Satellite Communication 17EC755

Class 37
Module 5

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 Satellite Communication 17EC755

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Remote sensing orbits and Payloads

orbits Payloads
1. Passive sensors
Remote sensing satellites have 2. Active sensors
sun-synchronous subrecurrent
A passive system generally An active system, on the
orbits at altitudes of 700–900
consists of an array of other hand, emits
km, allowing them to observe
sensors or detectors that electromagnetic radiation
the same area periodically with a
record the amount of and measures the
periodicity of two to three
electromagnetic radiation intensity of the return
weeks.
reflected and/or emitted signal
from the Earth’s surface

Scanning sensors A non-scanning

have a narrow sensor views
field of view and the entire field
they scan a in one go.
small area at
any particular
time.
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Sensor Parameters
This is defined as the solid angle from which the
1. Instantaneous field-of-view (IFOV) electromagnetic radiation measured by the sensor at a
given point of time emanates

2. Overall field-of-view This corresponds to the total size of the geographical

area selected for observation

3. S/N ratio This defines the minimum power level required by the
sensor to identify an object in the presence of noise

4. Linearity Linearity refers to the sensor’s response to the varying

levels of radiation intensity

5. Wavelength band Sensors employ three wavelength bands for remote

sensing applications: the optical band, the thermal band
and the microwave band.

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Sensor Parameters
Swath width of the sensor is the area on the surface of
6. Swath width
the Earth imaged by it.

7. Dwell time The sensor’s dwell time is defined as the discrete amount
of time required by it to generate a strong enough signal
to be detected by the detector against the noise

8. Resolution Resolution is defined as the ability of the entire remote

sensing system (including the lens, antenna, display,
exposure, processing, etc.) to render a sharply defined
image

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Resolution of any remote sensing system is specified in terms of

This is determined by the bandwidth of the

spectral resolution,
electromagnetic radiation used during the process.
The narrower the bandwidth used, the higher is the
spectral resolution achieved.

radiometric resolution Radiometric resolution refers to the smallest change in

intensity level that can be detected by the sensing
system

spatial resolution Spatial resolution is defined as the minimum distance

the two point features on the ground should have in
order to be distinguished as separate objects
temporal resolution It is specified as the number of days in which the
satellite revisits a particular place again.

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Passive Scanning Sensors

The multispectral scanner (MSS) is the most commonly used passive scanning sensor
These include

optical mechanical scanners Push broom scanners central perspective scanners

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Passive Scanning Sensors

The platform moves forward over the Earth, successive
scans build up a two-dimensional image of the Earth’s
optical mechanical scanners surface

After passing through the optical system the incoming

reflected or emitted radiation is separated into various
wavelength bands with the help of grating prisms or filters.

Each of the separated bands is then fed to a bank of

internal detectors, with each detector sensitive to a specific
wavelength band.

These detectors detect and convert the energy for each

spectral band in the form of an electrical signal. This
electrical signal is then converted to digital data and
recorded for subsequent computer processing.

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Passive Scanning Sensors

Push Broom Scanners optical mechanical scanners offer narrower view
angles and small band-to-band registration
error.

However, push broom scanners have a longer

dwell time and this feature allows more
energy to be detected, which improves the
radiometric resolution.

they are cheaper, lighter and more reliable as

they do not have any moving part and also
require less power

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Passive Scanning Sensors

In this case, during image formation, the sensing
Central Perspective Scanners device does not actually move relative to the object
being sensed.

Thus all the pixels are viewed from the same central
position in a manner similar to a photographic
camera.

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Active Sensors

The transmitter emits electromagnetic radiation of a

particular wavelength band, depending upon the
intended application
Active sensor systems
comprise both a transmitter
as well as a receiver

The receiver senses the same electromagnetic radiation

reflected or scattered by the ground.

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Microwave altimeters or radar altimeters are used

microwave altimeters to measure the distance between the satellite and
the ground surface by measuring the time delay
between the transmission of the microwave pulses
and the reception of the signals scattered back
from the Earth’s surface

Active non-scanning Microwave scatterometers are used to measure

sensor systems include wind speed and direction over the ocean surface
microwave scatterometers by sending out microwave pulses along several
directions and recording the magnitude of the
signals backscattered from the ocean surface

Laser distance meters are devices having the

same principle of operation as that of
laser distance meters microwave altimeters except that they send
laser pulses in the visible or the IR region
instead of the microwave pulses

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Types of Images

the satellite images can be classified

secondary images
Primary images

the primary images are processed so as to enhance

The raw images taken from the satellite
their features for better and precise interpretation

monogenic images polygenic images

Monogenic image, also referred Polygenic secondary

to as panchromatic image, is images are composite
produced from a single primary images formed by
image by applying changes to it combining two or three
like enlargement, reduction, primary images in order
error correction, contrast to make the extraction
adjustments, etc. of information from the
image easier and more
meaningful.
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Polygenic images

multispectral images multitemporal images

In multispectral images, Multitemporal images, as

three images taken in mentioned earlier, are
different spectral bands secondary images produced by
are each assigned a combining two or more
separate primary colour primary images taken at
different times

natural colour composite images false colour composite images true colour composite images

In case of sensors not having one or If the spectral bands in the image In a true colour composite
more of the three visible bands, the do not correspond to the three image, the spectral bands
optical images lack these visual bands primary colours, then the resulting correspond to the three
image is called a false colour primary colours (R,G and B)
composite image

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Image Classification

Supervised Classification Unsupervised Classification

With supervised classification, the Unsupervised classification is a method

land cover types of interest (referred that examines a large number of
to as training sites or information unknown pixels and divides them into a
classes) in the image are identified. number of classes on the basis of
natural groupings present in the image
The image processing software system value
is then used to develop a statistical
characterization of the reflectance for
each information class.

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Image Interpretation
Extraction of useful information from the images is referred to as image interpretation
Interpreting Optical and Thermal Remote Sensing Images Interpreting Microwave Remote Sensing Images
1. Radiometric information suffer from a lot of noise, referred to as speckle
2. Spectral information noise may require special filtering before they can
3. Textural information be used for interpretation and analysis
4. Geometric and contextual information
The higher the value of the backscattering
Radiometric information corresponds to the coefficient, the rougher is the surface being
brightness, intensity and tone of the images imaged.

Multispectral or colour composite images are

the main sources of spectral information

The texture of the image may be used to

classify various kinds of vegetation covers or
forest covers
Geometric and contextual information is
provided by very high resolution images
and makes the interpretation of the image
quite straightforward
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GIS in Remote Sensing

The geographic information system (GIS) is a computer based information system used to digitally
represent and analyze the geographic features present on the Earth’s surface

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Applications of Remote Sensing Satellites

Land Cover Classification

Land Cover Change Detection

Water Quality Monitoring and Management

Flood Monitoring

Urban Monitoring and Development

Measurement of Sea Surface Temperature

Deforestation

Global Monitoring

Predicting Disasters (earthquakes,volcanic eruptions, hurricanes, storms, etc)

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END

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 Satellite Communication 17EC755

Class 38
Module 5

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 Satellite Communication 17EC755

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Weather forecasting, as people call it, is both a science as well as an art

It is about predicting the weather, which can be both long term as well as
short term

Generally, short term predictions are based on current observations

long term predictions are made after understanding the weather patterns, on
the basis of observations made over a period of several years

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Images from Weather Forecasting Satellites

Weather forecasting satellites take images mainly in the

visible,
the IR and
the microwave bands

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Visible Images IR images Microwave Images

The most commonly used band here is Another common type of satellite Weather satellites also
the visible band (0.4 to 0.9 micro imagery depicts the radiation utilize the microwave band,
m) emitted by the clouds and the mostly within the
Earth’s surface in the IR band (10 wavelength region from 0.1
Visible images represent the amount to 12 micro m). to 10 cm
of sunlight being reflected back into
space by clouds or the Earth’s surface IR images provide information on the Measurements in the
in the temperature of the underlying microwave band also help in
visible band. Earth’s surface or cloud cover. determination of quantities
such as snow cover,
This information is used in providing precipitation and
temperature forecasts, in locating thunderstorms
These images are mainly used in the areas of frost and freezes and in
identification of clouds determining the distribution of sea
surface temperatures offshore

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Weather Forecasting Satellite Orbits

Weather forecasting satellites are placed into either of the two types of orbits

polar sun-synchronous low Earth orbit

geostationary orbit

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Weather Forecasting Satellite Payloads

Radiometer
A Radiometer is an instrument that makes quantitative measurements of
the amount of electromagnetic radiation incident on it from a given area
within a specified wavelength band
The radiometer comprises

optical system,
scanning system,
electronic system
calibration system
Radiometers can operate in one of two modes-vimaging mode and the sounding mode

Imagers measure and map sea-surface Sounder is a special kind of radiometer, which
temperatures, cloud-top temperatures and measures changes in the atmospheric temperature
land-surface temperatures due to change in water vapour content of the
atmosphere with height

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Active Payloads

Altimeter

An altimeter sends a very narrow pulse of microwave

radiation with a duration of a few nanoseconds
vertically towards Earth

The time taken by the reflected signal to reach the

satellite determines the distance of the satellite from
Earth with an accuracy of the order of few
centimetres

This helps in calculating the surface roughness of the

land surface, strength of ocean currents, wave
heights, wind speeds and other motion over the
oceans

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Scatterometer
scatterometer is a microwave radar sensor used to measure the reflection or scattering
produced while scanning the surface of the Earth using microwave radiation

It emits a fan shaped microwave pulse having a duration of

the order of a few milliseconds and measures the frequency
and the intensity profile of the scattered pulse

A rough ocean surface returns a stronger signal because the

ocean waves reflect more of the radar energy back
towards the scatterometer whereas a smooth ocean surface
returns a weaker signal because less energy is reflected back
in this case helps to determine ocean waves and hence in
estimating the wind speed and direction.

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Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)

Synthetic aperture radar (SAR) is the most commonly used radar on weather forecasting
satellites

SAR is a special type of radar that uses the motion of the spacecraft to emulate a large
antenna from a physically small antenna.

It works on the same principle as that of a conventional radar

It also sends microwave pulses and measures the intensity, time delay and frequency of
the return pulse.

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Lidar

Lidar has the same principle of operation as that of a radar, except that it sends laser pulses
rather than microwave pulses.

Lidar sends a beam of laser light through the atmosphere.

The particles present in the path of the beam scatter it.

A portion of the scattered beam returns to Weather Satellites the receiver.

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Weather Forecasting Satellite Applications

Measurement of Cloud Parameters

Rainfall

Wind Speed and Direction

Ground-level Temperature Measurements

Air Pollution and Haze

Fog

Oceanography
Severe Storm Support

Fisheries
Snow and Ice Studies

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END

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 Satellite Communication 17EC755

Class 39
Module 5

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 Satellite Communication 17EC755

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Global Positioning System (GPS)

The GPS comprises of three segments, namely

the space segment

control segment

usersegment

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Space Segment
The space segment comprises of a 28 satellite constellation out of
which 24 satellites are active satellites and the remaining four
satellites are used as in-orbit spares
The satellites are placed in six orbital planes, with four satellites
in each plane
The satellites orbit in circular medium The satellites orbit in circular
medium
The orbital period of each satellite is around 12 hours (11 hours, 58
mins)
All GPS satellites are equipped with atomic clocks having a very high
accuracy of the order of a few nanoseconds (3 ns in a second).

These satellites transmit signals, synchronized with each other on two

microwave frequencies of 1575.42 MHz (L1) and 1227.60 MHz (L2)

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Control Segment

The control segment of the GPS system comprises a

worldwide network of five monitor stations, four
ground antenna stations and a master control
station.
The monitor stations are located at
Hawaii and Kwajalein in the Pacific Ocean,
Diego Garcia in the Indian Ocean,
Ascension Island in the Pacific Ocean
and Colorado Springs, Colorado.
There is a master control station (MCS) at Schriever
Air Force Base in Colorado that controls the overall
GPS network
The ground antenna stations are located at Diego
Garcia in the Indian Ocean, Kwajalein in the Pacific
Ocean, Ascension Island in the Pacific Ocean and at
Cape Canaveral, USA

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User Segment

The user segment includes all military and civil GPS receivers
intended to provide position, velocity and time information.

These receivers are either hand-held receivers or installed on

aircraft, ships, tanks, submarines, cars and trucks

The basic function of these receivers is to detect, decode and

process the GPS satellite signals

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Operation of the GPS navigation system

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Working Principle of the GPS

Theoretically, if the distance of a point is known

from one object, then it lies anywhere on a sphere
with the object as the centre having a radius equal
to the distance between the point and the object

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Working Principle of the GPS

If the distance of the point is known from two

objects, then it lies on the circle formed by the
intersection of two such spheres

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Working Principle of the GPS

The distance from the third object helps

in knowing that the point is located at
any of the two positions where the three
spheres intersect

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In the GPS, the position of any receiver is determined by calculating its distance from four
satellites

This distance is referred to as the ‘Pseudorange

The information from three satellites is sufficient for calculating the longitude and the latitude
positions; however, information from the fourth satellite is necessary for altitude calculations

Hence, if the receiver is located on Earth, then its position can be determined on the basis of
information of its distance from three satellites

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GPS Signal Structure

The GPS signal contains three different types of information, namely

the pseudorandom code
ephemeris data
almanac data

The pseudorandom code (PRN Ephemeris data contains Almanac data tells the GPS receiver
code) is an ID (identity) code information about health where each satellite should be at
that identifies which satellite is of the satellite, current any time during the day
transmitting information and is date and time
used for ‘pseudorange’ It also contains information on
calculations clock corrections and atmospheric
data parameters
All this information is transmitted at two microwave carrier frequencies, referred to as L1
(1575.42 MHz) and L2 (1227.60 MHz)

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GPS satellites transmit two

types of codes, namely

the coarse acquisition (C/A code)

and the precision code (P code)

the L1 signal is modulated by both

the C/A code and the P code and
the L2 signal by the P code only.

The codes are transmitted using

the BPSK (binary phase shift
keying) digital modulation
technique

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Other than these codes, the satellite

signals also contain a navigation
message comprising the ephemeris and
almanac data

This provides coordinate information of

GPS satellites as a function of time,
satellite health status, satellite clock
correction, satellite almanac and
atmospheric data

The navigation message is transmitted

at a bit rate of 50 kbps using BPSK
technique.

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Pseudorange Measurements

the fundamental concept behind the GPS is to

make use of simultaneous distance
measurements from three (or four) satellites
to compute the position of any receiver

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Determination of the Receiver Location

After calculating pseudoranges from four

satellites, the receiver determines the
position/time solution of four ranging equations
for generation of its position and time
information

where,
xn, yn, zn =x, y and z coordinates of the nth satellite
Ux,Uy,Uz =x, y and z coordinates of the user receiver
PRn = pseudorange of the user receiver from the nth
satellite
EC= error correction

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GPS Positioning Services and Positioning Modes

There are two levels of GPS positioning and timing services, namely

precision positioning service (PPS)

standard positioning service (SPS)

The PPS, as the name suggests, SPS is less accurate than PPS and is
is the most precise and available to all users worldwide,
autonomous service and is authorized or unauthorized
accessible by authorized users
only

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GPS Positioning Modes

Positioning with GPS can be performed in either of the following two ways:
1. Point positioning
2.Relative positioning

Point positioning employs one GPS relative positioning, also

GPS receiver to do the referred to as differential
measurements. positioning, employs two GPS
receivers simultaneously for tracking
Here the receiver calculates the same satellites
its position by determining its
They are used for high accuracy
pseudoranges from three (or
applications such as surveying,
four) satellites using the
precision landing systems for
codes transmitted by the
aircraft, measuring movement of
satellite
the Earth’s crust, mapping
The corrections are based on the
difference between the true
location of the base receiver and
the location determined by the
GPS system

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Applications of Satellite Navigation Systems

Civilian Applications Military Applications

For mapping and construction. Navigation
Saving lives and property Tracking.

Vehicle tracking and navigation Bomb and missile guidance

Rescue operations

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END

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Class 36
Module 5

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Classification of remote sensing systems

END

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