Balkan Wars

The Balkan Wars consisted of two conflicts

Balkan Wars
that took place in the Balkan Peninsula in 1912
and 1913. Four Balkan states defeated the
Ottoman Empire in the First Balkan War. In the
Second Balkan War, Bulgaria fought against all
four original combatants of the first war. It also
faced an attack from Romania from the north.
The Ottoman Empire lost the bulk of its
territory in Europe. Although not involved as a
combatant, Austria-Hungary became relatively
weaker as a much enlarged Serbia pushed for
union of the South Slavic peoples.[2] The war
set the stage for the Balkan crisis of 1914 and A Bulgarian postcard depicting the Battle of Lule
thus served as a "prelude to the First World Burgas.
War".[3]
Date 8 October 1912 – 18 July 1913
By the early 20th century, Bulgaria, Greece, (9 months, 1 week and 3 days)
Montenegro and Serbia had achieved First Balkan War:
independence from the Ottoman Empire, but 8 October 1912 – 30 May 1913
large elements of their ethnic populations (7 months, 3 weeks and 1 day)
remained under Ottoman rule. In 1912, these
Second Balkan War:
countries formed the Balkan League. The First
Balkan War began on 8 October 1912, when 29 June – 10 August 1913
the League member states attacked the (1 month, 1 week and 5 days)
Ottoman Empire, and ended eight months later Location Adrianople · Scutari · Kosovo · Manastir ·
with the signing of the Treaty of London on 30 Salonica provinces · Aegean Islands ·
May 1913. The Second Balkan War began on
Aegean Sea
16 June 1913, when Bulgaria, dissatisfied with
its loss of Macedonia, attacked its former Result First Balkan War:
Balkan League allies. The more numerous
Balkan League victory
combined Serbian and Greek armies repelled
the Bulgarian offensive and counter-attacked Treaty of London
into Bulgaria from the west and the south.
Romania, having taken no part in the conflict, Second Balkan War:
had intact armies to strike with and invaded
Bulgaria from the north in violation of a peace Treaty of Bucharest
treaty between the two states. The Ottoman Treaty of Constantinople
Empire also attacked Bulgaria and advanced in
Thrace regaining Adrianople. In the resulting Belligerents
Treaty of Bucharest, Bulgaria conserved most
of the territories it had gained in the First First Balkan War: First Balkan War:
Balkan War. However, it was forced to cede Ottoman Empire Balkan League
the ex-Ottoman south part of Dobruja province Support:
to Romania.[4] Bulgaria
Austria-Hungary Serbia
The Balkan Wars were marked by ethnic Greece
cleansing with all parties being responsible for
Montenegro
grave atrocities against civilians, and helped
inspire later atrocities including war crimes Support:
during the 1990s Yugoslav Wars.[5][6][7] Italian volunteers[1]
Russia
Second Balkan War:
Contents Bulgaria Second Balkan War:

Background Serbia
Policies of the Great Powers
Romania
Young Turk Revolution
Greece
Reaction in the Balkan states
Pre-War treaties Montenegro

Balkan League
Ottoman Empire
First Balkan War
Commanders and leaders
Prelude to the Second Balkan War
Mehmed V Ferdinand I
Second Balkan War
Enver Pasha Mihail Savov
Reactions among the Great Powers
Nazım Pasha Ivan Fichev
during the wars
Zeki Pasha Vasil Kutinchev
Epilogue
The Treaty of Bucharest Kölemen Abdullah Pasha Nikola Ivanov

The Final Treaties Ali Rıza Pasha Radko Dimitriev

Aftermath Hasan Tahsin Pasha Radomir Putnik

All Balkan War conflicts İsmail Hakkı Pasha Petar Bojović

First Balkan War conflicts Rauf Pasha Stepa Stepanović

Bulgarian-Ottoman battles Živojin Mišić
Greek–Ottoman battles Ferdinand I
Crown Prince Constantine
Serbian–Ottoman battles Mihail Savov
Panagiotis Danglis
Second Balkan War conflicts Vasil Kutinchev
Pavlos Kountouriotis
Bulgarian–Greek battles
Nikola Ivanov
Bulgarian–Serbian battles Nicholas I
Radko Dimitriev
Bulgarian–Ottoman battles Prince Danilo Petrović
Stiliyan Kovachev
Bulgarian–Romanian battles Janko Vukotić
Stefan Toshev
Legacy Carol I
}}
See also Ferdinand I

References Alexandru Averescu

Bibliography }}

Further reading Strength

External links
350,000 600,000
220,000
115,000
Background 500,221–576,878
 The 35,000
Total:
970,000 men

348,000
330,000
255,000
Map of the Ottoman Empire in 1900, 148,000
with the names of the Ottoman 12,800
provinces.
Total:
1,093,800 men
background to the wars lies in the incomplete
emergence of nation-states on the European Altogether: 2,914,020–3,484,830 troops deployed
territory of the Ottoman Empire during the plus 600,000 killed or injured
second half of the 19th century. Serbia had
gained substantial territory during the Russo-Turkish War, 1877–
1878, while Greece acquired Thessaly in 1881 (although it lost a
small area back to the Ottoman Empire in 1897) and Bulgaria (an
autonomous principality since 1878) incorporated the formerly distinct
province of Eastern Rumelia (1885). All three countries, as well as
Montenegro, sought additional territories within the large Ottoman-
ruled region known as Rumelia, comprising Eastern Rumelia,
Albania, Macedonia, and Thrace.

The First Balkan War had some main causes briefly presented
below:[8][3][9]

1. The Ottoman Empire was unable to reform itself, govern

satisfactorily, or deal with the rising ethnic nationalism of its
diverse peoples.
2. The Italo-Ottoman war of 1911 and the Albanian Revolts in A Punch cartoon by English
the Albanian Provinces showed that the Empire was cartoonist Leonard Raven-Hill
deeply "wounded" and unable to strike back against depicting Britain, France,
another war. German, Austria-Hungary, and
Russia sitting on a lid on top of a
3. The Great Powers quarreled amongst themselves and
pot marked "Balkan Troubles",
failed to ensure that the Ottomans would carry out the satirizing the situation in the
needed reforms. This led the Balkan states to impose their Balkans leading up to the First
own solution.
Balkan War
4. The Christian populations of the European part of the
Ottoman Empire were oppressed by the Ottoman Reign,
thus forcing the Christian Balkan states to take action.
5. Most importantly, the Balkan League was formed, and its members were confident that under
those circumstances an organised and simultaneous declaration of war to the Ottoman
Empire would be the only way to protect their compatriots and expand their territories in the
Balkan Peninsula.

Policies of the Great Powers

Throughout the 19th century, the Great Powers shared different
aims over the "Eastern Question" and the integrity of the Ottoman
Empire. Russia wanted access to the "warm waters" of the
Mediterranean from the Black Sea; it pursued a pan-Slavic foreign
policy and therefore supported Bulgaria and Serbia. Britain wished
to deny Russia access to the "warm waters" and supported the
integrity of the Ottoman Empire, although it also supported a
limited expansion of Greece as a backup plan in case integrity of
the Ottoman Empire was no longer possible. France wished to
strengthen its position in the region, especially in the Levant
(today's Lebanon, Syria, and Israel).[10]

Habsburg-ruled Austria-Hungary wished for a continuation of the

existence of the Ottoman Empire, since both were troubled
multinational entities and thus the collapse of the one might
weaken the other. The Habsburgs also saw a strong Ottoman
presence in the area as a counterweight to the Serbian nationalistic
call to their own Serb subjects in Bosnia, Vojvodina and other
parts of the empire. Italy's primary aim at the time seems to have Nazım Pasha, the chief of staff of
been the denial of access to the Adriatic Sea to another major sea the Ottoman army, was assassinated
power. The German Empire, in turn, under the "Drang nach by Young Turks due to his failure.
Osten" policy, aspired to turn the Ottoman Empire into its own de
facto colony, and thus supported its integrity. In the late 19th and
early 20th century, Bulgaria and Greece contended for Ottoman Macedonia and Thrace. Ethnic Greeks
sought the forced "Hellenization" of ethnic Bulgars, who sought "Bulgarization" of Greeks (Rise of
nationalism). Both nations sent armed irregulars into Ottoman territory to protect and assist their ethnic
kindred. From 1904, there was low-intensity warfare in Macedonia between the Greek and Bulgarian
bands and the Ottoman army (the Struggle for Macedonia). After the Young Turk revolution of July 1908,
the situation changed drastically.[11]

Young Turk Revolution

The 1908 Young Turk Revolution saw the reinstatement of constitutional monarchy in the Ottoman Empire
and the start of the Second Constitutional Era. When the revolt broke out, it was supported by intellectuals,
the army, and almost all the ethnic minorities of the Empire. It forced Sultan Abdul Hamid II to re-adopt the
defunct Ottoman constitution of 1876 and parliament. Hopes were raised among the Balkan ethnicities of
reforms and autonomy. Elections were held to form a representative, multi-ethnic, Ottoman parliament.
However, following the Sultan's failed counter-coup of 1909, the liberal element of the Young Turks was
sidelined and the nationalist element became dominant.[12]

In October 1908, Austria-Hungary seized the opportunity of the Ottoman political upheaval to annex the de
jure Ottoman province of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which it had occupied since 1878 (see Bosnian Crisis).
Bulgaria declared independence as it had done in 1878, but this time the independence was internationally
recognized. The Greeks of the autonomous Cretan State proclaimed unification with Greece, though the
opposition of the Great Powers prevented the latter action from taking practical effect.[13]

Reaction in the Balkan states

Serbia was frustrated in the north by Austria-Hungary's incorporation of Bosnia. In March 1909, Serbia
was forced to accept the annexation and restrain anti-Habsburg agitation by Serbian nationalists. Instead,
the Serbian government (PM: Nikola Pašić) looked to formerly Serb territories in the south, notably "Old
Serbia" (the Sanjak of Novi Pazar and the province of Kosovo).

On 15 August 1909, the Military League, a group of Greek officers, took action against the government to
reform their country's national government and reorganize the army. The Military League sought the
creation of a new political system and thus summoned the Cretan politician Eleutherios Venizelos to Athens
as its political advisor. Venizelos persuaded King George I to revise the constitution and asked the League
to disband in favor of a National Assembly. In March 1910, the Military League dissolved itself.[9][14]

Bulgaria, which had secured Ottoman recognition of her independence in April 1909 and enjoyed the
friendship of Russia,[15] also looked to annex districts of Ottoman Thrace and Macedonia. In August 1910,
Montenegro followed Bulgaria's precedent by becoming a kingdom.

Pre-War treaties

Following the Italian victory in the Italo-Turkish War of

1911–1912, the severity of the Ottomanizing policy of the
Young Turkish regime and a series of three revolts in Ottoman
held Albania, the Young Turks fell from power after a coup.
The Christian Balkan countries were forced to take action and
saw this as an opportunity to promote their national agenda by
expanding in the territories of the falling empire and liberating
their enslaved co-patriots. In order to achieve that, a wide net
Bulgarian forces waiting to start their of treaties was constructed and an alliance was formed.
assault on Adrianople
The negotiation among the Balkan states' governments started
in the latter part of 1911 and was all conducted in secret. The
treaties and military conventions were published in French translations after the Balkan Wars on 24–26 of
November in Le Matin, Paris, France [16] In April 1911, Greek PM Eleutherios Venizelos’ attempt to reach
an agreement with the Bulgarian PM and form a defensive alliance against the Ottoman Empire was
fruitless, because of the doubts the Bulgarians held on the strength of the Greek Army.[16] Later that year,
in December 1911, Bulgaria and Serbia agreed to start negotiations in forming an alliance under the tight
inspection of Russia. The treaty between Serbia and Bulgaria was signed on 29 of February/13 of March
1912. Serbia sought expansion to "Old Serbia" and as Milan Milovanovich noted in 1909 to the Bulgarian
counterpart, "As long as we are not allied with you, our influence over the Croats and Slovens will be
insignificant".[17] On the other side, Bulgaria wanted the autonomy of Macedonia region under the
influence of the two countries. The then Bulgarian Minister of Foreign Affairs General Stefan Paprikov
stated in 1909 that, "It will be clear that if not today then tomorrow, the most important issue will again be
the Macedonian Question. And this question, whatever happens, cannot be decided without more or less
direct participation of the Balkan States".[17] Last but not least, they noted down the divisions should be
made of the Ottoman territories after a victorious outcome of the war. More specifically, Bulgaria would
gain all the territories eastern of Rodopi Mountains and River Strimona, while Serbia would annex the
territories northern and western of Mount Skardu.[9]

The alliance pact between Greece and Bulgaria was finally signed on 16/29 of May 1912, without
stipulating any specific division of Ottoman territories.[16][17] In summer 1912, Greece proceeded on
making "gentlemen's agreements" with Serbia and Montenegro.[17] Despite the fact that, a draft of the
alliance pact with Serbia was submitted on 22 of October, a formal pact was never signed due to the
outbreak of the war. As a result, Greece did not have any territorial or other commitments, other than the
common cause to fight the Ottoman Empire.
In April 1912 Montenegro and Bulgaria reached an agreement including financial aid to Montenegro in
case of war with the Ottoman Empire. A gentlemen's agreement with Greece was reached soon after, as
mentioned before. By the end of September a political and military alliance between Montenegro and
Serbia was achieved.[16] By the end of September 1912, Bulgaria had formal-written alliances with Serbia,
Greece, and Montenegro. A formal alliance was also signed between Serbia and Montenegro, while Greco-
Montenegrin and Greco-Serbian agreements were basically oral "gentlemen’s agreements". All these
completed the formation of the Balkan League.

Balkan League

At that time, the Balkan states had been able to maintain armies that were both numerous, in relation to
each country's population, and eager to act, being inspired by the idea that they would free enslaved parts
of their homeland.[17] The Bulgarian Army was the leading army of the coalition. It was a well-trained and
fully equipped army, capable of facing the Imperial Army. It was suggested that the bulk of the Bulgarian
Army would be in the Thracian front, as it was expected that the front near the Ottoman Capital would be
the most crucial one. The Serbian Army would act on the Macedonian front, while the Greek Army was
thought powerless and was not taken under serious consideration. Greece was needed in the Balkan
League for its navy and its capability to dominate the Aegean Sea, cutting off the Ottoman Armies from
reinforcements.

On 13/26 of September 1912, the Ottoman mobilization in Thrace forced Serbia and Bulgaria to act and
order their own mobilization. On 17/30 of September Greece also ordered mobilization. On 25 of
September/8 of October, Montenegro declared war on the Ottoman Empire, after negotiations failed
regarding the border status. On 30 of September/13 of October, the ambassadors of Serbia, Bulgaria, and
Greece delivered the common ultimatum to the Ottoman government, which was immediately rejected. The
Empire withdrew its ambassadors from Sofia, Belgrade, and Athens, while the Bulgarian, Serbian and
Greek diplomats left the Ottoman capital delivering the war declaration on 4/17 of October 1912.[9]

First Balkan War

The three Slavic allies (Bulgaria, Serbia, and Montenegro)
had laid out extensive plans to coordinate their war efforts, in
continuation of their secret prewar settlements and under close
Russian supervision (Greece was not included). Serbia and
Montenegro would attack in the theater of Sandjak, Bulgaria,
and Serbia in Macedonia and Thrace.

The Ottoman Empire's situation was difficult. Its population

of about 26 million people provided a massive pool of
manpower, but three-quarters of the population lived in the
Asian part of the Empire. Reinforcements had to come from
Asia mainly by sea, which depended on the result of battles
between the Turkish and Greek navies in the Aegean.

With the outbreak of the war, the Ottoman Empire activated Territorial changes as a result of the First
Balkan war, as of April 1913 showing the
three Army HQs: the Thracian HQ in Constantinople, the
prewar agreed line of expansion between
Western HQ in Salonika, and the Vardar HQ in Skopje,
Serbia and Bulgaria
against the Bulgarians, the Greeks and the Serbians
respectively. Most of their available forces were allocated to
these fronts. Smaller independent units were allocated
elsewhere, mostly around heavily fortified cities.

Montenegro was the first that declared war on 8 October[3]

(25 September O.S.). Its main thrust was towards Shkodra,
with secondary operations in the Novi Pazar area. The rest of
the Allies, after giving a common ultimatum, declared war a
week later. Bulgaria attacked towards Eastern Thrace, being
stopped only at the outskirts of Constantinople at the Çatalca
line and the isthmus of the Gallipoli peninsula, while The apple of discord: King George I of
secondary forces captured Western Thrace and Eastern Greece and Tsar Ferdinand of Bulgaria at
Macedonia. Serbia attacked south towards Skopje and Thessaloniki, December 1912. Despite
Monastir and then turned west to present-day Albania, their alliance, Greco-Bulgarian antagonism
reaching the Adriatic, while a second Army captured Kosovo over the city and Macedonia did not
and linked with the Montenegrin forces. Greece's main forces abate.
attacked from Thessaly into Macedonia through the
Sarantaporo strait. On 7 November, in response to an
Ottoman initiative, they entered into negotiations for the surrender of Thessaloniki. With the Greeks already
there, and the Bulgarian 7th Rila Division moving swiftly from the north towards Thessaloniki, Hassan
Tahsin Pasha considered his position to be hopeless. .[18] The Greeks offered more attractive terms than the
Bulgarians did. On 8 November, Tahsin Pasha agreed to terms and 26,000 Ottoman troops passed over into
Greek captivity. Before the Greeks entered the city, a German warship whisked the former sultan Abdul
Hamid II out of Thessaloniki to continue his exile, across the Bosporus from Constantinople. With their
army in Thessaloniki, the Greeks took new positions to the east and northeast, including Nigrita. On 12
November (on 26 October 1912, O.S.) Greece expanded its occupied area and teamed up with the Serbian
army to the northwest, while its main forces turned east towards Kavala, reaching the Bulgarians. Another
Greek army attacked into Epirus towards Ioannina.[19]

On the naval front, the Ottoman fleet twice exited the Dardanelles and was twice defeated by the Greek
Navy, in the battles of Elli and Lemnos. Greek dominance on the Aegean Sea made it impossible for the
Ottomans to transfer the planned troops from the Middle East to the Thracian (against the Bulgarian) and to
the Macedonian (against the Greeks and Serbians) fronts.[20] According to E.J. Erickson the Greek Navy
also played a crucial, albeit indirect role, in the Thracian campaign by neutralizing no less than three
Thracian Corps (see First Balkan War, the Bulgarian theater of operations), a significant portion of the
Ottoman Army there, in the all-important opening round of the war.[20] After the defeat of the Ottoman
fleet, the Greek Navy was also free to liberate the islands of the Aegean. General Nikola Ivanov identified
the activity of the Greek Navy as the chief factor in the general success of the allies.[20][21]

In January, after a successful coup by young army officers, the Ottoman Empire decided to continue the
war. After a failed Ottoman counter-attack in the Western-Thracian front, Bulgarian forces, with the help of
the Serbian Army, managed to conquer Adrianople, while Greek forces managed to take Ioannina after
defeating the Ottomans in the Battle of Bizani. In the joint Serbian-Montenegrin theater of operation, the
Montenegrin army besieged and captured the Shkodra, ending the Ottoman presence in Europe west of the
Çatalca line after nearly 500 years. The war ended officially with the Treaty of London on 30(17) May
1913.

Prelude to the Second Balkan War

After pressure from the Great Powers towards Greece and Serbia, who had postponed signing in order to
fortify their defensive positions, [22] the signing of the Treaty of London took place on 30 May 1913. With
this treaty, the war between the Balkan Allies and the Ottoman Empire came to an end. From now on, the
Great Powers had the right of decision on the territorial adjustments that had to be made, which even led to
the creation of an independent Albania. Every Aegean island belonging to the Ottoman Empire, with the
exception of Imbros and Tenedos, was handed over to the Greeks, including the island of Crete.

Furthermore, all European territory of the Ottoman Empire west of the Enos-Midia (Enez-Midye) line, was
ceded to the Balkan League, but the division of the territory among the League was not to be decided by
the Treaty itself.[23] This event led to the formation of two ‘de facto’ military occupation zones on the
Macedonian territory, as Greece and Serbia tried to create a common border. The Bulgarians were not
satisfied with their share of spoils and as a result, the Second Balkan War broke out on the night of 29 June
1913, as Bulgaria confronted the Serbian and Greek lines in Macedonia.[24]

Second Balkan War

Though the Balkan allies had fought together against the
common enemy, that was not enough to overcome their
mutual rivalries. In the original document for the Balkans
league, Serbia promised Bulgaria most of Macedonia. But
before the first war had come to an end, Serbia (in violation of
the previous agreement) and Greece revealed their plan to
keep possession of the territories that their forces had
occupied. This act prompted the tsar of Bulgaria to invade his
allies. The Second Balkan War broke out on 29 (16) June
1913,[25] when Bulgaria attacked its erstwhile allies in the
Cholera was common among the soldiers
First Balkan War, Serbia and Greece, while Montenegro and
of the combatant nations
the Ottoman Empire intervened later against Bulgaria, with
Romania attacking Bulgaria from the north in violation of a
peace treaty.

When the Greek army had entered Thessaloniki in the First

Balkan War ahead of the Bulgarian 7th division by only a
day, they were asked to allow a Bulgarian battalion to enter
the city. Greece accepted in exchange for allowing a Greek
unit to enter the city of Serres. The Bulgarian unit that entered
Thessaloniki turned out to be an 18,000-strong division
instead of the battalion, which caused concern among the
Greeks, who viewed it as a Bulgarian attempt to establish a
condominium over the city. In the event, due to the urgently
needed reinforcements in the Thracian front, Bulgarian
Headquarters was soon forced to remove its troops from the
city (while the Greeks agreed by mutual treaty to remove their
units based in Serres) and transport them to Dedeağaç
(modern Alexandroupolis), but it left behind a battalion that
started fortifying its positions.

Greece had also allowed the Bulgarians to control the stretch

of the Thessaloniki-Constantinople railroad that lay in Greek-
occupied territory since Bulgaria controlled the largest part of Boundaries on the Balkans after the First
this railroad towards Thrace. After the end of the operations in and the Second Balkan War (1912–1913)
Thrace, and confirming Greek concerns, Bulgaria was not
satisfied with the territory it controlled in Macedonia and
immediately asked Greece to relinquish its control over Thessaloniki and the land north of Pieria,
effectively handing over all of Greek Macedonia. These unacceptable demands, with the Bulgarian refusal
to demobilize its army after the Treaty of London had ended the common war against the Ottomans,
alarmed Greece, which decided to also keep its army mobilized. A month after the Second Balkan War
started, the Bulgarian community of Thessaloniki no longer existed, as hundreds of long-time Bulgarian
locals were arrested. Thirteen hundred Bulgarian soldiers and about five hundred komitadjis were also
arrested and transferred to Greek prisons. In November 1913, the Bulgarians were forced to admit their
defeat, as the Greeks received international recognition on their claim of Thessaloniki.[26]

Similarly, in modern North Macedonia, the tension between Serbia and Bulgaria due to the latter's
aspirations over Vardar Macedonia generated many incidents between their respective armies, prompting
Serbia to keep its army mobilized. Serbia and Greece proposed that each of the three countries reduce its
army by a quarter, as the first step towards a peaceful solution, but Bulgaria rejected it. Seeing the omens,
Greece and Serbia started a series of negotiations and signed a treaty on 1 June(19 May) 1913. With this
treaty, a mutual border was agreed between the two countries, together with an agreement for mutual
military and diplomatic support in case of a Bulgarian or/and Austro-Hungarian attack. Tsar Nicholas II of
Russia, being well informed, tried to stop the upcoming conflict on 8 June, by sending an identical personal
message to the Kings of Bulgaria and Serbia, offering to act as arbitrator according to the provisions of the
1912 Serbo-Bulgarian treaty. But Bulgaria, by making the acceptance of Russian arbitration conditional, in
effect denied any discussion, causing Russia to repudiate its alliance with Bulgaria (see Russo-Bulgarian
military convention signed 31 May 1902).

The Serbs and the Greeks had a military advantage on the eve of the war because their armies confronted
comparatively weak Ottoman forces in the First Balkan War and suffered relatively light casualties,[27]
while the Bulgarians were involved in heavy fighting in Thrace. The Serbs and Greeks had time to fortify
their positions in Macedonia. The Bulgarians also held some advantages, controlling internal
communication and supply lines.[27]

On 29(16) June 1913, General Savov, under direct orders of Tsar Ferdinand I, issued attack orders against
both Greece and Serbia without consulting the Bulgarian government and without an official declaration of
war.[28] During the night of 30(17) June 1913, they attacked the Serbian army at Bregalnica river and then
the Greek army in Nigrita. The Serbian army resisted the sudden night attack, while most of the soldiers did
not even know who they were fighting with, as Bulgarian camps were located next to Serbs and were
considered allies. Montenegro's forces were just a few kilometers away and also rushed to the battle. The
Bulgarian attack was halted.

The Greek army was also successful.[27] It retreated according to plan for two days while Thessaloniki was
cleared of the remaining Bulgarian regiment. Then, the Greek army counterattacked and defeated the
Bulgarians at Kilkis (Kukush), after which the mostly Bulgarian town was plundered and burnt and part of
its mostly Bulgarian population massacred by the Greek army.[29] Following the capture of Kilkis, the
Greek army's pace was not quick enough to prevent the retaliatory destruction of Nigrita, Serres, and
Doxato and massacres of non-combatant Greek inhabitants at Sidirokastro and Doxato by the Bulgarian
army.[30] The Greek army then divided its forces and advanced in two directions. Part proceeded east and
occupied Western Thrace. The rest of the Greek army advanced up to the Struma River valley, defeating
the Bulgarian army in the battles of Doiran and Mt. Beles, and continued its advance to the north towards
Sofia. In the Kresna straits, the Greeks were ambushed by the Bulgarian 2nd and 1st Armies, newly arrived
from the Serbian front, that had already taken defensive positions there following the Bulgarian victory at
Kalimanci.

By 30 July, the Greek army was outnumbered by the counter-attacking Bulgarian army, which attempted to
encircle the Greeks in a Cannae-type battle, by applying pressure on their flanks.[31] The Greek army was
exhausted and faced logistical difficulties. The battle was continued for 11 days, between 29 July and 9
August over 20 km of a maze of forests and mountains with no conclusion. The Greek king, seeing that the
units he fought were from the Serbian front, tried to convince the Serbs to renew their attack, as the front
ahead of them was now thinner, but the Serbs declined. By then, news came of the Romanian advance
toward Sofia and its imminent fall. Facing the danger of
encirclement, Constantine realized that his army could no longer
continue hostilities. Thus, he agreed to Eleftherios Venizelos'
proposal and accepted the Bulgarian request for an armistice as
had been communicated through Romania.

Romania had raised an army and declared war on Bulgaria on 10

July (27 June) as it had from 28 (15) June officially warned
Bulgaria that it would not remain neutral in a new Balkan war, due
to Bulgaria's refusal to cede the fortress of Silistra as promised Greek lithograph of the Battle of
before the First Balkan War in exchange for Romanian neutrality. Kilkis–Lachanas
Its forces encountered little resistance and, by the time the Greeks
accepted the Bulgarian request for an armistice, they had reached
Vrazhdebna, 11 km (7 mi) from the center of Sofia.

Seeing the military position of the Bulgarian army, the Ottomans decided to intervene. They attacked, and,
finding no opposition, managed to win back all of their lands which had been officially ceded to Bulgaria
as a part of the Sofia Conference in 1914, i.e. Thrace with its fortified city of Adrianople, regaining an area
in Europe which was only slightly larger than the present-day European territory of the Republic of Turkey.

Reactions among the Great Powers during the wars

The developments that led to the First Balkan War did not go
unnoticed by the Great Powers. Although there was an official
consensus between the European Powers over the territorial
integrity of the Ottoman Empire, which led to a stern warning to
the Balkan states, unofficially each of them took a different
diplomatic approach due to their conflicting interests in the area.
As a result, any possible preventive effect of the common official
warning was cancelled by the mixed unofficial signals, and failed
Tirana Bazaar at the turn of the 20th
to prevent or to stop the war:
century.
Russia was a prime mover in the establishment of the
Balkan League and saw it as an essential tool in case of
a future war against its rival, the Austro-Hungarian
Empire.[32] But it was unaware of the Bulgarian plans
over Thrace and Constantinople, territories on which it
had long-held ambitions, and on which it had just
secured a secret agreement of expansion from its allies
France and Britain, as a reward for participating in the
upcoming Great War against the Central Powers.
France, not feeling ready for a war against Germany in
1912, took a totally negative position against the war,
firmly informing its ally Russia that it would not take part
in a potential conflict between Russia and Austria-
Hungary if it resulted from the actions of the Balkan
League. The French, however, failed to achieve British
participation in a common intervention to stop the
Balkan conflict. Serbian propaganda poster, depicting
Great Britain, although officially a staunch supporter of king Alexander I beating the losing
the Ottoman Empire's integrity, took secret diplomatic Bulgarian ruler.
steps encouraging Greek entry into the League in order
to counteract Russian influence. At the same time, it
 encouraged Bulgarian aspirations over Thrace, preferring a Bulgarian Thrace to a Russian
one, despite the assurances the British government had given to the Russians in regard to
Russia's expansion there.
Austria-Hungary, struggling for a port on the Adriatic and seeking ways for expansion in the
south at the expense of the Ottoman Empire, was totally opposed to any other nation's
expansion in the area. At the same time, the Habsburg empire had its own internal problems
with significant Slav populations that campaigned against German-Hungarian control of the
multinational state. Serbia, whose aspirations in the direction of Austrian-held Bosnia were
no secret, was considered an enemy and the main tool of Russian machinations that were
behind the agitation of Austria's Slav subjects. But Austria-Hungary failed to secure German
backup for a firm reaction. Initially, Emperor Wilhelm II told the Archduke Franz Ferdinand
that Germany was ready to support Austria in all circumstances — even at the risk of a world
war, but the Austro-Hungarians hesitated. Finally, in the German Imperial War Council of 8
December 1912 the consensus was that Germany would not be ready for war until at least
mid-1914 and passed notes to that effect to the Habsburgs. Consequently, no actions could
be taken when the Serbs acceded to the Austrian ultimatum of 18 October and withdrew
from Albania.
Germany, already heavily involved in internal Ottoman politics, officially opposed a war
against the Empire. But, in her effort to win Bulgaria for the Central Powers, and seeing the
inevitability of Ottoman disintegration, was toying with the idea of replacing the Balkan area
of the Ottomans with a friendly Greater Bulgaria in her San Stefano borders—an idea that
was based on the German origin of the Bulgarian King and his anti-Russian sentiments.

The Second Balkan war was a catastrophic blow to Russian policies in the Balkans, which for centuries
had focused on access to the "warm seas". First, it marked the end of the Balkan League, a vital arm of the
Russian system of defense against Austria-Hungary. Second, the clearly pro-Serbian position Russia had
been forced to take in the conflict, mainly due to the disagreements over land partitioning between Serbia
and Bulgaria, caused a permanent break-up between the two countries. Accordingly, Bulgaria reverted its
policy to one closer to the Central Powers' understanding over an anti-Serbian front, due to its new national
aspirations, now expressed mainly against Serbia. As a result, Serbia was isolated militarily against its rival
Austria-Hungary, a development that eventually doomed Serbia in the coming war a year later. Most
damaging, the new situation effectively trapped Russian foreign policy: After 1913, Russia could not afford
to lose its last ally in this crucial area and thus had no alternatives but to unconditionally support Serbia
when the crisis between Serbia and Austria escalated in 1914. This was a position that inevitably drew
Russia into an unwelcome World War with devastating results since it was less prepared (both militarily and
socially) for that event than any other Great Power.

Austria-Hungary took alarm at the great increase in Serbia's territory at the expense of its national
aspirations in the region, as well as Serbia's rising status, especially to Austria-Hungary's Slavic
populations. This concern was shared by Germany, which saw Serbia as a satellite of Russia. These
concerns contributed significantly to the two Central Powers' willingness to go to war against Serbia. This
meant that when a Serbian backed organization assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, the
reform-minded heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, causing the 1914 July Crisis, the conflict quickly
escalated and resulted in the First World War.

Epilogue

The Treaty of Bucharest

The epilogue to this nine-month pan-Balkan war was drawn mostly by the treaty of Bucharest, 10 August
1913. Delegates of Greece, Serbia, Montenegro, and Bulgaria, hosted by the deputy of Romania arrived in
Bucharest to settle negotiations. Ottoman's request to participate was rejected, on the basis that the talks
were to deal with matters strictly among the Balkan allies.[17] The Great Powers maintained a very
influential presence, but they did not dominate the proceedings. The Treaty partitioned Macedonia, made
changes to the Balkan borders and established the independent state of Albania.[33] Serbia gained the
territory of north-east Macedonia, settled the eastern borders with Bulgaria and gained the eastern half of
the Sanjak of Novi-Bazar, doubling its size.[33] Montenegro gained the western half of the Sanjak of Novi-
Bazar and secured the borders with Serbia. Greece more than doubled its size by gaining southern Epirus,
the biggest part of southern Macedonia, including the city-port of Kavala in its eastern border. The Aegean
Islands were annexed by the Greek Kingdom, apart from the Dodecanese, and the Cretan unification was
completed and formalized. Romania annexed the southern part of Dobruja province. Bulgaria, even though
defeated, managed to hold some territorial gains from the First Balkan War. Bulgaria embraced a portion of
Macedonia, including the town of Strumnitza, and western Thrace with a 70-mile Aegean coastline
including the port-town of Alexandroupolis.[16]

The Final Treaties

The Bulgarian delegates then meet the Ottomans for negotiations in Constantinople. Bulgaria's hope to
regain lost territories in Eastern Thrace, where the bulk of Bulgarian forces had struggled to conquer and
many died, was dashed as the Turks retained the lands they had regained in the counter-attack. The straight
line of Ainos-Midia was not accepted for the eastern Border; the regions of Lozengrad, Lyule Burgas-Buni
Hisar, and Adrianople reverted to the Ottomans.[17] After this Treaty of Constantinople, 30 September
1913, Bulgaria sought an alliance with the Ottoman Empire against Greece and Serbia (in support of their
claims to Macedonia).

This was followed by the Treaty of Athens, 14 November 1913, between the Turks and Greeks,
concluding the conflict between them. However, the status of the Aegean Islands, under Greek control, was
left in question. Especially the islands of Imvros and Tenedos strategically positioned near the Dardanelles
Straights. Even after signing this treaty, relations between the two countries remained very bad, and war
almost broke out in spring 1914.

Finally, a second Treaty in Constantinople re-established the relations between Serbia and the Ottoman
Empire, concluding officially the Balkan Wars. Montenegro never signed a pact with the Turks.[17]

Aftermath
The Balkan Wars brought to an end Ottoman rule of the Balkan
Peninsula, except for eastern Thrace and Constantinople. The
Young Turk regime was unable to reverse their Empire's decline,
but remained in power, establishing a dictatorship in June 1913.[33]
A large influx of Turks fled from the lost lands to the Ottoman
heartland. By 1914, the remaining Empire saw a population
increase of around 2.5 million. The estimated war dead were
122,000 killed in action, 20,000 of direct war wounds, and 82,000
of disease (according to Soviet demographer Boris Urlanis in Voini
I Narodo-Nacelenie Europi [1960]).

A major issue was the partitioning of these Ottoman territories,

inhabited by Greeks, Bulgarians, Aromanians, Serbs, Jews*, Ottoman cannon captured by the
Turks, Albanians, and other nationalities. The new state of Albania Royal Serbian Army displayed in
was established on lands conquered by Greeks and Serbs. Their front of a church in Kumanovo, 1912
armies were asked to leave after the establishment of the new
country. Greece never gained North Epirus, and Serbia lost a wide
littoral to the Adriatic Sea. This arrangement satisfied Italy and Austria-Hungary's wish to limit a greater
and more powerful Serbia.

During and after the wars, the Greek fleet proved the only considerable naval power in the Aegean Sea,
blocking the Turkish fleet inside the Dardanelles. The Hellenic Navy managed to liberate the Greek islands
and boost the morale of the Greeks. However, the Greek populations in Asia Minor and Pontus faced the
rage of the Young Turks' regime, answering for the defeat with embargoes, exiles, persecutions, and
population exchange between Turkey and Greece.**

All Balkan War conflicts

First Balkan War conflicts

Bulgarian-Ottoman battles

Ottoman
Bulgaria
Battle Year Empire Result
Commander
Commander
Mehmed Bulgarian
Battle of Kardzhali 1912 Vasil Delov
Pasha Victory
Radko Bulgarian
Battle of Kirk Kilisse 1912 Mahmut Pasha
Dimitriev Victory
Radko Abdullah Bulgarian
Battle of Lule Burgas 1912
Dimitriev Pasha Victory
Mehmed Bulgarian
Battle of Merhamli 1912 Nikola Genev
Pasha Victory
Naval Battle of Dimitar Bulgarian
1912 Hüseyin Bey
Kaliakra Dobrev Victory
Radko
First Battle of Çatalca 1912 Nazim Pasha Indecisive[34]
Dimitriev
Georgi Bulgarian
Battle of Bulair 1913 Mustafa Kemal
Todorov Victory
Stiliyan Bulgarian
Battle of Şarköy 1913 Enver Pasha
Kovachev Victory
Bulgarian
Siege of Adrianople 1913 Georgi Vazov Gazi Pasha
Victory
Second Battle of Vasil
1913 Ahmet Pasha Indecisive
Çatalca Kutinchev

Greek–Ottoman battles
 Ottoman
Greece
Battle Year Empire Result
Commander
Commander
Greek
Battle of Sarantaporo 1912 Constantine I Hasan Pasha
Victory
Greek
Battle of Yenidje 1912 Constantine I Hasan Pasha
Victory
Greek
Battle of Pente Pigadia 1912 Sapountzakis Esat Pasha
Victory
Ottoman
Battle of Sorovich 1912 Matthaiopoulos Hasan Pasha
Victory
Greek
Revolt of Himara 1912 Sapountzakis Esat Pasha
Victory
Ottoman
Battle of Driskos 1912 Matthaiopoulos Esat Pasha
Victory
Greek
Battle of Elli 1912 Kountouriotis Remzi Bey
Victory
Greek
Capture of Korytsa 1912 Damianos Davit Pasha
Victory
Greek
Battle of Lemnos 1913 Kountouriotis Remzi Bey
Victory
Greek
Battle of Bizani 1913 Constantine I Esat Pasha
Victory

Serbian–Ottoman battles

Ottoman
Serbia
Battle Year Empire Result
Commander
Commander
Radomir Serbian
Battle of Kumanovo 1912 Zeki Pasha
Putnik Victory
Serbian
Battle of Prilep 1912 Petar Bojović Zeki Pasha
Victory
Serbian
Battle of Monastir 1912 Petar Bojović Zeki Pasha
Victory
Status quo
Siege of Scutari 1913 Nikola I Hasan Pasha ante
bellum[35]
Stepa Serbian
Siege of Adrianople 1913 Gazi Pasha
Stepanovic Victory

Second Balkan War conflicts

Bulgarian–Greek battles
 Bulgaria Greece
Battle Date Result
Commander Commander
19–21
Greek
Battle of Kilkis-Lahanas June Nikola Ivanov Constantine I
Victory
1913
23
Greek
Battle of Doiran June Nikola Ivanov Constantine I
Victory
1913
26–27
Bulgarian
Battle of Demir Hisar June Nikola Ivanov Constantine I
Victory
1913
27–31
Battle of Kresna Gorge July Mihail Savov Constantine I Stalemate
1913

Bulgarian–Serbian battles

Bulgaria Serbia
Battle Date Result
Commander Commander
Battle of 30 June–9 Serbian
Mihail Savov Radomir Putnik
Bregalnica July 1913 victory
Battle of 4–7 July Vukoman Bulgarian
Vasil Kutinchev
Knjaževac 1913 Aračić victory
6–8 July Božidar Serbian
Battle of Pirot Mihail Savov
1913 Janković victory
Battle of 8 July Božidar Serbian
Mihail Savov
Belogradchik 1913 Janković victory
12–18 July Krastyu Vukoman Peace
Siege of Vidin
1913 Marinov Aračić treaty
18–19 July Božidar Bulgarian
Battle of Kalimanci Mihail Savov
1913 Janković victory

Bulgarian–Ottoman battles

Ottoman
Bulgaria
Battle Year Empire Result
Commander
Commander

Second Battle of First

1913 Mihail Savov Enver Pasha
Adrianople Armistice
Ottoman Advance of Final
1913 Vulko Velchev Ahmed Pasha
Thrace Armistice

Bulgarian–Romanian battles
 Bulgaria Romania
Battle Year Result
Commander Commander
Romanian Occupation Carol I of First
1913 Ferdinand I
of Dobruja Romania Armistice
Romanian South Carol I of Final
1913 Ferdinand I
Western Advance Romania Armistice

Legacy
Citizens of Turkey regard the Balkan Wars as a major disaster (Balkan harbi faciası) in the nation's history.
The Ottoman Empire lost all its European territories west of the River Maritsa as a result of the two Balkan
Wars, which thus delineated present-day Turkey's western border. The unexpected fall and sudden
relinquishing of Turkish-dominated European territories created a traumatic event amongst many Turks that
triggered the ultimate collapse of the empire itself within five years. Nazım Pasha, Chief of Staff of the
Ottoman Army, was held responsible for the failure and was assassinated on 23 January 1913 during the
1913 Ottoman coup d'état.[36]

Most Greeks regard the Balkan Wars as a period of epic achievements. They managed to liberate and gain
territories that had been inhabited by Greeks since ancient times and doubled the size of the Greek
Kingdom. The Greek Army, small and ill-equipped compared to the superior Ottoman but also Bulgarian
and Serbian armies, won very important battles. That made Greece a viable pawn in the Great Powers'
chess play. Two great personalities rose in the Greek political arena, Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos,
the leading mind behind the Greek foreign policy, and Crown Prince, and later King, Konstantinos I, the
Major General of the Greek Army.[9][37]

See also
International relations (1814–1919)
Ottoman wars in Europe
Serbo-Bulgarian War (1885)
Albanian Revolt of 1910
Albanian Revolt of 1911
Albanian Revolt of 1912
Destruction of the Thracian Bulgarians in 1913
Balkans Campaign (World War I)
Balkans Campaign (World War II)
List of places burned during the Balkan Wars

References
1. Egidio Ivetic, Le guerre balcaniche, il Mulino – Universale Paperbacks, 2006, p. 63
2. Clark 2013, pp. 45, 559.
3. Hall 2000.
4. Winston Churchill (1931). The World Crisis, 1911–1918. Thornton Butterworth. p. 278.
5. Levene, Mark (2018). " "The Bulgarians Were the Worst!" Reconsidering the Holocaust in
Salonika within a Regional History of Mass Violence". The Holocaust in Greece. Cambridge
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 6. Farrar, L L, Jr. (2003). "Aggression versus apathy: The limits of nationalism during the
Balkan Wars, 1912-1913". East European Quarterly. 37 (3): 257–280. ProQuest 195176627
([Link]
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Balkan Wars from Contemporary Perception to Historic Memory. Springer International
Publishing. pp. 319–340. ISBN 978-3-319-44642-4.
8. Helmreich 1938.
9. Ιστορία του Ελληνικού Έθνους [History of the Hellenic Nation] (in Greek) (Vol. 14 ed.).
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pp 408–63. Online ([Link]
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Empire and Bulgaria at the outset of the Young Turk revolution." Middle Eastern Studies
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13. Marriott, The Eastern Question An Historical Study In European Diplomacy (1940), pp 433–
63.
14. "Military League" ([Link] Encyclopædia Britannica
Online
15. "THE BALKAN WARS" ([Link] US Library of Congress.
2007. Retrieved 15 April 2008.
16. Anderson, Frank Maloy; Hershey, Amos Shartle (1918). Handbook for the Diplomatic History
of Europe, Asia, and Africa 1870–1914. Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office.
17. Hall 2000
18. Hall 2000, p. 61.
19. Balkan Wars ([Link] Encyclopædia Britannica
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21. Hall 2000, p. 65.
22. Hall 2000, p. 101.
23. Stavrianos 2000, p. 537.
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28. George Phillipov (Winter 1995). "THE MACEDONIAN ENIGMA" ([Link]
b/20080420191403/[Link] Magazine: Australia
&World Affairs. Archived from the original ([Link]
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p://[Link]/knigi/en/carnegie/chapter2_2.html)
31. Hall 2000, p. 121.
32. Stowell, Ellery Cory (2009). The Diplomacy Of The War Of 1914: The Beginnings Of The
War (1915). Kessinger Publishing, LLC. p. 94. ISBN 978-1-104-48758-4.
33. Jelavich, Barbara (1983). History of the Balkans (Twentieth Century) Vol. 2. NYC, USA:
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34. Vŭchkov, pp. 99–103
35. Somel, Selçuk Akşin. Historical dictionary of the Ottoman Empire. Scarecrow Press Inc.
2003. lxvi.
36. Gul Tokay. "Ottoman diplomacy, the Balkan Wars and the Great Powers". In Dominik
Geppert, William Mulligan, Andreas Rose, eds. The Wars before the Great War ISBN 978-1-
107-06347-1, 2015, p. 70
37. Mavrogordatos, Georgios (2015). 1915, Ο Εθνικός Διχασμός [1915, The National Division]
(in Greek) (VIII ed.). Athens: Ekdoseis Patakis. pp. 33–35. ISBN 9789601664989.

Bibliography
Clark, Christopher (2013). "Balkan Entanglements". The Sleepwalkers: How Europe Went
to War in 1914 ([Link] HarperCollins. ISBN 978-
0-06-219922-5.
Erickson, Edward J. (2003). Defeat in Detail: The Ottoman Army in the Balkans, 1912–1913.
Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 0-275-97888-5.
Hall, Richard C. (2000). The Balkan Wars, 1912–1913: Prelude to the First World War
(1st ed.). Routledge. ISBN 0-415-22946-4.
Helmreich, Ernst Christian (1938). The Diplomacy of the Balkan Wars, 1912–1913 ([Link]
[Link]/books?id=AvVMMQAACAAJ). Harvard University Press.
ISBN 9780674209008.
Mazower, Mark (2005). Salonica, City of Ghosts. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
ISBN 0375727388.
Stavrianos, Leften Stavros (2000). The BALKANS since 1453 ([Link]
kanssince145300lsst). New York University Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-9766-2. Retrieved
20 May 2020.

Further reading
Antić, Čedomir. Ralph Paget: a diplomat in Serbia (Institute for Balkan Studies, Serbian
Academy of Sciences and Arts, 2006) online free ([Link]
[Link]).
Bobroff, Ronald. (2000) "Behind the Balkan Wars: Russian Policy toward Bulgaria and the
Turkish Straits, 1912–13." Russian Review 59.1 (2000): 76–95 online ([Link]
edu/download/50021482/[Link])
Boeckh, Katrin, and Sabine Rutar. eds. (2020) The Wars of Yesterday: The Balkan Wars and
the Emergence of Modern Military Conflict, 1912–13 (2020)
Boeckh, Katrin; Rutar, Sabina (2017). The Balkan Wars from Contemporary Perception to
Historic Memory ([Link] Springer.
ISBN 978-3-319-44641-7.
Ćirković, Sima (2004). The Serbs ([Link]
Malden: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 9781405142915.
Crampton, R. J. (1980). The hollow detente: Anglo-German relations in the Balkans, 1911–
1914 ([Link] G. Prior. ISBN 978-0-391-
02159-4.
 Dakin, Douglas. (1962) "The diplomacy of the Great Powers and the Balkan States, 1908-
1914." Balkan Studies 3.2 (1962): 327–374. online ([Link]
udies/article/viewFile/123/132)
Farrar Jr, Lancelot L. (2003) "Aggression versus apathy: the limits of nationalism during the
Balkan wars, 1912-1913." East European Quarterly 37.3 (2003): 257.
Ginio, Eyal. The Ottoman Culture of Defeat: The Balkan Wars and their Aftermath (Oxford
UP, 2016) 377 pp. online review ([Link]
Hall, Richard C. ed. War in the Balkans: An Encyclopedic History from the Fall of the
Ottoman Empire to the Breakup of Yugoslavia (2014)
Howard, Harry N. "The Balkan Wars in perspective: their significance for Turkey." Balkan
Studies 3.2 (1962): 267–276 online ([Link]
wnload/119/128).
Jelavich, Barbara (1983). History of the Balkans: Twentieth Century ([Link]
m/books?id=Hd-or3qtqrsC). 2. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521274593.
Király, Béla K.; Rothenberg, Gunther E. (1987). War and Society in East Central Europe:
East Central European Society and the Balkan Wars ([Link]
2HfAAAAMAAJ). Brooklyn College Press. ISBN 978-0-88033-099-2.
MacMillan, Margaret (2013). "The First Balkan Wars". The War That Ended Peace: The
Road to 1914. Random House Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-8129-9470-4.
Meyer, Alfred (1913). Der Balkankrieg, 1912-13: Unter Benutzung zuverlässiger Quellen
kulturgeschichtlich und militärisch dargestellt ([Link]
AMAAJ). Vossische Buchhandlung.
Rossos, Andrew (1981). Russia and the Balkans: inter-Balkan rivalries and Russian foreign
policy, 1908–1914 ([Link] University of
Toronto Press. ISBN 9780802055163.
Rudić, Srđan; Milkić, Miljan (2013). Balkanski ratovi 1912–1913: Nova viđenja i tumačenja
([Link] [The Balkan Wars 1912/1913: New
Views and Interpretations]. Istorijski institut, Institut za strategijska istrazivanja. ISBN 978-86-
7743-103-7.
Schurman, Jacob Gould (1914). The Balkan Wars 1912–1913 ([Link]
kanwars19121900schuuoft) (1st ed.). Princeton University.
Army History Directorate (Greece) (1998). A concise history of the Balkan Wars, 1912–1913
([Link] Army History Directorate. ISBN 978-
960-7897-07-7.

External links
U.S. State Department. "The Formation of the Balkan Alliance of 1912" (1918) ([Link]
[Link]/acad/intrel/boshtml/[Link])
C. Hall, Richard: Balkan Wars 1912–1913 ([Link]
e/balkan_wars_1912-1913/), in: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First
World War ([Link]
Project Gutenberg's The Balkan Wars: 1912–1913, by Jacob Gould Schurman ([Link]
[Link]/files/11676/[Link])
US Library of Congress in the Balkan Wars ([Link]
The Balkan crises, 1903–1914 ([Link]
[Link])
Balkan Wars from a Turkish perspective ([Link]
p://[Link]/prelude/[Link])
Wikisource: The New Student's Reference Work/The Balkans and the Peace of Europe
 Historic films about the Balkan Wars at [Link] ([Link]
[Link]/node/33/efg1914%20balkan%20war/multilingual:1/showOnly:video)

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