Arsalan M.

Khan BSMME 19-23

Characterization of
Materials – II
Laboratory

Non-destructive Testing
Name: Arsalan Muhmmad Khan
Department: BSMME 19-23
Email ID: bsmme1919@[Link]
Date Performed: 2nd & 3rd September 2021
Abstract:
We performed 3 out of the 6 major NDT methods used all over the world. Penetrant testing
(PT), Ultrasonic testing (UT) and Magnetic testing (MT) were performed on samples. Proper
procedures were followed, and samples were inspected. Defects were found in all the
samples.

Intro to Non-destructive testing (NDT)

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NDT is the procedure to test or inspect materials for flaws and defects while retaining the
physical and chemical characteristics of the material. That is to say, the test material is not
permanently altered in contrast to destructive testing. The test material is still usable after
the test given that it passes the test. It is a non-invasive method. This is useful for periodic
testing of industrial and daily use equipment and to ensure that no flaws/defects have
generated in them for ensuring safety and smooth operation. NDT tests are quick and
efficient. Mostly the equipment for performing NDT is portable and doesn’t necessarily
require a lab or workshop. The tests can be done on operation site where product is in-
service. NDT can also be done pre-service on manufactured products. Many methods have
been developed for non-destructive testing. The major methods of NDT are discussed
below:
1. Visual Testing (VT):
The most basic NDT technique involves just visually seeing the subject. The equipment used
for this involves magnifying glass, mirrors, cameras, fiberscopes etc. Major defects like
surface cracks may easily be seen by naked eye and don’t require advanced methods.
2. Penetrant Testing (PT):
This test involves a liquid called penetrant that has high surface wetting characteristics.
Penetrant is colored or florescent. The penetrant when spread over the sample surface,
seeps through the cracks and defects. After cleaning and removing the excess liquid, a
developer is applied to pull out the penetrant from cracks. Then we can observe all the
areas where penetrant appears are the areas with surface defects.
3. Magnetic Testing (MT):
In this method, small, powdered iron particles are spread over the ferromagnetic test
subject. Magnetic field is applied across the subject. The areas with defects become flux
leakage points and iron particles accumulate on defective region which can be seen.
4. Eddy Current Testing (ET):
This test uses electromagnetic induction. A coil with AC current is brought near our
conducting subject. The magnetic field of coil induces eddy currents and a secondary
magnetic field in subject opposing the coil’s field which changes impedance of coil.
Presence of defects changes the eddy currents and thus changes in impedance of coil
indicate a defect.
5. Radiographic Testing (RT):
Radiography can use x rays or some other radioactive rays. These rays are passed through
the subject and a screen is placed on the other side. If a defect is present, like a cavity in
material, then that region wouldn’t block many rays and a darker spot would be obtained
on screen indicating a defect.
6. Ultrasonic Testing (UT):
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This technique uses probes which can transmit and receive ultrasonic sound waves signal.
The waves are sent through bulk of material and reflect back and received from the
backwall or end of material. When a defect is present in between, then waves would reflect
from that defect and reach transmitter earlier. A live graph plot on equipment would show
a peak for the defect.

Choosing an NDT technique from the above list is crucial. We should know when to prefer
one technique over the other one. The considerations made when doing an NDT involve
anticipating the nature of defect, the location of defect, the extent of defect and the level
of accuracy required. It also largely depends on test subject nature. Like some methods can
only be done on magnetic or conductive materials, some require smooth surfaces, some
can only be done on appropriate thickness. The quickness, efficiency and cost of test also
matters. For example; VT can be done quickly multiple times a day, but RT would only be
performed weekly or monthly etc.
The nature of defects found from different NDTs varies. The table below lists the types of
defects and limitations of each of the 6 NDT methods we have discussed.

NDT Method Defects detected Limitations

Macroscopic surface flaws, cracks, Sub-surface flaws,
Visual testing surface porosity small flaws
Surface flaws, cracks, welding defects, Porous surfaces, sub-
Penetrant testing surface porosity surface defects,
Surface, near surface, layer flaws, Non-magnetic
Magnetic testing welding flaws, porosity materials, deep defects
Surface, near surface flaws Non-conductive
Eddy current testing materials, deep defects
Sub-surface flaws at any depth, shrink Surface flaws, material
Ultrasonic testing holes, porosities, lack of fusion limitations
Sub-surface flaws, non-uniform density, Small defects,
Radiographic testing shrink holes, lack of fusion, slag inclusion hazardous rays.

Penetrant Testing
Introduction:
Penetrant testing is a method of NDT. It is a simple procedure that requires little expertise
and no special equipment other than chemicals. Penetrant testing is a reliable method for
basic testing.
Objectives:
- Performing inspection on a welded plate.
- Learning how to identify and measure dimensions of defects.
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- Getting familiar with usage of penetrant, cleaner and developer.

Pre-requisites:
There are some requirements set for performing PT for obtaining the best result. There is a
temperature range of 50C to 520C on which PT is recommended. There should also be
adequate lighting above 1000 lux so that the penetrant can be seen when observing
defects. Other environmental considerations are also made such as flammability of the
chemicals being used. The surface on which PT is to be performed should be pre-cleaned. It
should also be smooth.
Safety requirements:
Chemical handling precautions. The chemicals used for PT are flammable. Therefore,
proper care is to be taken that no flame/spark is ignited where PT is being performed.
Ventilation of air required in room.
Theory:
Penetrant testing works by the wetting characteristics of penetrant which seeps through
the cracks and defects, and then is pulled out back on surface by developer. It cannot be
performed on porous surfaces as penetrant will seep through all the pores present and
defect couldn’t be identified. Liquid penetrant has two types mainly: visible, and
fluorescent. Their sub types include post emulsifier, solvent removable, and water
washable. The fluorescent penetrant can be seen glowing under a UV light while visible
penetrant has bright colors.
The developer also has its types namely: dry developer and wet developer. Aqueous (water
soluble & suspendable) and non-aqueous are further types of wet developer. Indications or
defect’s length to width ratio is found. If it is less than or equal to 3 than it is a rounded
indication, else it is a linear indication. Linear indications are longitudinal or transverse or
both. Our test sample is a plate with a weld joint. The area of interest is the weld central
line (WCL). Some surface defects have arisen in the sample due to welding which are not
visible by VT. So, we perform penetrant testing on this sample.

Apparatus/Equipment:
- Magnaflux Spotcheck® Red Penetrant
- Magnaflux Spotcheck® Developer
- Magnaflux Spotcheck® Cleaner
- TES digital lux meter
- AZ Infrared thermometer

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- Flashlight
- Cloth for cleaning etc.

Procedure:
- Make sure above 1000 lux light is present by using lux meter. If not, then use torch.
- Make sure temperature is in acceptable range, measure by thermometer.
- Pre-clean the surface properly by cleaner spray.
- Spray penetrant all over the weld area. Allow 5-15 mins dwell time.
- Remove excess penetrant by wiping cloth and wiping in one direction only.
- Then spray the developer on the weld area.
- We would start seeing defects indicated by penetrant.
- Measure the size and location of all relevant defects. Identify linear and rounded
indications. For linear indications, identify longitudinal or transverse.
- Post-clean the surface by using cleaner spray.
Observations:
Light intensity with torch = 4540 lux
Temperature during test = 290C
The left end of plate on WCL is considered as origin. We start inspecting for defects from
left to right.

First sample

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Defects:
No Defect description Size of defect Location of defect
1 Linear longitudinal 38 mm From 0 to 38 mm
2 Linear transverse 5 mm At 70 mm
3 Group of linear (Longitudinal + transverse) Min: 2 mm From 83 to 101 mm
Max: 9 mm
4 Group of linear (Longitudinal + Transverse) Min: 2 mm From 116 to 124
Max: 4 mm mm
5 Linear Transverse 9 mm At 160 mm
6 Linear Transverse 1.6 mm At 186 mm

Second sample

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Defects:

No Defect description Size of defect Location of defect

1 Linear longitudinal 3 mm From 79 to 82 mm
2 Group of Linear (Longitudinal + Transverse) Min: 1.6 mm From 92 to 102
Max: 14 mm mm
3 Group of Linear (Longitudinal + Transverse) Min: 1.6 mm From 164 to 176
Max: 13 mm mm
4 Linear Transverse 3.5 mm At 180 mm

Acceptance/rejection criteria:
There are certain standards set for NDT. The indications we see are not all serious defects
and many small indications can be ignored and aren’t counted as defects. The criteria we
use is based on ASME standards. The accepted indications are called irrelevant and rejected
indications are called relevant.
Any linear indication greater than 1.5 mm is relevant. Else it is accepted.
Rounded indications greatest dimension is measured. Any rounded indications greater than
5 mm are relevant. Else accepted.
Four or more rounded indications in a line separated by less than 1.5 mm in-between them.

Discussion & Conclusion:

There were some defects in our sample plates which were under the acceptance criteria, so
we ignored them and only measured the ones which were relevant. The welded plates had
many crucial defects which were not visible by naked eye but present a serious risk of
failure originating from those defects as they grow under stress.

Ultrasonic testing
Introduction:
Ultrasonic testing (UT) is the most convenient method of NDT for testing the bulk of
sample. It doesn’t have many prerequisites and can be performed on a wide variety of
materials. UT modes like straight or angled beam allow for inspection of every type of
defect inside sample.
Objectives:
- Finding/identifying the flaws and defects in samples.
- Learning the principles of Ultrasonic testing.
- Learning how to operate Ultrasonic testing instrument.

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Pre-requisites:
The sample surface should be clean so as not to interfere when couplant is applied. The
dimensions of the sample should be known such as the thickness of it.
Calibration is required to be done on the sample. Calibration is done on a calibration block
(IIW V1) which is made from the same material as our sample is made of. The dimensions of
the block are known, and we can calibrate for depth of sample by calculating the speed of
sound and finding out the time it takes for backwall echo to reach back (The equipment
does this itself). For angled beam probe, we need to verify the probe angle and probe index
point and this is also done by help of calibration block. The temperature difference
between the sample and calibration block should be less than 140C.
Safety requirements:
The equipment is expensive and should be handled carefully. The high voltage source while
charging the equipment also presents an electrocutions hazard. The couplant should be
washed off body parts after the experiment.
Theory:
The UT test uses the principle of sound waves propagation and reflection. Ultrasonic waves
have a higher frequency than audible sound waves. In our test, we have probes that
generate these sound waves and send them into the sample material. Probe has a piezo
electric transmitter that converts electrical signals to sound waves. These waves travel
through the sample until they hit the opposite end and reflect back from it travelling up
back into the probe which also has a receiver and gives a peak on the graph on the
equipment. This is known as backwall echo. UT can test up to 10-meter thickness. There is
another signal generated initially at start due to our probe’s limitation and velocity
difference when sound waves enter the sample surface. This is called initial pulse or dead
zone. If there is any disturbance such as a defect present in between the material, the
waves will deflect from it back into probe and it would give an early signal in-between initial
pulse and backwall echo. This would indicate a defect. UT is performed by moving the
probe over the entire surface of sample. A zigzag motion with each repetition overlapping
at least 10% of the area the previous repetition covered is preferred. A couplant is used as
an interface between probe and sample surface so that the contact points of probe can be
increased, and rays can be transmitted inside the material. Sound path is the length the
wave travels and for straight beam method when no defect present, sound path is equal to
thickness of sample. Sound intensity is adjusted in decibels.

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For angle beam method, the velocity of waves changes as shear waves are being
transmitted instead of longitudinal. The probe index is the point where waves exit from
probe and probe angle is the angle of wave with respect to normal from sample surface.
The sound path would be different than the thickness in this case and can be calculated by
following formulas given in diagram:

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Apparatus/Equipment:
- General Electric USM 35 Ultrasonic testing equipment
- Normal & angled beam probe
- Couplant
- IIW V1 Calibration block

Procedure:
- Perform calibration first using the calibration block to find speed of sound, probe index &
angle etc. Adjust the graph so that initial pulse and backwall echo are visible. Intensity in db
adjusted.
- Spread the couplant over the sample surface.

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For straight beam UT:

- Start from one corner of sample taken as origin. Place the probe on the sample and start
moving in a zigzag motion with each repetition overlapping at least 10% of the area the
previous repetition covered. The speed of motion should be moderate.
- Keep observing the graph on screen. As soon as an echo appears between initial and
backwall, Stop and mark the place on sample where it appeared.
- Move the gate bar over the defect echo and note down the depth of defect shown on
screen. Find the location of the defect with respect to origin.
- Cover the whole sample surface. Find all the defects.
For angled beam UT:
- Start from one corner taken as origin. Move the probe vertically across the whole side of
sample.
- Keep observing the screen. When a peak appears, start moving the probe in other
direction horizontally and observe if the peak still appears to confirm that the defect is of
peak and not an interface wall echo in 1st or 2nd leg.
- If the peak disappears then it is a defect peak.
- Mark the defects and measure its depth and dimensions.
- Also measure the location of defect with respect to origin.
- Cover the whole sample surface moving both vertically and horizontally on the sample
surface. Find all the defects.

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Observations:
For Straight beam UT
Speed of sound = 5920 m/s
Frequency of Waves = 4 MHz
Sample thickness TS = 37.74 mm

Sound path (depth) X coordinate location of Y coordinate

No of defect defect Location of defect
1 12.7 mm 6 cm 6.6 cm

2 25.8 mm 15.5 cm 6.9 cm

3 20 mm 10.5 cm 15.3 cm

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Angled beam probe UT

Speed of sound = 3222 m/s
Frequency of Waves = 4 MHz
Probe index = 14 mm
Probe angle = 470

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No. Sound path Projected distance Depth

1 17.22 mm 12.6 mm 11.74 mm

2 28.7 mm 21 mm 19.6 mm

3 68.2 mm 49.9 mm 46.51

4 22.95 mm 16.8 mm 15.65 mm

Acceptance/Rejection criteria:
Acceptance rejection criteria of defects found during UT are given by ASME Section VIII
Division 1:
- Indications characterized as cracks, lack of fusion, or incomplete penetration is
unacceptable regardless of other imperfections are unacceptable.
If T is the thickness of our sample. Then Acceptance criteria for indications is:
- Less than 6 mm for T up to 19 mm
- Less than 1/3T for T from 19 mm to 57 mm
- Less than 19 mm for T greater than 57 mm

Discussion & Conclusion:

We were able to identify various kinds of defects in our sample using ultrasonic testing. We
used both straight and angled beam methods to find the indications and learned how to
measure the sound path and dimensions of the indications using the ultrasonic testing
equipment.

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Magnetic Testing
Introduction:
Magnetic testing (MT) is used to detect surface and close to surface flaws. It works on
principles of magnetism and is easy to perform having portable equipment. It has
advantages over PT as it can detect flaws slightly below surface.
Objectives:
- Find the defects in given sample plate.
- Learn the principles of magnetic testing.
- Learn how to use the magnetic yoke and magnetic ink.
Pre-requisites:
Before MT is performed, we should clean the sample surface especially over the weld
central line (WCL). Make sure the sample doesn’t have existing magnetic fields. Use pie
gauge and test for magnetic field direction when field is applied. Proper lighting is to be
provided so defects can be observed. 1000 lux minimum light required.
Safety precautions:
The yoke is a high voltage source, so electrocution hazard exists.
Try not to inhale the black magnetic ink. Provide ventilation.
Theory:
The magnetic testing works by applying a magnetic field by a yoke across the sample
surface. The idea is that when a field is applied across a defect, the defect will start acting
as a flux leakage point and would act as a magnet. When finely grounded iron particles are
spread over the defect, the particles would orient themselves by being attracted to the field
and would line up above the defect, making the defect prominent when viewed. There is a
limitation of the orientation of defects. Defects parallel to the field would not create flux
leakage field. That is why we have to test by applying the field in several directions. A pie
gauge hand tool is used to test magnetic field direction.

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The iron particles used for MT are of 2 types, 7hf and 14hf, which are normal black ink and
fluorescent respectively. These inks used with iron particles can be wet (wet magnetic
particle testing) or dry (Dry magnetic particle testing). We used wet ink.
The AC yoke is used for creating magnetic field. The yoke is calibrated to be able to lift a 4.5
kg load through its magnetism.
The material on which MT is performed must be demagnetized. Some magnetic field may
remain in sample after MT which can hinder in the intended operations for the sample, so
the sample is demagnetized by reversing the voltage provided by the yoke.
Apparatus/Equipment:
- Magnaflux AC yoke
- Magnaflux black magnetic ink 7hf
- Pie gauge tool
- TES digital Lux meter
- Flashlight

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Procedure:
- Place the pie gauge on the sample surface with copper (unmarked) face is upward.
- Apply magnetic field by placing both legs of yoke on the sample and pressing the button.
- Spray magnetic ink on the pie gauge. Distinct lines will form on pie gauge face indicating
that appropriate magnetic field is being applied.
- Start from one end of sample. First place the yoke perpendicular to WCL. Keep spraying
ink and observing for defects using flashlight.
- Move the yoke a few centimeters forward after examining each area. Note the
indications.
- When whole sample is inspected, rotate the yoke 90 degrees, and again start from one
end to the other end.
- Find the size and location of defects found.
- Demagnetize and clean the sample after performing the test.
Observations:
Light intensity = 4540 lux
Sample width = 257. 5 mm
Sample length = 267.5 mm
Take one end along the WCL as origin. Location of indication w.r.t origin.

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No Type of defect Size Location

1 Group of linear longitudinal 2 to 7 mm 26 - 46 mm
2 Linear longitudinal 4 mm 68 – 72 mm
3 Group of linear longitudinal 2 to 6 mm 144 – 155 mm
4 Group of linear (Longitudinal + Transverse) 3 to 10 mm 200 – 212 mm

Acceptance criteria:
The criteria we use is based on ASME standards. The accepted indications are called
irrelevant and rejected indications are called relevant. MT criteria is same as PT.
Any linear indication greater than 1.5 mm is relevant. Else it is accepted.
Rounded indications greatest dimension is measured. Any rounded indications greater than
5 mm are relevant. Else accepted.
4 or more rounded indications separated by less than 1.5 mm between them are relevant.
Discussion & Conclusion:
The following magnetic test was performed on a sample by learning and implementing the
laws of magnetism. Many defects were fond in the material when it was observed under a
magnetic field which were not visible by the naked eye in visual testing.
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