EARTH SCIENCE

LESSON 1 : ALL ABOUT EARTH SCIENCE

About Earth Sciences

The Division of Earth Sciences supports proposals for research geared toward
improving the understanding of the structure, composition, and evolution of the Earth,
the life it supports, and the processes that govern the formation and behavior of the
Earth's materials. The results of this research will create a better understanding of the
Earth's changing environments, and the natural distribution of its mineral, water, biota,
and energy resources and provide methods for predicting and mitigating the effects of
geologic hazards such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, floods, landslides.

Earth science is the study of the Earth's structure, properties, processes, and four
and a half billion years of biotic evolution. Understanding these phenomena is essential
to the maintenance of life on the planet. The expanding world population demands
more resources; faces increasing losses from natural hazards; and releases more
pollutants to the air, water, and land. Sustaining our existence requires a scientific
understanding of the natural materials and processes linking the geosphere,
hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere. Life prospers or fails at the surface of the
Earth where these environments intersect.

The knowledge gained and the services provided by earth scientists help society cope
with its environment in many ways. Their knowledge about the structure, stratigraphy,
and chemical composition of the earth's crust helps us locate resources that sustain and
advance our quality of life. Understanding the forces in the crust, and the natural
processes on the surface allows us to anticipate natural disasters such as volcanoes
and earthquakes, and geologic environments, such as damaging mining practices or
improper waste disposal, gives us information to correct such practices and design
more benign procedures for the future. Finally, a comprehensive perception of
planetary physics will allow us to anticipate major changes in global environmental
conditions and control or acclimate to those changes.

In general use, the term "earth science" often includes the study of the earth's
atmosphere (meteorology or atmospheric science), the water flowing on and beneath
the surface of continents (hydrology), and the earth's seas and oceans (oceanography
or ocean sciences). The NSF organizational taxonomy defines earth science as
including the fields of "solid-earth" science (geology, geochemistry, and geophysics
(plus continental hydrology. It excludes the "fluid-earth" sciences of oceanography and
atmospheric science, which have their own respective divisions in the organization, and
are covered in other reports in this series. The NSF Division of Earth Sciences is part of
the Geosciences Directorate that also includes the divisions of Atmospheric Sciences
and Ocean Sciences. The term "geosciences" is similarly used to represent only the
"solid-earth" sciences or solid and fluid sciences depending on the context, so care
must be always exercised when interpreting data regarding the earth science fields from
various sources.

From the perspective we get on Earth, our planet appears to be big and sturdy with
an endless ocean of air. From space, astronauts often get the impression that the Earth
is small with a thin, fragile layer of atmosphere. For a space traveler, the distinguishing
Earth features are the blue waters, brown and green land masses, and white clouds set
against a black background.

LESSON 2 : ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERSE

The Beginning of Everything -- The Big Bang

Phases of Big Bang Theory

1. PHASE 01

The universe started by a singularity which later on, made an outward rapid
expansion.

2. PHASE 02

The universe became a seething “Hot Soup” of the Primitive Particle.

3. PHASE 03

The expansion causes cooling of the cosmos which permits the particles to
clump into Protons and Neutrons.

4. PHASE 04

Protons and Neutrons clip together to form elements such as Hydrogen and
Helium.

5. PHASE 05
 Elements became the ingredient in the formation of cosmic clouds, galaxies,
stars, planets, and other celestial bodies.

Points to Ponder

Were there universes before our own? Is this the first and only universe? What
started the Big Bang, or did it just occur naturally? We don’t know, and maybe we never
will. But what we do know is that the universe as we know it started here and gave birth
to particles, galaxies, stars, the Earth, and you. Since we ourselves are made of dead
stars, we are not separate from the universe; we are part of it. You could even say that
we are even the universe’s way of experiencing itself.

LESSON 3 : UNIQUENESS & LIFE OF THE BLUE PLANET

Earth is well equipped as a planet and ideally placed in our solar system and galaxy
to support life as we know it. The product of some 4.6 billion years of cosmic
construction, our planet is flush with life thanks to a fortuitous set of conditions.

6 Things that Make Life on Earth Possible

Our Location is Far From Many Homes

- The solar system is comfortably nestled in a safe harbor between major spiral
arms, and its nearly circular orbit helps it avoid the galaxy’s perilous inner
regions. There are relatively few stars near the sun, reducing risks to Earth from
gravitational tugs, gamma-ray bursts, or collapsing stars called supernovae.
- Supernova - Singular / Supernovae - Plural

Our Sun is a Stable and Long Lasting Star

- Stars more massive than the sun, burn hotter and usually don’t live long enough
for planets to develop life. Less massive, younger stars are often unstable and
are prone to blasting their planets with bursts of radiation.
- The sun’s gravity holds the solar system together, keeping everything from the
biggest planets to the smallest particles of debris in its orbit. Thus makes the
solar system stable.

We’re at Just the Right Distance From the Sun

- The earth orbits in the so-called Goldilocks zone, where the planet receives
enough energy to allow water to exist as a liquid on its surface. Too far, and the
 vital compound stays locked up as ice. Too close, and the water would rapidly
evaporate in the atmosphere.

We Have the Right Stuff to Host a Dynamic Core

- The interstellar cloud of gas and dust that gave rise to Earth contained enough
radioactive elements to power a churning core for a billion years. This creates a
magnetic field that protects the planet from dangers like solar flares.

We Have a Big Moon to Stabilize our Axial Wobble

- Earth is tilted with respect to the sun, and teeters as it spins. This tiny wobble can
shift the climate from hot to icy every 41,000 years and might vary more without
the moon’s stabilizing pull.
- The moon is a relatively large 2% of the earth’s volume.

We Have an Ozone Layer to Block Harmful Rays

- Ancient plantlike organisms in the oceans added oxygen to the atmosphere and
created a high-altitude layer of ozone that shielded early land species from lethal
radiation.

LESSON 4 : EARTH'S SUBSYSTEMS EXPLORATION

Earth’s System

- The term “Earth System” refers to the Earth’s interacting physical, chemical,
biological processes. The system consists of the land, oceans, atmosphere and
poles. It includes the planet’s natural cycles - the carbon, water, nitrogen,
phosphorus, sulfur and other cycles and deep Earth processes.
- Everything in the Earth’s system can be placed into one of four major
subsystems : land, water, living things, or air. These four subsystems are called
“Spheres”. Specifically, they are the "Lithosphere" (land), "Hydrosphere" (water),
"Biosphere" (living things), and "Atmosphere" (air). These components are also
systems in their own right and they are tightly interconnected.
The Four Main Components of the Earth System

1. Lithosphere
- This is the part of the planet made up of rock and minerals. Includes the solid
crust, the molten mantle, and the liquid and solid parts of the earth's core. In
many places, the geosphere forms a layer of soil in which nutrients become
available to living organisms, providing important ecological habitats and the
foundation for many forms of life. The geosphere's surface is subject to erosion,
weathering, and transport processes, as well as tectonic forces and volcanic
activity, which result in the formation of landforms such as mountains, hills, and
plateaus.

2. Biosphere
- Biosphere, relatively thin life-supporting stratum of the Earth’ surfaces, extending
from a few kilometers into the atmosphere to the deep-sea vents of the ocean.
The Biosphere is a global ecosystem composed of living organisms (biotic) and
the abiotic (nonliving) factors from which they derive energy and nutrients.
Moreover, this sphere is inextricably linked to the other three.
- This sphere includes all living organisms and is inextricably linked to the other
three: most living organisms require gases from the atmosphere, water from the
hydrosphere, and nutrients and minerals from the geosphere. Living organisms,
like all other organisms, require a medium for survival and have evolved to
inhabit one or more of the other three spheres. However, much of the biosphere
is contained within a shallow surface layer that includes the lower part of the
atmosphere, the geosphere's surface, and the upper 100 meters of the ocean.
Humans are part of the biosphere, even if they are increasingly responsible for
the development of systems that are largely artificial (such as cities).

3. Atmosphere
- This is the gaseous layer that surrounds the earth and is held in place by gravity.
Solar radiation, which warms the earth's surface and is then re-emitted and
conducted to the Atmosphere, provides energy to the atmosphere. The
Atmosphere is composed of a mixture of gases.The two most abundant gases
are Nitrogen (N2) and Oxygen (O2), accounting to roughly 78% to 21% of the
Atmosphere, respectively. The main greenhouse gases in the Atmosphere are
 carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4). Greenhouse gases reflect infrared
radiation (heat) back towards the surface of the Earth, insulating the planet.
- The Atmosphere also absorbs water from the earth's surface through
evaporation, and it then acts to redistribute heat and moisture across the planet's
surface. Furthermore, the atmosphere contains essential elements for life, such
as carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and hydrogen.

4. Hydrosphere
- A Hydrosphere is the total amount of water on a planet. The Hydrosphere
includes water that is on the surface of the planet, underground, and in the air. A
planet’s hydrosphere can be liquid, vapor, or ice. The Hydrosphere consists of
the Earth’s oceans and seas, ice sheets, sea ice, and glaciers, lakes, rivers, and
streams, atmospheric moisture and ice crystals, and permafrost areas. The
Hydrosphere is divided into fluid water systems and the cryosphere in some
classifications (The Ice Systems).
- This category includes parts of the earth's system that are made up of water in its
liquid, gaseous (vapour), and solid (ice) states. The hydrosphere encompasses
both saltwater and freshwater systems, as well as moisture found in soil (soil
water) and within rocks (groundwater). Water is required for the survival and
maintenance of life on Earth.

Spheres Interaction and Human Impacts

- All the spheres interact in the system interconnect and overlap. No sphere works
on its own. Each sphere may contribute either positive or negative effects to the
other.
- The spheres interact to affect Earth’s systems and processes, and they are
constantly changing each other. For example, how the spheres affect each other
is through erosion. Erosion happens in the desert when the wind (atmosphere)
shapes the sand in the geosphere. Water (hydrosphere) can also shape the land,
such as in the formation of the Grand Canyon. In addition to the above sphere
interactions, there are a number of interactions that occur among the spheres
themselves. Earth system interaction often occurs as a series of chain reactions.
This means one interaction leads to another interaction, which leads to yet
another interaction - It is a ripple effect through the earth's spheres.

As Lasallians, we should be aware of the Seven Environmental Principles in terms of

interaction between the spheres to better comprehend our planet because according to
Richard Rogers, "The only way forward, if we are going to improve the quality of the
environment, is to get everybody involved."

The Seven Environmental Principles

1. Nature knows best.

2. All forms of life are important.
3. Everything is connected to everything else.
4. Everything changes.
5. Everything must go somewhere.
6. Ours is finite earth.
7. Nature is beautiful and we are stewards.

LESSON 5 : FEATURES OF EARTH THAT SUPPORT LIFE

Water World

- To enable life, this most special of attributes, planet earth has a number of ideal
features. It is unique among planets in our solar system for having water in its
liquid form at the surface, in an amount conducive to life evolving.

Goldilocks Zone

- Earth orbits in the so-called Goldilocks zone, where the planet receives enough
heat from the sun to allow water to exist as a liquid on the surface. Too far, and
the vital compound stays locked up as ice. Too close, and the water would rapidly
evaporate into the atmosphere.

A Friendly Moon

- Earth’s moon stabilizes our planet’s rotation, preventing drastic movements of the
poles that could cause massive changes in climate. The moon also hopefully
pulls the ocean’s tides, which scientists suggest might have been the perfect
place for early life to begin evolving to survive on land.
Protective Ozone

- Ancient plantlike organisms in the oceans added oxygen to the atmosphere and
created a high- altitude layer of ozone that shielded early land species from lethal
radiation.

LESSON 6 : MINERALS & ROCKS

Rocks and minerals are all around us! They help us to develop new technologies and
are used in our everyday lives. Our use of rocks and minerals includes building
materials, cosmetics, cars, roads, and appliances. In order to maintain a healthy lifestyle
and strengthen the body, humans need to consume minerals daily. Rocks and minerals
play a valuable role in natural systems. Rocks and minerals are important for learning
about earth materials, structure, and systems. Studying these natural objects
incorporates an understanding of earth science, chemistry, physics, and math. The
learner can walk away with an understanding of crystal geometry, the ability to visualize
3-D objects, or knowing rates of crystallization. Natural objects, such as rocks and
minerals, contribute to the beauty and wonderment of the National Parks and should be
left, as they were found so that others can experience a sense of discovery.

Introduction to Minerals (2019)

Minerals

- The solid earth is made of rocks, which are made of minerals.

- Naturally occurring on earth, this means it cannot be man-made.
- Substance must exist as a solid under normal conditions on Earth .
- Must be inorganic meaning not coming from living or made of living things.
- The substance must have a fixed chemical formula meaning it's made up of a
specific combination of elements.
- The atoms that make up the substance must be arranged in an orderly crystal
structure.

Mineralogists are scientists who study minerals. One of the things mineralogists must
do is identify and categorize minerals. While a mineralogist might use a high-powered
microscope to identify some minerals, most are recognizable using physical properties.
Physical / Mineral Properties

1. Color

- Color is often useful, but should not be relied upon. Different minerals may be the
same color. Real gold, as seen in the picture above, is very similar in color to the
Pyrite.
- Additionally, Some minerals come in many different colors. Quartz, for example,
may be clear, white, gray, brown, yellow, pink, red, or orange. So color can help
but do not rely on color as the determining property.
- Different minerals may be the same color. Color is often useful, but should not be
relied upon. Generally not a reliable characteristic to use for identification.
- Many minerals are colored by chemical impurities - chemical substances inside a
confined amount of a sample which differ from the chemical composition of the
material or compound of interest. Impurities are either naturally occurring or
formed during the synthesis of a chemical compound.

2. Luster

- Luster describes the reflection of light off a mineral’s surface. Mineralogists have
special terms to describe luster. One simple way to classify luster is based on
whether the mineral is metallic or non-metallic. Minerals that are opaque and
shiny, such as pyrite, have a metallic luster. Minerals such as quartz have a
non-metallic luster.
- Luster is how the surface of a mineral reflects light. It is not the same thing as
color, so it is crucial to distinguish luster from color. For example, a mineral
described as “shiny yellow” is being described in terms of luster (“shiny”) and
color (“yellow”), which are two different physical properties. Standard names for
luster include metallic, glassy, pearly, silky, greasy, and dull. It is often useful to
 first determine if a mineral has a metallic luster. A metallic luster means shiny like
polished metal. For example cleaned polished pieces of chrome, steel, titanium,
copper, and brass all exhibit metallic luster as do many other minerals. Of the
nonmetallic lusters, glassy is the most common and means the surface of the
mineral reflects light like glass. Pearly luster is important in identifying the
feldspars, which are the most common type of mineral. Pearly luster refers to a
subtle iridescence or color play in the reflected light, the same way pearls reflect
light. Silky means reflecting light with a silk-like sheen. Greasy luster looks similar
to the luster of solidified bacon grease. Minerals with dull luster reflect very little
light. Identifying luster takes a little practice. Remember to distinguish luster from
color.
- Luster is best observed under direct illumination. That allows the light that strikes
the specimen to reflect to the eye of the observer. Proper examination includes
moving the specimen (or the light source, or the head of the observer) through a
range of angles to observe the full character of the luster.

3. Streak

- Streak is the color of a mineral’s powder. Streak is a more reliable property than
color because streak does not vary. Minerals that are the same color may have a
different colored streak. To check the streak, scrape the mineral across an
unglazed porcelain plate.
4. Hardness

- Hardness is the strength with which a mineral resists its surface being scraped or
punctured. In working with hand samples without specialized tools, mineral
hardness is specified by the Mohs hardness scale.
- The Mohs hardness scale is based on 10 reference minerals, from talc the
softest (Mohs hardness of 1), to diamond the hardest (Mohs hardness of 10). It is
a relative, or nonlinear, scale. A hardness of 2.5 simply means that the mineral is
harder than gypsum (Mohs hardness of 2) and softer than calcite (Mohs
hardness of 3). To compare the hardness of two minerals see which mineral
scratches the surface of the other.

The Mohs Scale of Hardness Explained

5. Breakage
 - Breaking a mineral breaks its chemical bonds. Since some bonds are weaker
than other bonds, each type of mineral is likely to break where the bonds
between the atoms are weaker. For that reason, minerals break apart in
characteristic ways.

Types of Breakage

1. Cleavage

- Cleavage is the tendency of a mineral to break along certain planes to make

smooth surfaces. Halite breaks between layers of sodium and chlorine to form
cubes with smooth surfaces. A mineral that naturally breaks into perfectly flat
surfaces is exhibiting cleavage. Not all minerals have cleavage. A cleavage
represents a direction of weakness in the crystal lattice. Cleavage surfaces can
be distinguished by how they consistently reflect light as if polished, smooth, and
even.

2. Fracture

- Fracture is a break in a mineral that is not along a cleavage plane. Fracture is not
always the same in the same mineral because fracture is not determined by the
structure of the mineral. Minerals may have characteristic fractures. Metals
usually fracture into jagged edges. If a mineral splinters like wood, it may be
fibrous. Some minerals, such as quartz, form smooth curved surfaces when they
fracture.
 6. Crystal Structure / Shape

- All minerals are crystalline, but only some have the opportunity to exhibit the
shapes of their crystals, their crystal forms. Many minerals in an introductory
geology lab do not exhibit their crystal form. If a mineral has space while it grows,
it may form natural crystals, with a crystal shape reflecting the geometry of the
mineral’s internal crystal lattice. The shape of a crystal =follows the symmetry of
its crystal lattice.

How do crystals work? - Graham Baird

In a Nutshell, When Identifying a Mineral, You must

1. Look at it closely on all visible sides to see how it reflects light

2. Test its hardness
3. Identify its cleavage or fracture
4. Name its luster
5. Evaluate any other physical properties necessary to determine the mineral’s
identity

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Rocks

- A rock is a solid mass of geological materials. Geological materials include

individual mineral crystals, inorganic non-mineral solids like glass, pieces broken
from other rocks, and even fossils. The geological materials in rocks may be
inorganic, but they can also include organic materials such as the partially
 decomposed plant matter preserved in coal. A rock can be composed of only one
type of geological material or mineral, but many are composed of several types.
- Rocks are grouped into three main categories based on how they form.

Types of Rocks

1. Igneous Rocks

- Form when melted rock cools and solidifies.

- Igneous rock is formed through the cooling and solidification of magma or lava.
Igneous rock may form with or without crystallization, either below the surface as
intrusive (plutonic) rocks or on the surface as extrusive (volcanic) rocks.

2. Sedimentary Rocks

- Form when fragments of other rocks are buried, compressed, and cemented
together; or when minerals precipitate from solution, either directly or with the
help of an organism.
- The sedimentary rocks are formed by the deposition and subsequent
cementation of that material within bodies of water and at the surface of the
earth. The complex process that causes various organic materials and minerals
to settle in a place to form rock is termed as lithification.

3. Metamorphic Rocks

- Form when heat and pressure alter a pre-existing rock. Although temperatures
can be very high, metamorphism does not involve melting of the rock.
- The metamorphic rocks make up a large part of the Earth’s crust and are
classified by texture and by chemical and mineral assemblage. They may be
formed simply by being deep beneath the Earth’s surface, subjected to high
temperatures and the great pressure of the rock layers above it.

Rock or Mineral: What's the Difference

LESSON 7 : MINERAL RESOURCES

Mineral Groups
Minerals

- While minerals are frequently used to create the materials used in the
construction of roads and buildings, they also serve as critical components in the
manufacturing of high-tech electronics, next-generation vehicles, and other
everyday devices.
- Minerals became the backbone of many industries and are an economic
stimulant.

Ground Rules - Chapter 3

Mineral Resources Can Be Classified According To The Mechanism Responsible

For Concentrating The Valuable Substance

1. Magmatic Ore Deposits

- Valuable substances are concentrated within an igneous body through magmatic

processes such as crystal fractionation, partial melting, and crystal settling.
- Magmatic processes can concentrate the ore minerals that contain valuable
substances after accumulating elements that were once widely dispersed and in
low concentrations within the magma.

2. Hydrothermal Ore Deposits

- The concentration of valuable substances by hot aqueous (water-rich) fluids

flowing through fractures and pore spaces in rocks.
- Hydrothermal solutions - are hot, residual watery fluids derived during the later
stages of magma crystallization and may contain a large number of dissolved
metals. These can also originate from the groundwater circulating at a depth that
is being heated up by cooling and solidifying igneous bodies or along depths with
known geothermal gradients.
- Such hot water can dissolve valuable substances (at low concentrations) from
rocks. As the metal-enriched hot waters move into cooler areas in the crust, the
dissolved substances may start to precipitate.
- There are numerous hydrothermal mineral deposits as compared to the different
types of deposits
3. Sedimentary Ore Deposits

- Some valuable substances are concentrated by chemical precipitation coming

from lakes or seawater.

4. Placer Ore Deposits

- Deposits are formed by the concentration of valuable substances through gravity

separation during sedimentary processes.
- Usually aided by flowing surface waters either in streams or along coastlines.
- Concentration would be according to the specific gravity of substances, wherein
the heavy minerals are mechanically concentrated by water currents and the
less-dense particles remain suspended and are carried further downstream.
- Usually involves heavy minerals that are resistant to transportation and
weathering.
- Common deposits are gold and other heavy minerals such as platinum,
diamonds, and tin;
- The source rock for a placer deposit may become an important ore body.

5. Residual Ore Deposits

- A type of deposit that results from the accumulation of valuable materials through
chemical weathering processes.
- During the process, the volume of the original rock is greatly reduced by
leaching.
- Important factors for the formation of residual deposits include parent rock
composition, climate (tropical and subtropical: must be favorable for chemical
decay), and relief (must not be high to allow accumulation)
- Common deposits are bauxites and nickeliferous laterites.
- Bauxite, the principal ore of aluminum, is derived when aluminum-rich source
rocks undergo intense chemical weathering brought by prolonged rains in the
tropics, leaching the common elements that include silicon, sodium, and calcium
through leaching.
- Nickeliferous laterites or nickel laterites are residual ore deposits derived from
the lateralization of olivine-rich ultramafic rocks such as dunite and peridotite.
Like in the formation of bauxite, the leaching of nickel-rich ultramafic rocks
dissolves common elements, leaving the insoluble nickel, magnesium, and iron
oxide mixed in the soil.
 - Secondary Enrichment Deposits are derived when a certain mineral deposit
becomes enriched due to weathering.

What Is The Difference Between Minerals And Ore?

- Minerals are naturally occurring inorganic solids with a crystalline structure and a
definite range of chemical formulas. Ores are concentrations of minerals in rock
that are high enough to be economically extracted for use. All ores are minerals,
but all minerals are not necessarily ores.

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Mineral Groups

- We categorize minerals into groups for the most stable and least ambiguous
basis for classification of minerals. It is based on their chemical compositions
which gives us the exact identification of a mineral since its elemental
components and its ratios are listed.
- Minerals are organized according to the anion or anion group (a group of atoms
with a net negative charge, e.g., SO42–) they contain, because the anion or
anion group has the biggest effect on the properties of the mineral.

1. Silicates

- Silicate minerals make up over 90% of Earth’s crust.Silicatesare by far the largest
mineral group. Feldspar and quartz are the two most common silicate minerals.
Both are extremely common rock-forming minerals. The basic building block for
all silicate minerals is the silica tetrahedron.

2. Oxides

- Oxides contain one or two metal elements combined with oxygen. Many
important metals are found as oxides. Hematite (Fe2O3), with two iron atoms to
 three oxygen atoms, and magnetite (Fe3O4), with three iron atoms to four
oxygen atoms, are both iron oxides.

3. Sulfates

- Sulfate minerals contain sulfur atoms bonded to oxygen atoms. Like halides, they
form where salt water evaporates. The sulfate group contains many different
minerals, but only a few are common.
- Gypsumis a common sulfate with a variety of appearances.A deposit of sulphate
minerals may indicate that a lake or sea has dried up at that location.

4. Sulfides

- Sulfides are formed when metallic elements combine with sulfur. Unlike sulfates,
sulfides do not contain oxygen. Pyrite, or iron sulfide, is a common sulfide
mineral known as fool's gold. People may mistake pyrite for gold because the two
minerals are shiny, metallic, and yellow in color. Sulphide Minerals tend to have a
metallic sheen.

5. Carbonates

- The basic carbonate structure is one carbon atom bonded to three oxygen
atoms. Carbonates include other elements, such as calcium, iron, and copper.
Calcite(CaCO3) is the most common carbonate mineral. The carbonate mineral
calcite is the main component of rocks formed in ancient seas by organisms such
as corals and algae.

6. Native Elements

- These are minerals made of a single element, such as gold, copper, silver, or
sulfur. Only a small number of minerals are found in this category. Some of the
minerals in this group are rare and valuable.

7. Halides

- Halide minerals are salts that form when salt water evaporates. Halite is a halide
mineral, but table salt is not the only halide. The chemical elements known as the
 halogens(fluorine, chlorine, bromine, or iodine) bond with various metallic atoms
to make halide minerals

Mineral Resources

- A mineral resource is a concentration or occurrence of solid material of economic

interest in or on the Earth’s crust in such form, grade (or quality), and quantity
that there are reasonable prospects for eventual economic extraction.
- We mine some ores because they contain elements that have the metallic
properties of conductivity, strength, or shiny appearance. We mine industrial
minerals such as halite, gypsum, clays, calcite, asbestos, micas, and zeolites to
make salt, plaster, ceramics, construction materials, electronic components,
chemical filters, and many other things. We also quarry large quantities of
limestone (to make cement) and building stone, and energy companies produce
large amounts of coal, oil, gas, uranium and other energy resources.

Ore

- Ore is a deposit in Earth’s crust of one or more valuable minerals. The most
valuable ore deposits contain metals crucial to industry and trade, like copper,
gold, and iron.
Ore Deposits

1. Magmatic Ore Deposits

- Valuable substances are concentrated within an igneous body through magmatic

processes

2. Hydrothermal Ore Deposits

- Concentration of valuable substances by hot water-rich liquids through fractures

and pores in rocks.

3. Sedimentary Ore Deposits

 - Concentrated by chemical precipitation coming from lakes or seawater.

4. Placer Ore Deposits

- Deposits formed by the concentration of valuable substances through gravity

separation during the sedimentary process.

5. Residual Ore Deposits

- Results from accumulation of valuable materials through chemical weathering

processes.

LESSON 8 : EARTH’S DOMINANT RESOURCES

Soil & Water

- Our planet is composed of SOIL and WATER, one of the main components that
comprise most of our planet's composition. Oftentimes, these two are the most
vulnerable to abuse and exploitation because of human activities. In this section
of the module, I will introduce you to the importance of SOIL and WATER, our
fundamental resource, the meat of our planet, one of the components that
sustain life on our planet.
- Soil is one of the earth’s most important natural resources. It underpins human
food production systems, supports the cultivation of vegetation for feed, fibre and
fuel, and has the potential to help combat and mitigate climate change. It’s also a
rich and complex ecosystem, accommodating a staggering array of biodiversity.
Therefore, the importance of soil in life is vast.
- Franklin D. Roosevelt once said, “The nation that destroys its soil destroys itself.”
He wasn’t wrong.
- Healthy soil is crucial for human life and wellbeing. However, soils across the
globe are being threatened and damaged by human activities. Here, we discuss
the importance of soil, the relationship between humans and soil, and the health
of our soils is threatened.

Why Soil Matters

- Water. It's found everywhere on Earth, from the polar ice caps to steamy
geysers. And wherever water flows on this planet, you can be sure to find life.
- "When we find water here on Earth — whether it be ice-covered lakes, whether it
be deep-sea hydrothermal vents, whether it be arid deserts — if there's any
water, we've found microbes that have found a way to make a living there," said
Brian Glazer, an oceanographer at the University of Hawaii at Manoa, who has
studied astrobiology.
- That's why NASA's motto in the hunt for extraterrestrial life has been "follow the
water."
Importance of Water

LESSON 9 : HUMAN ACTIVITIES TO WATER

- Earth is our home. It is also the only planet with oceans. In fact, Earth is covered
mostly with water. That is why it is called the Blue Planet.
- Clean, potable water is more than a precious resource — it’s crucial to human life.
Unfortunately, population growth and pollution are threatening to seriously
undermine the availability of clean drinking water in many of the world’s major
cities. According to a study (published Monday) in the Proceedings of the
 National Academy of Sciences, water treatment costs have risen by 50 percent in
a third of large cities around the world.

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LESSON 10 : HUMAN ACTIVITIES TO SOIL

- Since soil is so vital to human life, humans have to move and manipulate it in
order to utilize it. This, however, can lead to environmental problems, soil loss,
and degradation. Soil degradation is a human-induced or natural process which
impairs the capacity of soil to function.

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What Causes Soil Pollution?

- Human activities are the primary cause of soil pollution and land degradation. By
the end of this topic, you will know how different forms of human activities are
responsible for the majority of different types of soil pollution.

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Chapter 4.3 Humans affect soil

Human Impact on WATER

LESSON 11 : SOIL & WATER RESOURCES

The Seven Environmental Principles

1. Nature knows best.

2. All forms of life are important.
3. Everything is connected to everything else.
4. Everything changes.
5. Everything must go somewhere.
6. Ours is finite earth.
 7. Nature is beautiful and we are stewards.

- Water is never sitting still. Thanks to the water cycle, our planet’s water supply is
constantly moving from one place to another and from one form to another.
Things would get pretty stale without the water cycle!
 Soil Function Mechanism Consequen Ecosystem service
ce

Stores (Storage) Water held in soil Biomass Food

pores supports production Aesthetics
plant and microbial Surface Erosion Control
communities. Protection

Accepts (Sorptivity) Incident water Storm runoff Erosion control

infiltrates into soil reduction Flood protection
with excess lost as
runoff.

Transmits Water entering the Percolation Groundwater recharge

(Hydraulic soil is redistributed to Steam flow maintenance
Conductivity) and excess is groundwater
transmitted as deep
percolation.

Cleans (Filtering) Water passing Contaminant Water quality

through the soil s removed
matrix interacts with by biological
soil particles and degradation/
biota. retention on
sorption
sites.
Human Activities Affecting Water And Soil Quality

1. Agriculture

Soil Quality

- Farmers often add nutrients to soil in the form of organic or artificial

fertilizers to make their crops grow better. However, some fertilizers can
make it difficult for microorganisms in the soil to produce nutrients
naturally.
- All over the world, farmers clear trees and other plants and plow up the
soil to plant crops. Without its natural plant cover, the soil is more exposed
to rain and wind and is therefore more likely to get washed or blown away.
- Overgrazing occurs when farm animals occupy large amounts of the land
cover. Overgrazing destroys natural vegetation and causes the soil to
wash or blow away more easily.
- The clearing of land for farming has led to desertification. It is the
expansion of desert conditions in areas where the natural plant cover has
been destroyed.

Water Quality

- Improper agricultural methods may elevate concentrations of nutrients,

fecal coliforms, and sediment loads.
- Increased nutrient loading from animal waste can lead to eutrophication of
water bodies which may eventually damage aquatic ecosystems.
- Grazing and other agriculture practices may intensify erosion processes,
raising sediment input to nearby water sources. Increased sediment loads
make drinking water treatment more difficult while also affecting fish and
macroinvertebrates.

2. Mining

Soil Quality

- Mining has an adverse effect on soil quality. Soil degradation is the prime
impact. Another impact is deforestation and loss of fauna and flora.

Water Quality
 - Mining affects fresh water through heavy use of water in processing ore,
and through water pollution from discharged mine effluent and seepage
from tailings and waste rock impoundments.
3. Urban Growth

Soil Quality

- Typically, soils in urban areas are more compacted, have less distinct
boundary layers, higher ph and temperatures, lower water drainage, more
developed water repellent crusts, and higher levels of contaminants when
compared to rural soils.
- Urbanization on soils and the environment in general has been seen as
entirely negative—through pollution, salinization, soil sealing and the like.

Water Quality

- More pavement construction means less water will soak into the ground,
meaning that the underground water table will have less water to recharge
it. This will lower the water table. Some existing wells will not be deep
enough to get water and might run dry.
- The runoff from the increased pavement goes into storm sewers, which
then goes into streams. This runoff, which used to soak into the ground,
now goes into streams, causing flooding. Changing a stream channel can
cause flooding and erosion along the stream banks. More sewage is
discharged into streams that weren't "designed by nature" to handle that
much water.

4. Improper Waste Disposal

Soil Quality

- Soil contamination is the No. 1 problem caused by improper waste

removal and disposal. Some wastes that end up in landfills excrete
hazardous chemicals that leak into the soil.

Water Quality

- Hazardous wastes in the environment leech into the ground, and

ultimately, into groundwater. This water is used for many things, from
 watering the local fields to drinking. Toxic liquid chemicals from waste can
also seep into water streams and bodies of water.

Singapore is innovating to secure its water future | Running Dry

Why soil is one of the most amazing things on Earth | BBC Ideas

LESSON 12 : GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES

Everything You Need to Know About Planet Earth

Clearly, the surface of the earth is not flat but is rather unevenly spread out due to
the presence of landforms including mountains, plains, hills, etc. These uneven
landforms are formed and deformed over a while, in an ongoing process, due to the
influence of internal and external pressure from within and above the surface of the
earth. Simply put, we can define endogenic forces (internal) and exogenic forces
(external) as the two major geomorphic pressures that lead to the earth’s movements
and give shape to the earth’s surface.

What are Endogenic Forces?

- Endogenic forces or endogenetic forces are the pressure that originates inside
the earth, therefore also called internal forces. These internal forces lead to
vertical and horizontal movements and result in subsidence, land upliftment,
volcanism, faulting, folding, earthquakes, etc.

Key Features

- Endogenic forces are land-building forces that play a crucial role in the formation
of the earth’s crust.
- These are also called internal pressure as they form, originate, and are located
below the surface of the earth.
- Primordial heat, radioactivity, tidal and rotational friction from the earth results in
the creation of this energy.
- The main processes involved in this are volcanism, folding, and faulting.

Two Major Forms

- Slow Movements - These are also referred to as Diastrophic forces. It results in

changes over some time.
 - Sudden Motions - As the name suggests, these are the visible motions, and
include significant landform changes like earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.

Slow Movements (Diastrophic forces)

- In simple terms, Diastrophic forces can be defined as the pressure that is created
due to the motion of the solid material on the earth’s surface. This includes all the
processes that raise, move or build up the parts on the earth’s surface.

Diastrophism Involves the Following Processes

 - Epeirogenic Motions - This is the process of warping or upliftment of large parts
of the earth’s surface.
- Orogenic Movements - This is essentially the process of mountain building that
involves major folding, and affects the long as well as narrow belts of the surface.

Furthermore, Earthquakes occur due to relatively minor local movements. The

horizontal motions of the crustal plates, or plate tectonics.

What are Exogenic Forces?

- Exogenic forces or external forces are forces that draw their power from the
earth’s exterior or arise within the earth’s atmosphere. Exogenic forces cause
land to wear down as a result of their action, therefore they are referred to as
land wearing forces.

Key Features
- Exogenic processes are processes that occur on the earth’s surface as a result
of exogenic pressures.
- Exogenic processes include weathering, mass wasting, erosion, and deposition.
- All exogenic processes are referred to as denudation, which means “to peel
away” or “to reveal.”
- Geomorphic agents are natural elements capable of performing these exogenic
processes (or exogenic geomorphic agents). For example, the wind, water, and
waves.

Difference Between Endogenic and Exogenic Forces Tabular Form

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Layers of the Earth

The Continental Drift Theory

- Alfred Wegener proposed that the continents were once united into a single
supercontinent named Pangaea, meaning all earth in ancient Greek. He
suggested that Pangaea broke up a long ago and that the continents moved to
their current positions.
The Plate Tectonics Theory

- The theory of plate tectonics states that the Earth’s solid outer crust, the
lithosphere, is separated into plates that move over the asthenosphere, the
molten upper portion of the mantle. Oceanic and continental plates come
together, spread apart, and interact at boundaries all over the planet.

The Mantle
Why is the surface of the earth uneven?

Geomorphic Processes

- The formation and deformation of landforms on the surface of the earth are a
continuous process which is due to the continuous influence of external and
internal forces. The internal and external forces causing stresses and chemical
action on earth materials and bringing about changes in the configuration of the
surface of the earth are known as geomorphic processes.
Endogenic Processes

- Endogenic forces or endogenetic forces are the pressure that originates inside
the earth, therefore also called internal forces. These internal forces lead to
vertical and horizontal movements and result in subsidence, land upliftment,
volcanism, faulting, folding, earthquakes, etc.

Two Major Forms of Endogenic Processes

1. Slow Movements
- These are also referred to as Diastrophic forces. It results in changes over
some time.

Example:

1. Diastrophism

2. Sudden Motions
- As the name suggests, these are the visible motions, and include
significant landform changes like earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.

Example:

1. Volcanic Activities
 2. Earthquakes

Diastrophism

- Diastrophic forces can be defined as the pressure that is created due to the
motion of the solid material on the earth’s surface.
- Diastrophism, also called tectonism, large-scale deformation of Earth’s crust by
natural processes, which leads to the formation of continents and ocean basins,
mountain systems, plateaus, rift valleys, and other features by mechanisms such
as lithospheric plate movement (that is, plate tectonics), volcanic loading, or
folding.
Volcanism

- Volcanism, also spelled vulcanism, any of various processes and phenomena

associated with the surficial discharge of molten rock, pyroclastic fragments, or
hot water and steam, including volcanoes, geysers, and fumaroles.

Earthquakes

- Earthquake, any sudden shaking of the ground caused by the passage of

seismic waves through Earth’s rocks. Seismic waves are produced when some
form of energy stored in Earth’s crust is suddenly released, usually when masses
of rock straining against one another suddenly fracture and “slip”. Earthquakes
occur most often along geologic faults, narrow zones where rock masses in
relation to one another. The major fault lines of the world are located at the
fringes of the huge tectonic plates that make up Earth’s crust.
Exogenic Processes

- The forces which derive their strength from the earth’s exterior or originate within
the earth’s atmosphere are called as exogenic forces or external forces. The
action of exogenic forces results in wearing down and hence they are considered
as land wearing forces.
- Weathering, erosion, and deposition are the main exogenic processes. All the
exogenic processes are covered under a general term - denudation, which
means strip off or uncovers.

Weathering (Breaking)

- Weathering, disintegration or alteration of rock in its natural or original position at

or near the Earth’s surface through physical, chemical, and biological processes
induced or modified by wind, water, and climate.

Erosion (Transportation)

- Erosion, removal of surface material from Earth’s crust, primarily soil and rock
debris, and the transportation of the eroded materials by natural agencies (such
as water or wind) from the point of removal.
- Erosion will often occur after rock has been disintegrated or altered through
weathering. Weathered rock material will be removed from its original site and
transported away by a natural agent. With both processes often operating
simultaneously, the best way to distinguish erosion from weathering is by
observing the transportation of material.
Deposition (Settlement)

- Deposition is a geological process where rocks, soil, and silt are naturally
deposited so that new land masses are formed or modified.