JOMO KENYATTA UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

SIGNALS AND COMMUNICATION LAB REPORT

NAME REGISTRATION NUMBER

GRACE ROTICH ENE 211-0142/2017
PAUL CHEGE MWANGI ENE 211-0031/2017
ROP JUDITH CHERUTO ENE211-0140/2017
GITHENDU BEATRICE ENE211-0006/2017
KELVIN MUSYOKA ENE211-0225/2017
LITERATURE REVIEW
THEORY
Modulation is the process of varying one or more parameters of a periodic waveform,
called the carrier signal, with a separate signal called the modulation signal that typically
contains information to be transmitted.
A message carrying signal has to get transmitted over a distance and for it to establish
a reliable communication, it needs to take the help of a high frequency signal which
should not affect the original characteristics of the message signal. The characteristics
of the message signal, if changed, the message contained in it also alters. Hence it is
important to take care of the message signal. A high frequency signal can travel up to a
longer distance, without getting affected by external disturbances. Hence the high
frequency signal, carrier signal, is used to transmit the message signal.
Advantages of signal modulation include reduction of antenna size, signal mixing doesn’t
occur, communication range increases, multiplexing of signals occur, adjustments in the
bandwidth is allowed and reception quality improves.
The types of modulations are broadly classified into continuous-wave modulation and
pulse modulation.

Continuous-wave Modulation

In the continuous-wave modulation, a high frequency sine wave is used as a carrier

wave. This is further divided into amplitude and angle modulation.
• If the amplitude of the high frequency carrier wave is varied in accordance with
the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal, then such a technique is
called as Amplitude Modulation.
• If the angle of the carrier wave is varied, in accordance with the instantaneous
value of the modulating signal, then such a technique is called as Angle
Modulation.
• The angle modulation is further divided into frequency and phase modulation.
o If the frequency of the carrier wave is varied, in accordance with the
instantaneous value of the modulating signal, then such a technique is
called as Frequency Modulation.
o If the phase of the high frequency carrier wave is varied in accordance with
the instantaneous value of the modulating signal, then such a technique is
called as Phase Modulation.
Pulse Modulation

In Pulse modulation, a periodic sequence of rectangular pulses, is used as a carrier

wave. This is further divided into analog and digital modulation.
In analog modulation technique, if the amplitude, duration or position of a pulse is varied
in accordance with the instantaneous values of the baseband modulating signal, then
such a technique is called Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) or Pulse Duration/Width
Modulation (PDM/PWM), or Pulse Position Modulation (PPM).
In digital modulation, the modulation technique used is Pulse Code Modulation
(PCM) where the analog signal is converted into digital form of 1s and 0s. As the
resultant is a coded pulse train, this is called as PCM. This is further developed as Delta
Modulation (DM). Hence, PCM is a technique where the analog signals are converted
into a digital form.
Amplitude Modulation
According to the standard definition, “The amplitude of the carrier signal varies in
accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal.” Which means,
the amplitude of the carrier signal containing no information varies as per the amplitude
of the signal containing information, at each instant.
The first figure shows the modulating wave, which is the message signal. The next one
is the carrier wave, which is a high frequency signal and contains no information. While,
the last one is the resultant modulated wave.
It is observed that the positive and negative peaks of the carrier wave, are interconnected
with an imaginary line. This line helps recreating the exact shape of the modulating
signal. This imaginary line on the carrier wave is called an Envelope. It is the same as
that of the message signal.
Mathematical Expressions
Time-domain Representation of the Waves
Let the modulating signal be,
𝑀𝑡 = 𝐴𝑚 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡)

and the carrier signal be,

𝐶𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)
Where,
𝐴𝑀 and 𝐴𝐶 are the amplitude of the modulating signal and the carrier signal respectively.
𝑓𝑚 and 𝑓𝑐 are the frequency of the modulating signal and the carrier signal respectively.

Then, the equation of Amplitude Modulated wave will be

𝑆𝑡 = [𝐴𝑐 + 𝐴𝑚 cos( 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡)] cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) (Equation 1)

Modulation Index
A carrier wave, after being modulated, if the modulated level is calculated, then such an
attempt is called as Modulation Index or Modulation Depth. It states the level of
modulation that a carrier wave undergoes.
Rearrange the Equation 1 as below.
𝐴𝑚
𝑆𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 [1 + cos( 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡)] cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)
𝐴𝑐
𝑆𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 [1 + 𝜇 cos⁡( 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡)] cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) (Equation 2)

Where, µ is Modulation index and it is equal to the ratio of 𝐴𝑀 and 𝐴𝐶 .

That is
𝐴𝑚
𝜇=
𝐴𝑐
Hence, we can calculate the value of modulation index by using the above formula, when
the amplitudes of the message and carrier signals are known.
When the maximum and minimum amplitudes of the modulated wave are known,
modulation index is;

Let Amax and Amin be the maximum and minimum amplitudes of the modulated wave.
We will get the maximum amplitude of the modulated wave, when cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡) is 1.
 𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐴𝑐 + 𝐴𝑚 (Equation 4)

We will get the minimum amplitude of the modulated wave, when cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡) is -1.
𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐴𝑐 − 𝐴𝑚 (Equation 5)

Add Equation 4 and Equation 5.

𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝐴𝑐 + 𝐴𝑚 + 𝐴𝑐 − 𝐴𝑚 = 2𝐴𝑐

𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 +𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝐴𝑐 = (Equation 6)
2

Subtract Equation 5 from Equation 4.

𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝐴𝑐 + 𝐴𝑚 − 𝐴𝑐 − 𝐴𝑚 = 2𝐴𝑚

𝐴𝑐−𝐴𝑚
𝐴𝑚 = (Equation 7)
2

The ratio of Equation 7 and Equation 6 will be as follows.

𝐴𝑚 𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛 ⁄2
=
𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛 ⁄2

𝐴 −𝐴
𝜇 = 𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥+𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛 (Equation 8)
𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑚𝑖𝑛

Therefore, Equation 3 and Equation 8 are the two formulas for Modulation index. The
modulation index or modulation depth is often denoted in percentage called as
Percentage of Modulation. We get the percentage of modulation, just by multiplying the
modulation index value with 100.
For a perfect modulation, the value of modulation index should be 1, which implies the
percentage of modulation should be 100%.
For instance, if this value is less than 1, i.e., the modulation index is 0.5, then the
modulated output would look like the following figure. It is called as Under-modulation.
Such a wave is called as an under-modulated wave.
If the value of the modulation index is greater than 1, i.e., 1.5 or so, then the wave will
be an over-modulated wave. It would look like the following figure.

As the value of the modulation index increases, the carrier experiences a 180 o phase
reversal, which causes additional sidebands and hence, the wave gets distorted. Such
an over-modulated wave causes interference, which cannot be eliminated.
Bandwidth of AM Wave
Bandwidth (BW) is the difference between the highest and lowest frequencies of the
signal. Mathematically, we can write it as
𝐵𝑊 = 𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝑓𝑚𝑖𝑛
Consider the following equation of amplitude modulated wave.
 𝑆𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 [1 + 𝜇 cos⁡( 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡)] cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)

𝑆𝑡 =𝐴𝑐 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) + 𝐴𝑐 𝜇cos⁡( 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡)] cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)

𝐴𝑐 𝜇 𝐴𝑐 𝜇
𝑆𝑡 =𝐴𝑐 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) + cos[ 2𝜋(𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 )𝑡] + cos[ 2𝜋(𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚 )𝑡]
2 2

Hence, the amplitude modulated wave has three frequencies. Those are carrier
frequency 𝑓𝑐 upper sideband frequency 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 m and lower sideband frequency 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚
Here,
𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 =𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 and 𝑓𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚

Substitute, fmax and fmin values in bandwidth formula.

𝐵𝑊 = 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 − (𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚 )

𝐵𝑊 = 2𝑓𝑚

Thus, it can be said that the bandwidth required for amplitude modulated wave is twice
the frequency of the modulating signal.
Circuit diagrams
Transistor AM modulation circuit
DIODE AM MODULATION
ANALYSIS
Effects of varying the modulation index;
𝑉𝑚
M= 𝑉𝑐 Frequency for carrier < 1MHz

a)m =1
For m=1

Amplitude-5

b)m<1
𝑉𝑚 3
M= 𝑉𝑐 =6 =0.5

c)m>1
𝑉𝑚 6
M= 𝑉𝑐 =4 =1.5

Effect of Q on the output signal;

a) BW =2db
Q=WCR
𝑄
R=𝑊𝐶 ⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡Fr = Fc
𝐹𝑟
2B=
𝑄

Fc=100kHz
Fm = B =10kHz
𝐹𝑟 100𝑥103
Q= Q= =5
2𝐵 2𝑥10𝑥103

5=(2πf)x(2.5x10-9)R
5
So, R= (2𝜋𝑥10𝑥103 )𝑥(2.5𝑥109 )

R = 3.1KΩ
 b) BW<2B
Fm = B =1KHz
Fc=100kHz
100𝑥103
Q = (2𝑥1𝑥103 =30

50=(2πf)x(2.5x10-9)R
50
R=(2𝜋𝑥100𝑥103)𝑥(2.5𝑥10−9)

R=31.83KΩ

c) BW>2B
Fc=100kHz
Fm = B = 70KHz
100𝑥103 )
Q=(2𝑥70𝑥103) = 0.7140

0.714
R= (2𝜋𝑓)𝑥(2.5𝑥10−9 )

R=454.54Ω
Finding C? Let L=1mH

Fc=resonant frequency (1MHz)

1
W=
√𝐿𝐶

1
(2πf)2=𝐿𝐶
1
(2πf)2=1𝑥10−6𝐶
1
C= 1𝑋10−6𝑥2𝜋𝑥1000𝑥103

Fc=100kHz

Fm=10kHz
1 1
W= w2=𝐿𝐶 L=1X10-3
√𝐿𝐶

1
C=(2𝜋𝑥100𝑥103)2𝑥1𝑥10−3

C=2.5x10-9 =2.5nf
 Effect of varying frequency;

a) fc =10fm

fc=100k

fm=10k

b) fc=100fm

fc=1M

fm=10k

c) fc=1000fm

fc=1000k

fm=1k
M=1
𝑉𝑚 = 𝑉𝑐 = 5v

Channel A Channel B Channel C Channel

V/Div 10.00 V 10.00 V 1.00 V D
Offset 228.00 V 88.00 V -7.40 V 10.00 V
Invert Normal Normal -236.00 V
Normal
Coupling AC AC Normal
AC
AC
Horizontal Trigger
Source
Trace Channel A
Source Level
230.00 uS 0.00 V
Position Coupling
50.00 uS DC
S/Div Edge
Rising
Mode Auto
 𝑉𝑚 3
M= 𝑉𝑐 =6 =0.5

Channel A Channel B Channel C Channel

V/Div 10.00 V 10.00 V 1.00 V D
Offset 228.00 V 88.00 V -7.40 V 10.00 V
Invert Normal Normal -236.00 V
Normal
Coupling AC AC Normal
AC
AC
Horizontal Trigger
Source
Trace Channel A
Source Level
92.50 uS 0.00 V
Position Coupling
50.00 uS DC
S/Div Edge
Rising
Mode Auto
 𝑉𝑚 6
M= 𝑉𝑐 =4 =1.5

Channel A Channel B Channel C Channel

V/Div 10.00 V 10.00 V 1.00 V D
Offset 228.00 V 88.00 V -7.40 V 10.00 V
Invert Normal Normal -236.00 V
Normal
Coupling AC AC Normal
AC
AC
Horizontal Trigger
Source
Trace Channel A
Source Level
92.50 uS 0.00 V
Position Coupling
50.00 uS DC
S/Div Edge
Rising
Mode Auto
BW=2B
Fc=100kHz Fm = B =10kHz

Channel A Channel B Channel C

V/Div
5.00 V 5.00 V 1.00 V
Offset
114.00 V 31.00 V -10.20 V
Invert
Normal Normal Normal
Coupling
AC AC AC
Horizontal
Source Trigger
Trace
Source Level
170.00 uS Channel A
Position Coupling
50.00 uS 0.00 V
S/Div Edge DC
Mode Rising Auto
BW LESS THAN 2B
Fm = B =1KHz Fc=100kHz

Channel A Channel B Channel C Channel

5.00 V 5.00 V 1.00 V D
V/Div
114.00 V 31.00 V -6.20 V 200.00
Offset mV
Normal Normal Normal
Invert -5.84 V
AC AC AC
Coupling Normal
AC
Horizontal Trigger
Source
Trace Channel A
Source Level
-78.00 mS 0.00 V
Position Coupling
50.00 mS DC
S/Div Edge
Rising
Mode Auto
BW GREATER THAN 2B
Fc=100kHz Fm = B = 70KHz

Channel A Channel B Channel C Channel D

V/Div 100.00 mV 200.00 mV 100.00 mV 5.04 mV
Offset 2.64 V 1.88 V -440.00 mV -124.03
Invert Normal Normal Normal mV
Coupling AC AC AC Normal
AC
Horizontal Trigger
Source
Trace Channel A
Source Level
-3.50 mS 0.00 V
Position Coupling
50.00 mS DC
S/Div Edge
Rising
Mode Auto
TRANSISTOR MULTI MESSAGE
Fc=100kHz, fm1=10kHz, fm2=1kHz, fm3=20kHz, fm4=5kHz

Channel A Channel B Channel C Channel

2.00 V 5.00 V 1.00 V D
V/Div
45.60 V 31.00 V -6.20 V 720.83
Offset mV
Invert Normal Normal Normal
-13.12 V
Coupling AC Off Off Normal
AC
Horizontal Trigger
Source
Trace Channel A
Source Level
1.51 mS 0.00 V
Position Coupling
50.00 uS DC
S/Div Edge
Rising
Mode Auto
Fc=10fm
fc=100k fm=10k

Channel A Channel B Channel C Channel

V/Div 10.00 V 10.00 V 1.00 V D
Offset 228.00 V 88.00 V -7.40 V 10.00 V
Invert Normal Normal -236.00 V
Normal
Coupling AC AC Normal
AC
AC
Horizontal Trigger
Source
Trace Channel A
Source Level
92.50 uS 0.00 V
Position Coupling
50.00 uS DC
S/Div Edge
Rising
Mode Auto
Fc=100fm
fc=1M fm=10k

Channel A Channel B Channel C Channel

V/Div 5.00 V 5.00 V 1.00 V D
Offset 114.00 V 44.00 V -7.40 V 1.20 V
Invert Normal Normal -28.32 V
Normal
Coupling AC AC Normal
AC
AC
Horizontal Trigger
Source
Trace Channel A
Source Level
245.00 uS 0.00 V
Position Coupling
50.00 uS DC
S/Div Edge
Rising
Mode Auto
Fc=1000fm
fc=1000k fm=1k

Channel A Channel B Channel C Channel

V/Div 2.00 V 5.00 V 500.00 mV D
Offset 45.60 V 31.00 V -5.10 V 1.20 V
Invert Normal Normal -35.04 V
Normal
Coupling AC AC Normal
AC
AC
Horizontal Trigger
Source
Trace Channel A
Source Level
235.00 uS 0.00 V
Position Coupling
50.00 uS DC
S/Div Edge
Rising
Mode Auto
Conclusion
The simulation was successful and the expected waveforms were observed.

References
1. Ifiok Otuong, Communication Engineering principles, 2 nd edition
2. A Nagoor Kani, Signals and Systems