnecessary costs.
NOTE 1 The ground treatment can be designed on the basis of the ground
investigation data together with the functional requirements.

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NOTE 2 It can be that several combinations of treatment (height and duration of

surcharge, drain spacing, vibro spacing) offer the same results. Here, a view needs to
be taken of the risks of each combination of method together with costs.

14.3.3 Ground treatment design and preliminary trials

Having determined the most appropriate ground treatment required,
preliminary trials should be carried out to confirm that it will meet the
functional requirements.
NOTE 1 In the case of vibro or inclusions, this usually takes the form of cone
penetration tests and zone loading tests (see 14.4).
NOTE 2 Where surcharge is used, then, in addition to trial embankments, reliance is
often placed on monitoring the first phases of construction, since results from this
can usually indicate whether any modification is required which can be incorporated
into later phases.
NOTE 3 The preliminary assessment for the selection of ground treatment method
may be made using Figure 26.
NOTE 4 Further guidance can be found in Chapter 84 of the ICE Manual of
geotechnical engineering [26].

Figure 26 Range of soils suitable for treatment by vibrocompaction and vibro stone
column techniques

(After Serridge and Slocombe [26])

14.3.4 Further ground investigation

Where the pre-contract ground investigation does not provide all the data
required fully to design the ground treatment required, additional ground
investigation should be implemented if advantageous. This investigation should
be focused on the design requirements of the ground treatment, and should
include definition of strength, compressibility and rate of consolidation
parameters. In fine-grained materials, where these are to be left in place, the
duration of the compressibility tests should be extended such that secondary
consolidation (creep) characteristics can be assessed.

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14.3.5 Ground treatment implementation

On completion of investigations, design and trialling, construction of the ground
treatment can begin. This should normally be preceded by a series of tests to
determine the condition of the reclamation fill and the foundations following
placement. In granular fill material used for reclamations, tests should determine
the relative density and may be cone penetration tests (CPT), standard
penetration tests (SPT) or pressuremeter tests (PMT).
NOTE A problem with the SPT and PMT testing is that a borehole is required to
test the fill at depth and tests are only carried out at intervals down the borehole,
typically 1 m, making the testing somewhat slow and limited. The results of PMT
tests are a stiffness modulus at each test depth, which, whilst it might be useful for
elastic settlement calculation, is frequently not included in functional requirements.
The CPT, which gives a near continuous profile without the need of a borehole, is
the most common form of testing.
The spacing or frequency of soil tests should be planned to ensure that the
properties of the fill are adequately measured.

14.4 Performance monitoring

On completion of the ground treatment, further testing should be carried out to
determine whether the reclamation performs in terms of bearing capacity and
future settlement, as required. This testing should typically include the
following.
• To assess future settlement characteristics of the reclamation, settlement
observation points should be established over the area of the reclamation
and monitored both during the construction period and after. Settlement
monitoring points established on the original ground surface prior to filling
are particularly useful to establish the full settlement history of the original
ground. Observation points that are destroyed by construction or during
development should be re-established nearby so that a continuous record of
settlement is available.
Standpipes and piezometers should be deployed where knowledge of
ground water level, and pore pressures is required, and magnet
extensometers should be deployed to reinforce settlement monitoring.
Inclinometers should be deployed where lateral ground movements need to
be monitored.
The data from observation points during construction allows verification of
the parameters used for design. If the parameters back-analysed from the
observation points are more onerous than assumed, then the treatment
applied should be reassessed. The earlier this back-analysis is carried out
then the longer the period of construction remaining and the less additional
ground treatment measures can be required. The converse is also true: early
examination and scrutiny of this data might show more optimistic
parameters and allow a reduced degree of treatment in future areas than
would be the case had the examination taken place later.
• Repeating the CPT (or SPT/PMT) and comparing the pre- and post-test
results. If the criteria given in the functional requirements (or detailed by
the contractor in the design) in terms of either relative density, cone
resistance or modulus, are shown to have been achieved, treatment can
continue to the next area. If the criteria are not met, the reasons should be
investigated and further treatment carried out followed by testing.
• To demonstrate bearing capacity and settlement performance, zone loading
tests (ZLT) can be undertaken. These are large (typically 3 m square) plates
that are loaded to a pre-determined pressure. Settlement readings are taken
on all four corners over a period of time, often extending over a number of

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days. Plotting settlement against time allows an estimation of the secondary

(creep) characteristics of the fill and thus its future settlement.
Acceptance of the reclamation/ground treatment relies on the results obtained
from monitoring and testing. The effort required in acquiring this data in terms
of resources should not be under-estimated. If the data available for scrutiny is
too sparse for reliable conclusions on future performance to be ascertained,
then acceptance of the reclamation should be delayed until more data is
obtained.
NOTE Good quality data is of paramount importance as inaccurate and/or
unreliable data is very difficult to back-analyse. This delays the construction
programme and hence is likely to have potential contractual implications and
significant cost increases.

15 Management and supervision

15.1 Project management
15.1.1 General
Good project management on the part of the client and the contractor should
seek to achieve the project objectives in the most efficient and economical way
and should take account of the following goals:
• set and meet health, safety and environment objectives;
• set and meet cost, schedule and quality objectives;
• effectively supply, operate and maintain the dredging and ancillary plant;
• manage communications between all parties involved in the project
activities;
• successfully implement contract variations if required;
• optimize the working method given the available resources;
• plan and implement mitigation measures if needed.

15.1.2 Roles and responsibilities

For the successful execution of a dredging project, the roles of the various
parties and their responsibilities should be clearly defined. The line management
responsibilities should also be identified.
NOTE Clear definition of responsibility is particularly important during the
execution phase of a project and in the event of an emergency incident.

15.2 Execution planning phase

Once a dredging contract has been awarded, a further, more detailed, phase of
planning should be undertaken, specifically in relation to the execution of the
works, which should recognize the temporal sequence of the tasks and their
interdependence. This is a key phase and should be undertaken rigorously for
the following reasons:
• a well-planned project is easier to manage;
• the progress of the activities can be compared with the predicted progress;
• corrective action can be taken in the event that the expected progress is not
achieved; and
• unexpected circumstances can be dealt with according to pre-determined
contingency plans, thus minimizing delays.

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During the construction planning phase the project implementation team should
be selected, and all relevant project-specific management plans should be
prepared and approved. A careful check should be made at this stage to ensure
that there are no outstanding permits and licenses required. The responsibility
for resolving any outstanding issues should be defined between the parties, and
the necessary timescales factored into the project planning.
The project-specific management plan should include:
• dredging or reclamation methodology;
• work schedule (the dredging/reclamation execution plan);
• project safety and emergency response (the health and safety
management plan);
• environmental management (the environmental management plan;
see 5.7.5);
• project measurement (e.g. survey) and reporting requirements
(see also 15.12);
• project execution and resource plan.
During this planning phase all the other parties, either directly involved in the
project or affected by the dredging/reclamation activities (including early works;
see 15.4), should be notified of the forthcoming execution of the works.
The dredging contractor should prepare method statements for the dredging
activities which should include as a minimum:
• information, including applicable drawings and documents;
• organization, including organizational charts, roles and responsibilities;
• communication, on site and between parties involved, including stoppage of
work;
• tools and equipment, including safety instructions;
• work execution, including step-by-step description and the people and tools
involved, risks and mitigating measurements;
• schedule.

15.3 Mobilization phase

Once the contractor responsible for the dredging/reclamation has been served
with the notice to proceed (after the contractual pre-mobilization requirements
have been fulfilled), the mobilization of equipment and personnel to the
construction site should start (this is when the project and site safety plans are
implemented).
Mobilization of equipment and personnel should follow the planned stages,
mobilizing only the resources agreed at each stage of the project.
The equipment and personnel required to complete the early works and site
preparation should be mobilized at the beginning of the project, with the
dredging equipment being mobilized only when all the early works have been
completed, or as agreed in the dredging and reclamation mobilization plan.
Staged mobilization might not be possible in all cases, for example at remote or
exposed locations. In these situations, provisions for adequate laydown, storage
and vessel moorings should be planned and agreed in advance in order to
accommodate unused or standby equipment.

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15.4 Early works and site preparation phase

Within the early works and site preparation phase of the project, all of the
activities that need to occur before the dredging works can commence should
be completed.
NOTE 1 The number, type and duration of the required activities is variable and
changes from one project to another.
NOTE 2 Common early works activities are:
• provision/procurement of site security and access;
• installation of survey benchmarks and tide gauges;
• provision/procurement of accommodation;
• provision/installation of site offices;
• provision/preparation of lay-down areas and workshops;
• provision of consumables (e.g. water, food and fuel);
• installation of temporary and inclement weather moorings;
• installation of environmental monitoring equipment;
• preparation of the reclamation areas (in case of a reclamation project).

15.5 Works implementation phase

15.5.1 General
During the implementation phase of the project, the works should be carried
out in accordance with the plans developed during the planning phase.
As the works progress, the quantity and quality of the work completed should
be monitored regularly. Regular progress meetings involving all stakeholders
should be held to ensure that any issues are identified and can be dealt with in
a timely fashion.

15.5.2 Communication
For effective management of dredging and construction operations, systems
should be established prior to site work commencing to allow clear, concise
official and unofficial communications between the dredging and construction
contractors, the client and other responsible authorities.
During the execution of the works, especially if the project is large and complex,
the client and other key parties should be provided with daily reports on
activities over the previous 24 h and those planned in the coming 48 h.
Important operational data (e.g. environmental performance against thresholds,
material types encountered, working hours, vessels on site and any delays)
should be included, such that dredging and construction activities are properly
coordinated and managed. Reports should be provided at the start of each day
and should include details of dredging plans for the current day and a day
ahead. Daily reports should be in written format. Weekly progress reports
should be provided by the dredging contractor setting out progress achieved as
compared with the schedule for the works.
Teams of field staff (including those on vessels) need to be able to communicate
effectively when on site and systems should be in place at the start of the works
to allow this (one potential way of achieving this is via the use of VHF radio,
subject to the necessary licences and permissions). Communication systems can
perform an important safety function and as such should be robust.

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For simultaneous operations (SIMOPs), i.e. operations occurring in the same (or
adjacent) area at the same time, a SIMOPs procedure should be established and
agreed before site work commences. This procedure should provide guidance for
all parties involved in the SIMOPs, with the purpose of reducing risk and
ensuring that the operations are conducted in a safe manner.
The procedure should clarify which individuals (or project roles) should be
responsible for the management of the SIMOPs, which operations are
considered to be SIMOPs, what additional risk analysis needs to be performed
for those operations and how the arising risk control measures should be
implemented.

15.5.3 Vessel location system

COMMENTARY ON 15.5.3
International Maritime Organization’s International Convention for the Safety of Life
at Sea requires that passenger ships and all vessels larger than 300 t have to carry an
automatic identification system (AIS) transponder. AIS information can be received
by on-board receivers, AIS base stations, and satellites to provide the vessel location,
heading and speed.
Major projects and those with high marine traffic risks should take full
advantage of the AIS system by installing a dedicated AIS VHF receiver and data
logger, to allow the tracking of vessels, to monitor safety and the identification
of high navigation risk areas. AIS transponders should also be provided on tugs,
work boats and powered and dumb barges and other small vessels on major
projects where:
a) there are:
• high marine traffic risks;
• high vessel movement coordination requirements;
• significant navigation hazards;
• exclusion zones to protect infrastructure such as pipe and cable
landfalls;
• environmentally sensitive areas;
b) work is undertaken at night;
c) visibility is poor;
d) the site is exposed to severe sea conditions and storms.

15.6 Supervision
Supervision of the dredging operations is essential and it should be performed
by both the dredging contractor and the client in order to:
a) verify that the dredging operations conform to all of the project procedures
and management plans;
b) ensure that the work conforms to specifications and tolerances;
c) ensure that the work is performed safely and in accordance with the
construction schedule, cost estimate and environmental management plan.

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15.7 Health and safety

NOTE Advice on health and safety matters can be obtained from the Health and
Safety Executive.
The health and safety management plan and all other project-specific plans
dealing with health and safety matters should be accessible to all personnel on
the project. All project personnel should make themselves familiar with the
plans relevant to them and, in particular, the specific responsibilities that they
have according to their role on the project.

15.8 Environmental
The predicted environmental changes and impacts arising from a
dredging/reclamation project, and the mitigation, compensation and monitoring
agreed with regulators, should be clearly and concisely set out in project
documentation prior to baseline environmental monitoring commencing
(see Clause 5). Project planning, agreements (including with regulators) and
management should allow for dynamic control of the works (e.g. changes in
dredger production rate) according to feedback from the environmental
monitoring (this is sometimes referred to as adaptive management), provided
that the scale of the project is such that this is appropriate. For adaptive
management of this type the use of near real-time monitoring equipment
should be assessed for its viability.
Where environmental thresholds have been agreed with regulators, clear
systems and documentation should be in place prior to commencement of the
works in order to set out what these thresholds are and the way in which they
are to be managed (including informing of regulators with respect to
performance and actions if thresholds are being approached or exceeded).
Such information should be disseminated to, and agreed by, all relevant parties
(contractor’s team, client’s team and regulatory team).

15.9 Quality, documentation and reporting

15.9.1 Quality management
The client and contractor organizations should operate quality management
systems which apply the principles of well-established, internationally-recognized
quality management systems, including:
• customer focus;
• leadership;
• involvement of people;
• process approach;
• system approach to management;
• continual improvement;
• factual approach to decision making;
• mutually beneficial supplier relationships.
In addition, a project-specific quality management plan should be written,
agreed and approved prior to the commencement of the works. The project
quality management plan should provide guidance on the quality objectives,
roles and responsibilities, strategies, and practices to be adopted for the
measurement and audit of quality. The document should also detail the
approach to be adopted in order that corrective action can be quickly applied to
any identified non-conformities.

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15.9.2 Document control

A project document control system should be implemented in order that a
standard procedure is adopted for controlling the issue, receipt, authorization
and storage of all documentation related to the project.
The document control system should be consistent with the project quality
management plan and described in a project document control procedure.
The document should be prepared, agreed and approved prior to
commencement of the works.

15.10 Progress reporting

A progress reporting procedure should be prepared, agreed and adopted at the
start of the project. The procedure should specify the topics to be reported on,
the required contents of the reports and the frequency at which the reports
should be issued. The procedure should also describe the review and sign-off
procedure for the reports (including timescales for completion).

15.11 Site positioning and control

In order to achieve accurate dredging, accurate positioning methods should be
used, to reduce the likelihood of the plant operating outside of the scope of
work. Before commencement of the work on site, the client should specify and
agree with all relevant parties the coordinate system and the horizontal and
vertical datums to be used for the project as a whole. Such matters should
usually be dealt with in the technical specification for the work and might be
set out as part of the contract.
The use of AIS vessel location systems should be adopted as described in 15.5.3
to monitor general vessel movements and locations on site.
Dredging vessels should be equipped with differential (or better) satellite
positioning systems, integrated with electronic charts/digital terrain models and
other displays as necessary in order to indicate visually, in real time the position
of the vessel and the position of the active dredging component (cutter head,
drag head, bucket, etc.) in relation to the seabed and any near-by structures.
Such displays should also show the design depth and the agreed dredging
tolerance. These positions should be recorded and be available for auditing.
Great care should be exercised in the choice of datums to be used, particularly
when dredging works extend over long distances.

15.12 Measurement and testing against design

15.12.1 General
The methods of measurement to be used for any dredging/reclamation project
should be clearly described in the works specification documents and be agreed
well in advance of the works. The methodology used for the measurements
should be consistent between surveys to ensure that the potential for variations
introduced as a consequence of methodological changes is minimized.
The selection of methods of measurement (including the detailed specifications)
should be undertaken with reference to the overall accuracy and precision of
these methods and the potential consequences of the accuracy and precision
limitations with reference to the purpose of the measurements.
Changes in the bulk volume of materials during the dredging and reclamation
process should be taken into account when measuring dredging and reclamation
works.
NOTE Increases in material volume as a consequence of dredging are sometimes
referred to as “bulking”. Further information regarding sediment density and
volume changes as a consequence of sediment placement (and following sediment
placement) is given in the CUR/CIRIA Hydraulic fill manual [22].

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15.12.2 Capital and maintenance dredging

The design basis for capital and maintenance works should define the
geometrical characteristics of the dredged area that need to be achieved at the
end of the project. The design basis for capital and maintenance works should
also define the tolerances that need to be respected when executing the
dredging. For accurate measurement, the volumes requiring removal in order to
meet the design should be defined using up-to-date bathymetric survey data
(see 6.5.2).

15.12.3 Bathymetric/topographic measurement surveys

Bathymetric surveys should be used as a means of measurement of progress
against design for dredging (see 6.5.2), and topographic surveys used as a means
of measurement for reclamation. Where reclamation levels are below water
level in their early stages, bathymetric surveys should be used to measure
progress.
If a project involves winning of sediment, or its disposal, offshore then
bathymetric survey should also be used in these circumstances to ensure that the
dredging/placement activities have been undertaken within the area licensed.
Comparison of surveys undertaken at different times (level difference plots and
volume difference calculations) should be used to illustrate the progress of
works and/or other matters.

15.12.4 Tolerances
Dredge tolerances should form part of the written specification of the works
and are often included in the dredging contract as well as licences/permissions.
Tolerances should take account of the dredging plant to be used and the
environmental conditions such as wave heights. Measurement to assess
compliance with tolerances should take account of the level of accuracy of the
measurement method versus the magnitude of the tolerance.
NOTE Tight tolerances (relative to the capabilities of the plant/operators under the
conditions on site) usually lead to works taking longer than they might otherwise.

15.12.5 Debris, contamination, boulders

High quality site investigation should be employed to identify and quantify
debris, contamination and boulders as well as practicable in the planning phase
of the works. Dredging contracts and schedules should take account of the
presence of such materials and the likely accuracy with which it has been
possible to quantify them.

15.12.6 Pre-treatment areas for rock dredging

The method adopted for the measurement of the pre-treatment work should be
determined according to the pre-treatment method applied. Drilling and
blasting should typically be measured on a per square-metre basis for a given
depth of fragmentation, while measurement for mechanical pre-treatment and
superficial blasting is commonly calculated on a volume basis.

15.12.7 Hopper volume measurements

Direct measurements of load volume are sometimes made by taking a number
of soundings of the level of material in a hopper from a number of fixed
reference points around the hopper. However, such measurements should be
treated with caution as large spatial variations in the surface level of loads can
sometimes occur, and the sediment surface cannot be well defined in the case of
fine materials (silt and mud). Interpretation of the volume information collected
should take into account the potential effects of bulking and compaction,
noting that sediment density increases with depth within the hopper.

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NOTE During dredging, sediment is liberated from the bed which is not retained in
the hopper. This might be as a result of overflow from the hopper or the
disturbance caused by the dredge plant interacting with the bed, for example.
If an alternative to hopper volume measurements is required then use of the
displacement of the dredger to calculate the mass of material in the hopper
should be assessed for its suitability, noting that the procedure requires
thorough calibration.

15.12.8 Solids production data from on-board dredge computers

If such data are to be used then the accuracy of the systems in question should
be understood and the data derived checked against other sources of
information to ensure consistency. Where mixed materials are being dredged,
particular care should be taken as accuracies can be reduced or vary.

15.13 Dredged area quality control

The geometric design of the dredged area should specify the final depth, the
bottom width, the side slope and the acceptable tolerances.
Measurement and monitoring of dredged areas should be undertaken by a
bathymetric survey using a multi-beam or single beam echo sounder. The survey
should run multiple survey lines along the line of channels and trenches, in
addition to running check lines at regular intervals perpendicular to the trench
line. The following survey campaigns should be undertaken for trenching
operations, as a minimum:
• during the project planning phase, to determine the volume of the seabed
material to be removed by dredging to meet the design specification;
• a pre-dredge survey, to determine the exact bed levels prior to the
commencement of the works;
• a post-dredge survey, to confirm that dredging is complete and the dredged
depths have been achieved within the required tolerances.

15.14 Bar sweeps

Where depth is critical, such as in areas containing rock or boulders, complete
reliance should not be placed in echo sounder, multi-beam or sidescan sonar
techniques. The use of bar sweeps (a technique involving suspending a bar
below a vessel/float at a known depth) should be adopted in cases where there
is the possibility of hard material above the dredged level. The bar used should
be sufficiently heavy and properly monitored so that non abrupt obstructions
above the design dredged level do not simply lift the bar without giving an
indication to the operators in the towing vessel.

15.15 Reclamation quality control

NOTE 1 Reclamation by hydraulic fill is covered in prEN 16907-6. This subclause
applies only to reclamation by other methods.
The design basis for reclamation works should define the geometrical
characteristics and the fill properties of the reclamation that need to be
achieved at the end of the project.
Topographic surveys (see 6.5.3 and BS 6349-1-1) should be used to determine the
geometrical characteristics of the reclamation and the volume of the fill
material. Bathymetric surveys should be used in the early stages of reclamation
if the level is below water level. Volume calculations should be made by
performing before and after surveys of the reclamation area.

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NOTE 2 Bulking of the material in the hopper of the dredger, and the loss of fines
during excavation and overflow, both affect the volume of material discharged from
the dredger.
Similarly, attention should be paid to potential volume changes arising from
sediment transport and placement beyond the dredger and fines losses from
reclamation weir boxes.
If the ground upon which reclamation fill material is to be placed is soft or is
underlain by weak, compressible deposits, settlement beacons or plates should
be installed on an appropriately spaced grid pattern prior to placement
commencing. Settlement beacons are very vulnerable to disturbance during
filling and should be of substantial construction.
NOTE 3 An alternative to the use of beacons for recording settlement is the
installation of flat concrete slabs or steel plates. Upon completion of filling, the level
of the plate should be determined by probing through the fill.
Where there exists a significant difference in the density of the foundation soils
and that of the reclamation fill material, the level of the interface should be
determined using cone penetrometer methods. The same method should be
used to determine the final density of the fill materials.
A reclamation quality control programme should be undertaken to verify that
the quality and performance of the placed fill material is in accordance with the
design requirements.
When designing reclamation quality monitoring tests the following strategies
should be appraised for their suitability:
• material testing: confirmation that fill material meets the specified fill
criteria through material testing (soil sampling);
• behavioural monitoring: monitoring the behaviour of the placed
reclamation fill to confirm that the specified criteria for settlement and
deformation are being met;
• performance testing: tests the ability of the reclamation to perform under
specific conditions (load tests);
• process monitoring: standards, codes of practice or trial tests can provide
construction methodologies that, if properly followed, can ensure that the
desired performance characteristics are met.
Table 18 provides an overview of the reclamation properties which should be
measured and monitored during construction and the tests or monitoring
techniques that are commonly implemented for each. The construction schedule
should be planned to take into account the time required to complete each of
the tests to avoid delays to the progress of the works.

15.16 Demobilization phase

Once the contractor responsible for the dredging/reclamation activities considers
that the scope of work has been fulfilled to specification (which can include a
requirement to maintain the dredged areas up to a contractually agreed
handover date), a bathymetric/topographic survey should be undertaken to
verify that the works have been completed in agreement with the agreed
specifications.
If this can be confirmed the client should issue the final acceptance or notice of
completion to the contractor. If the post-dredging survey demonstrates that the
scope of work has not been completed, the deficiencies should be detailed and
rectified before the work can be considered completed. Demobilization of
equipment and personnel should occur in planned stages, similar to the
mobilization phase, based on requirements.

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116
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Characteristic and property to Purpose of measurement Test or monitoring technique Reference/Note
measure and monitor
Geometry Spatial dimensions of Verify that the geometrical design Bathymetric and topographic BS 6349-1-1
the reclamation and meets with the requirements survey
BS 6349-5:2016

containment bunds
Soil Particle size Verify the material is well mixed and Sieve analysis BS 1377-2
properties distribution and efficient compaction is achievable Sedimentation test BS 1377-2
angularity Comparison with standard samples ASTM D2488
Verify that the fill material meets the
specified fill criteria and photographs
Flakiness index BS EN 933-3
Shape index BS EN 933-4
Minimum and Calculate the relative density Minimum dry density test ASTM D4254
maximum dry density Proctor test BS 1377-4

© The British Standards Institution 2016

Vibrating hammer ASTM D7382
Vibrating table ASTM D4253
Mineralogy Evaluate wear and tear during Visual examination Not standardized
construction and fill mechanical X-ray fluorescence or x-ray BS 5930:2015
behaviour diffraction, microscopy
Fill Shear strength Evaluate/monitor the resistance to Vane shear test BS 1377-9
properties shear stress failure. Cone penetration test BS 1377-9
Verify bearing capacity to support Standard penetration test BS EN ISO 22476-3,
applied loads and stability of installed ASTM D1586
slopes California bearing ratio BS 1377-9
Plate loading test BS 1377-9
Zone load test Not standardized
Trial embankment Not standardized
Electrical piezometer Monitoring instrument for
excess pore pressure
Inclinometer Monitoring instrument for
lateral deformation
BRITISH STANDARD
 Table 18 Overview of reclamation properties to be measured and monitored during construction (2 of 2)

Characteristic and property to Purpose of measurement Test or monitoring technique Reference/Note

measure and monitor
Fill Stiffness Estimate/monitor deformation and Oedometer test BS 1377-5
properties settlement Triaxial test BS 1377-7
(cont.) California bearing ratio BS 1377-9
Settlement plate Tool to monitor vertical
BRITISH STANDARD

settlement
Extensometer Tool to monitor vertical
settlement
Settlement hose Tool to measure settlement
distribution curves
Density Estimate other geotechnical Weight in water and water BS 1377-2
parameters correlated with density, to displacement method
calculate the relative compaction or Sand replacement or sand cone BS 1377-9
the relative density method
Water replacement method BS 1377-9
Core cutter method or drive BS 1377-9
cylinder method
Nuclear measurements BS 1377-9
Rubber balloon method ASTM D2167
Permeability Estimate the consolidation time, the Constant-head method BS 1377-5
effects on shear strength and stability Hydraulic consolidation cell BS 1377-6
Triaxial test BS 1377-6

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Annex A Seismic geophysical investigation techniques

(informative)
A.1 Seismic refraction profiling
In the refraction method, the various velocities of propagation of acoustic
energy through the seabed strata are measured. In order to achieve this, a pulse
of acoustic energy is released by high explosive, sparker, air gun, etc.
The acoustic energy source can be attached to the hydrophone array, towed
between the hydrophones or independently placed on the seabed. The choice of
acoustic energy source and hydrophone array depends upon site conditions and
needs careful consideration at the planning stage.
The apparent velocity recorded between any two hydrophones is the velocity of
propagation in the stratum from which that energy has been refracted (this is
typically referred to as seismic velocity). In this way a vertical profile can be
derived and depths to points of velocity changes calculated.
A benefit of the method is that the seismic velocity of rocks depends upon their
degree of weathering and fracturing (the velocity of refracted energy is reduced
when it passes through fault or fracture zones). This therefore allows rock
quality to be assessed horizontally along an array of hydrophones.
The refraction method complements the reflection method (see A.2) and might
give satisfactory results when the reflection method has poor penetration or
resolution due to organic sediments, coarse granular seabed surface, poor
quality reflectors, variable geology or disturbance from shallow-water multiple
reflectors. All seismic methods might achieve poor results where gas is present
within the soils or rocks.
The main disadvantage of the method is the difficulty in placing the acoustic
energy source and the hydrophone array on the seabed in a known position.
Waves, currents, winds and water depths, etc. make field work slower than for
the seismic reflection method. A further disadvantage is that the field data in
their raw form are not instantly amenable to interpretation and for best results
require a further level of processing than is typically required for the reflection
method (in the case of single-channel seismic reflection profiling).
An advantage of the method is that it might provide a guide to whether the
ground materials can be dredged directly or might require pre-treatment.

A.2 Seismic reflection profiling

In the reflection method, a pulse of acoustic energy is reflected off the seabed
and those sub-seabed strata that give an acoustic impedance contrast resulting
from increased density and/or velocity.
Acoustic energy is released by a piezoelectric or electromechanical transducer,
sparker, airgun, etc. The following types of seismic source or sub-bottom profiler
are available:
• echo sounder;
• pinger;
• chirper;
• parametric;
• boomer;
• sparker;
• airgun.

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The order in which these are given corresponds loosely to progressively

increasing acoustic energy output. These sources are attached to, or towed
astern of, the survey vessel.
The reflected energy signal is detected by the transducer or by a hydrophone
array towed astern of the vessel and subsequently digitized.
The sub-seabed is presented graphically as a deep echo sounding or geophysical
time section with some seismic reflectors identifiable as geological strata.
The main advantages of the method are the speed of data recovery and the
real-time presentation of data as a section.
For this reason, it is necessary to appreciate the relations between acoustic
energy, signal frequency, resolution and penetration to select the optimum
equipment for the site.
Higher frequencies are attenuated with depth so that penetration is achieved
only with lower frequencies. However, the lower the frequency, the lower the
vertical resolution. The coarser the sub-seabed materials, the greater the energy
absorption and the lesser the penetration (see Table A.1).

Table A.1 Indicative penetration depths for a range of soils

Seismic source Typical operating Indicative penetration below seabed

frequency range Gravel Medium sand Silt
kHz m m m
Sparker 0.1 to 2 ≤15 15 to 50 75 to 100+
Boomer 1 to 4 ≤5 5 to 20 30 to 100
Parametric echo sounder 4 to 10 <1 ≤5 5 to 30
Pinger 4 to 15 <1 ≤5 5 to 30
Chirp 3 to 20 ≤2 ≤10 5 to 50
NOTE There are many variables that affect the effective sub-seabed penetration that can be achieved with a
sub-bottom profiler system, such as masking by gas or multiple reflections. The values given in the table above are
therefore to be treated as indicative only.

Sea conditions, especially waves, have an appreciable effect on record quality.

When the transducer is towed below the surface the effect of waves is much
reduced, although snatching and heaving from an unstable survey vessel reduce
record quality to below acceptable levels. Swell compensators can be used to
extend the working conditions for surface-towed equipment.

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BS 6349-5:2016 BRITISH STANDARD

Bibliography
Standards publications
For dated references, only the edition cited applies. For undated references, the
latest edition of the referenced document (including any amendments) applies.
ASTM D5731, Standard test method for determination of the point load
strength index of rock and application to rock strength classifications
BS 6349-1-2, Maritime works – Part 1-2: General – Code of practice for
assessment of actions
BS 6349-1-3, Maritime works – Part 1-3: General – Code of practice for
geotechnical design
BS 6349-1-4, Maritime works – Part 1-4: General – Code of practice for materials
BS 6349-2:2010, Maritime works – Part 2: Code of practice for the design of quay
walls, jetties and dolphins
BS 6349-3, Maritime works – Part 3: Code of practice for the design of shipyards
and sea locks
BS 6349-4, Maritime works – Part 4: Code of practice for design of fendering and
mooring systems
BS 6349-6, Maritime structures – Part 6: Design of inshore moorings and floating
structures
BS 6349-7, Maritime structures – Part 7: Guide to the design and construction of
breakwaters
BS 6349-8, Maritime structures – Part 8: Code of practice for the design of Ro-Ro
ramps, linkspans and walkways
BS 8006-1, Code of practice for strengthened/reinforced soils and other fills
BS EN 14731, Execution of special geotechnical works – Ground treatment by
deep vibration
BS EN 15237:2007, Execution of special geotechnical works – Vertical drainage
BS EN ISO 19901-8, Petroleum and natural gas industries – Specific requirements
for offshore structures – Part 8: Marine soil Investigations
BS ISO 11277, Soil quality – Determination of particle size distribution in mineral
soil material – Method by sieving and sedimentation
prEN 16907-6, Earthworks – Part 6: Land reclamation with dredged
hydraulic fill 2)

Other publications
[1] PIANC. Working with nature. PIANC Position Paper. Brussels: PIANC, 2011.
[2] PIANC MARCOM WORKING GROUP 49. Harbour approach channels design
guidelines. Brussels: PIANC, 2014.
[3] BRAY, R.N. Environmental aspects of dredging.
IADC/CEDA: Taylor & Francis, 2009.
[4] SOULSBY, R.L. Dynamics of marine sands. London: Thomas Telford, 1997.
[5] WHITEHOUSE, R.J.S., SOULSBY, R.L., ROBERTS, W., and MITCHENER, H.
Dynamics of estuarine muds. London: Thomas Telford, 2000.

2)
This standard is in preparation at the time of publication of BS 6349-5. It will be
published in due course as BS EN 16907-6.

120 • © The British Standards Institution 2016

BRITISH STANDARD BS 6349-5:2016

[6] PIANC. Site investigation requirements for dredging works. PTC2 Report
WG23 (Supplement to Bulletin No. 103). Brussels: PIANC, 2000.
[7] INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY FOR SOIL MECHANICS AND GEOTECHNICAL
ENGINEERING. Geotechnical and geophysical investigations for offshore and
nearshore developments. London: ISSMGE, 2005.
[8] INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF DREDGING COMPANIES. Facts about site
investigation. Nijmegen, The Netherlands: IADC, 2105.
[9] EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES. 2000/60/EC. Directive 2000/60/EC of the European
Parliament and of the Council of 23 October 2000 establishing a framework
for Community action in the field of water policy. (Water Framework
Directive.) Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European
Communities, 2000.
[10] BRAY, R.N. Dredging – a handbook for engineers. London: Edward
Arnold, 1979.
[11] GREAT BRITAIN. Marine and Coastal Access Act 2009. London: The Stationery
Office.
[12] GREAT BRITAIN. Marine Works (Environmental Impact Assessment)
Regulations 2007. London: The Stationery Office.
[13] GREAT BRITAIN. Conservation of Habitats and Species Regulations 2010.
London: The Stationery Office.
[14] GREAT BRITAIN. Offshore Marine Conservation (Natural Habitats, etc.)
Regulations 2007. London: The Stationery Office.
[15] BROCH, E. and FRANKLIN, J. A. The point load strength test. In:
International journal of rock mechanics and mineral science, 1972,
Volume 9, 669–697.
[16] CIRIA/CUR/CETMEF. The rock manual – The use of rock in hydraulic
engineering (second edition). C683. London: CIRIA, 2007.
[17] POINDEXTER, M. E. Long term management of confined disposal areas.
ASCE proceedings of conference on dredging, 1984.
[18] KRIZEK, R.J., FITZPATRICK, J. A. and ATMATZIDIS, D. K. Dredged material
confinement facilities as solids liquid separation systems. ASCE proceedings
of conference on dredging and its environmental impact, 1976.
[19] GREAT BRITAIN. Reservoirs Act 1975. London: HMSO.
[20] GREAT BRITAIN. Mines and Quarries Act 1954. London: HMSO.
[21] GREAT BRITAIN. Mines and Quarries (Tips) Act 1969. London: HMSO.
[22] VAN ‘T HOFF, J. and VAN DER KOLFF, A.N. Hydraulic fill manual. First edition.
CIRIA/CUR, CRC Press/Balkema Taylor & Francis Group, 2012.
[23] POWELL, K.A. Dissimilar sediments – Model tests of replenished beaches
using widely graded sediments. HR Wallingford Report SR 350. Wallingford,
Oxfordshire: H.R Wallingford, 1993.
[24] BIRKEMEIER, W. A. Field data on seaward limit of profile change. In: Journal
of waterway port coastal and ocean engineering. 1985, v. III, n. 3, ASCE,
598–602.
[25] BURLAND, J., CHAPMAN, T., SKINNER, H. and BROWN, M. ICE Manual of
geotechnical engineering. Volumes 1 and 2. London: ICE Publishing, 2012.
[26] SERRIDGE, C.J. and SLOCOMBE, B.C. Ground improvement. Chapter 84.
In: INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS (ICE). Manual of geotechnical
engineering. Volume 2: 1217–1238. London: Thomas Telford, 2012.

© The British Standards Institution 2016 • 121

BS 6349-5:2016 BRITISH STANDARD

Further reading
PIANC Working Group PTC I-17. Handling and treatment of contaminated
dredged material from ports and inland waterways. Brussels: PIANC, 1998.
PIANC Working Group PEC 1. Management of aquatic disposal of dredged
material. Brussels: PIANC, 1998.
PIANC Working Group EnviCom 5. Environmental guidelines for aquatic,
nearshore and upland confined disposal facilities for contaminated dredged
material. Brussels: PIANC, 2002.
PIANC Working Group EnviCom 2. Bird habitat management in ports and
waterways. Brussels: PIANC, 2005.
PIANC Working Group EnviCom 8. Generic biological assessment guidance for
dredged material. Brussels: PIANC, 2006.
PIANC Working Group EnviCom 10. Environmental risk assessment of dredging
and disposal operations. Brussels: PIANC, 2006.
PIANC Working Group EnviCom 14. Dredged material as a resource: options and
constraints. Brussels: PIANC, 2008.
PIANC. Dredging management practices for the environment – A structured
selection approach. EnviCom Report 100. Brussels: PIANC, 2009.
PIANC. Dredging and port construction around coral reefs. EnviCom Report 108.
Brussels: PIANC, 2010.

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