LITERATURE REVIEW
Piper Nigrum
Piper Nigrum is the name for black pepper fruits that are the source of the world’s
most widely and frequently used spices (Lattin, 2016). The genus piper belongs to the family
Piperaceae, comprising more than 700 species distributed throughout the tropical and
subtropical regions of the world (Sumathykutty et al., 1999). In Brazil there are about 500
species of Piperaceae belonging to the general Peperomia, Piper, Pothomorphe, Ottonia and
Sarcorhachis (Marques et al., 2010). Black pepper, scientifically called Piper nigrum L is the
most important spice in the world (Chen et al., 2018). Piper nigrum L., sometimes called
Indian Long Pepper, is a flowering vine in the family Piperaceae, cultivated for its fruit,
which is usually dried and used as a spice and seasoning (Ganesh et al., 2014). It is cultivated
in Asian countries such as Malaysia, India, Indonesia, Thailand, Vietnam, China and Sri
Lanka, in addition to Madagascar and Brazil (Joy et al., 2007). Based on a manual entitled
“Pepper Production Technology in Malaysia,” released by the Malaysian Pepper Board in
2011, seven cultivated varieties have been described as common cultivars, including cv.
“Semongok Aman,” cv. “Semongok Emas,” cv. “Kuching,” cv. “Semongok Perak,” cv.
“Uthirancotta,” cv. “Nyerigai,” and cv. “PN129” (Paulus et al., 2011).
However, in 2007, Sim reported the existence of other cultivars in a Malaysian farm,
namely, cv. “Lampung Daun Lebar” and cv. “Lampung Daun Kecil” (Sim, 2007). The
Cingapura cultivar, also known as “Kuching”, has small and narrow leaves, short spikes on
average of 7.0 cm length (da Luz et al., 2017). In Brazil, the cultivation of P. nigrum started
in the 17th century and since 1933, it has been economically explored by Japanese
immigrants (Nascimento et al., 2009). Piper sarmentosum Roxb., locally known as “kaduk”,
is a creeping herb with erect, slender branchlets about 30 cm tall (Chieng et al., 2008). The
Bragantina cultivar is a hybrid obtained from South India, also known as “Panniyur”,
exhibiting large leaves, heart-shaped and long spikes with an approximate length of 14.0 cm
(da Luz et al., 2017). Black pepper germplasm assemblage has been established in Sarawak,
Malaysia, since the 1980s. Since that time, there have been 47 accessions of black pepper
varieties and 46 accessions of unidentified species of Piper (Sim et al., 2009). The number of
cultivars existing in a Malaysian Piperaceae farm are thus still ongoing resesarch.
Piper nigrum L, also a perennial woody evergreen climber native to South India that
can grow to a height of 50-60 cm (Bagheri et al., 2014). The plant is developed in India and
different nations like Nepal, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Brazil, Malaysia, Sumatra, China, and so
forth. These plants grow in the form of erect or scadent (climbing) herbs, shrubs or less
frequently trees (Junqueira APF, 2007). The plant is a woody vine in nature and may climb
up to 20 feet. It is commonly found in damp open spaces, riverbanks cleared and cultivated
lands in Sarawak (Tawan et al., 1993). The stems of the plant are generally prostrate and
thickened at hubs. The plant can be propagated either by cutting or by seeds during rainy
season and starts bearing fruits after seven to eight years which can also survive up to 100
years (Singh et al., 2011).
Plants of the genus Piper are easy recognized in the field by their nodose shoots,
inflorescences spikes, and the typical “spicy” or aromatic smell (Jaramillo et al., 2001). Fruit
is a small berry or drupe, variously shaped, with a thin pericarp and sometimes hardened
endocarp; seed small, solitary (Guimarães et al., 2017). The surface of dried Piper fruit is
uneven and wrinkled and has an aromatic odour and pungent taste because the seeds have
few taste floury albumen and hardened periphery (Singh A et al., 2011). Generally, black
paper consist three types of color, black, white and green peppercorns that all come from the
same root of Piperaceae family. Black pepper is initially green which become yellowish
orange and finally turn to red when ripped. They are round-shaped with scar of stigmas at
apex of each fruit. The root and fruit of Piper nigrum are used in palsy, gout and lumbago.
The fruits have a bitter, hot, sharp taste, tonic to the liver, stomachic, emmenagogue,
abortifacient, aphrodisiac and digestive (Sashidhar, 2002). Ganesh, et al., (2014) recorded
that, they have a pungent pepper - like taste and produce salivation and numbness of the
mouth; they can be herbs, shrubs and less often lianas of annual or perennial habits;
aromatics; glabrous or with varied indumentum, frequently gland-dotted, with nodose stems;
leaves are mostly alternate, sometimes opposite, simple, sessile or petiolate, with variable
size, shape and venation; inflorescences are terminal, leaf opposed or axillary, commonly
spike solitary, umbellate or paniculate, erect, pendent or recurved, variable in size.
Piper species are of high commercial and economical importance such as Piper
nigrum, it has world-wide spice market (Prasad AK et al., 2005). In Malaysia’s Piperaceae
farms, especially on Piper nigrum plants, most are multi-varietal and planted because the
farmers do not knowing of monovarietal importance and lack knowledge on varietal
recognizable proof in the black pepper. The chemistry of Piper species has been reviewed by
several researchers (Parmer et al., 1997). The Piper species also have high commercial,
economical and medicinal importance. A large portion of the species in this family are
fragrant, woody perpetual climbers and infrequently bush. Many species have been shown to
possess antimicrobial, antifungal, antioxidant, insecticidal, allelopathic and antitumour
activities (Sumathykutty et al., 1999). Various compounds, including alkaloids/amides,
propenylphenols, lignans, neolignans, terpenes, steroids, kawapyrones, chalcones, flavones
and flavanones have been isolated from different Piper species (Chieng et al., 2008). It is an
aromatic plant very well known for its antioxidant, antimicrobial, carminative and antiseptic
properties (Chatterjee et al., 2007).
Black pepper (Piper nigrum L.) is by far one of the most important spices and has
been used for centuries in food, to treat many ailments, and as cosmeceutical products (da
Luz et al., 2017). The leaves are used in folk medicine as counter-irritants in poultices for
headaches and pains in bones. A decoction of the boiled leaves may be utilized to treat
coughs, influenza, toothaches and rheumatism (Chieng et al., 2008). The root is also a
remedy for toothache and may be made into a wash for fungoid dermititis on the feet
(Muhammad et al., 1994). It has been used traditionally for the relief of pain, atrophic
arthritis, apathy, influenza and febricity and as a nerve tonic, antibacterial agent, stimulant,
digestive and antitoxin (Zachariah & Parthasarathy, 2008). It also has been extensively used
in improving appetite, enhancing the digestion, subsidizing the sore throat, cold, breathing
and heart problem, to cure colic, diabetes, anemia and piles by mixing with other constituents
(Ahmad N. et al., 2012). Some research suggests that the piperine have potential in the
treatment of vitiligo, as it helps increase pigmentation in the skin (Kavita S. & Mani P.,
2017).
Spices are rich in bioactive chemical compounds and they have been used by several
cultures for many centuries as food seasoning, preservatives, insecticidal, colorants, and
natural flavoring (Gupta N et al., 2014). The plants of genus Piper are also used for many
other purposes such as foods and spices, fish bait, fish poison, hallucinogens, insecticides,
oils, ornaments, perfumes etc. (Junqueira APF et al., 2007). Many spices are used to extend
shelf-life of food, prevent food spoilage and food-borne diseases, though some spices are
used in food production industry and also many spices are used to inhibit infectious diseases
and eradicate pathogens, particularly in traditional medicine (Liu Q et al., 2017).
In history, Piper species have been used in variety of traditional medicinal systems
such as Traditional Chinese Medicine, the Indian Ayurvedic system and folklore medicine of
Latin America and West Indies (Ma J et al., 2004). Black pepper corn contains various
alkaloids, among which piperine act as a central nervous system depressant (Kavita S. &
Mani P., 2017). The fruits and roots are attributed with numerous medicinal uses, and may be
used for diseases of respiratory tract, viz., cough, bronchitis, asthma etc; as counter-irritant
and analgesic when applied locally for muscular pains and inflammation; as snuff in coma
and drowsiness and internally as carminative (Ganesh et al., 2014). Besides fruits, the roots
and thicker parts of stem are cut and dried and used as an important drug in the Ayurvedic
and Unani systems (CSIR, 1989). In addition to black pepper corn, the other part, especially,
leaf has certain phytochemical compounds that have been extracted with different solvents
and their antimicrobial activities were analyzed (Chahal J. et al., 2011).
Black pepper has been prepared as tablets for cholera and syphilis, and also chewed to
reduce throat inflammation. Externally, it has been applied as a paste to boils, to treat hair
loss and for some skin diseases. Oil of pepper is reputed to alleviate itching with a mixture of
sesame oil. The powdered black pepper has been recommended for application to areas
affected by paralysis. Literally, Black pepper has been given by inhalation to comatose
patients and it is also believed to be useful against hepatitis, urinary and reproductive
disorders (Onyesife CO, Ogugua VN & Anaduaka EG, 2014). However, the production of
black pepper has been diminishing since the early 1980s mainly due to pest and disease
occurrence and labour constraints (Paulus, 2007).
Essential oil
Plants are capable of synthesizing two kinds of oils: fixed oils and essential oils (volatile oils)
(Moghaddam, M. & Mehdizadeh, 2017). Essential oils or “essences” owe their name to their
flammability (Dhifi et al., 2016). The French Agency for Normalization: Agence Française
de Normalisation (AFNOR) gives the following definition (NF T 75-006): “The essential oil
is the product obtained from a vegetable raw material, either by steam distillation or by
mechanical processes from the epicarp of Citrus, or “dry”” distillation (Dhifi et al., 2016).
This definition encompasses products obtained always from vegetable raw material, but using
other extraction methods, such as using non-aqueous solvents or cold absorption (Delacour et
al., 2000). Essential oils, also known as essences, volatile oils, etheric oils, or aetheroleum,
are natural products formed by several volatile compounds (Lattin, 2016).
EOs are usually lucid and mobile liquids, but a few are solid, such as orris, or
semisolid, such as guaiac wood, at room temperature (Moghaddam, M. & Mehdizadeh,
2017). The majority of EOs are colorless or pale yellow, although a few are deeply colored,
such as blue chamomile, and European valerian, which is green (Tisserand et al., 2013). In a
research, Dhifi et al. (2016) recorded that, essential oils are soluble in alcohol, ether, and
fixed oils, but insoluble in water; these volatile oils are generally liquid and colorless at room
temperature; they have a characteristic odor, are usually liquid at room temperature and have
a density less than unity, with the exception of a few cases (cinnamon, sassafras, and vetiver);
they have a refractive index and a very high optical activity; they are widely used in the
cosmetics industry, perfumery, and also aromatherapy. The typical odor of EOs depends on
the organs, species, and origins of plants. EOs can be obtained from many different parts of
plants, including flowers, leaves, fruits, seeds, grasse, root, rhizomes, wood, bark, gum, tree
blossoms, bulbs, and dried flower buds green (Tisserand et al., 2013).
According to Li et al. (2013) research, the relative density of EOs is commonly lower
than that of water, but several exceptions exist; EOs are usually recognized as hydrophobic,
but they are largely soluble in fats, alcohols, and most organic solvents; they have sensitivity
to being oxidized to form resinous products through polymerization. EOs are extremely
complex mixtures of low–molecular weight compounds and are made up of organic
compounds that consist of a relatively inert framework of atoms, mainly carbon, hydrogen
(hydrocarbon), and oxygen, and occasionally nitrogen and sulfur (Tisserand et al., 2013).
Commonly, Essential oil’s constituents can be considered to consist of a relatively inert
framework of atoms, mainly carbon and hydrogen, to which one or more functional groups
are attached in Tesserand et al. (2013) research.
Essential oils are mixtures of volatile compounds, usually non-polar and fat soluble,
which are produced in plant species. Each plant essential oil is composed of a combination of
many chemical constituents, sometimes even over 100 different compounds in a single
essential oil (Lattin, 2016). Essential oils could be exploited as effective alternatives or
complements to synthetic compounds of the chemical industry, without inducing the same
secondary effects (Dhifi et al., 2016). These plants produce a large variety of secondary
metabolites; among them, essential oils (Dhifi et al., 2016). Essential oils are secondary
metabolites produced by aromatic plants and they are also known as ethereal oils and are
characterized as volatile, natural, liquid, complex components with a strong aroma (Bagheri
et al., 2014). In his research, Bakkali et al. (2008) has shown that about 3000 essential oils are
known and 300 are commercially important for the pharmaceutical, agronomic, food, sanitary
products, cosmetic, and perfume and make-up industries. Despite their rich and complex
composition, the use of essential oils remains wide and limited to the cosmetics and
perfumery domains (Dhifi et al., 2016).
. Essential oils are also used in dentistry and as food preservatives and additives
(Martinelli et al., 2017). Essential oils have many applications in medicine as well as food
(Sun et al., 2015). f glycerol and fatty acids (triglycerides or triacylglycerols), while essential
oils (EOs) are complex mixtures of volatile and semi volatile organic compounds originating
from a single botanical source that determines the specific aroma of plants and the flavor and
fragrance of the plants (Sirousmehret al., 2014). According to Moghaddam, M. and
Mehdizadeh, (2017) Essential Oil or EOs of plant origin are an important product of
agriculture-based industries and they have various applications, mainly in the health,
agriculture, cosmetics, and food industries. Moghaddam, M. and Mehdizadeh, (2017) also
recorded that, in particular, the EOs of aromatic plants and spices have been used in food
preservation and as flavoring agents in food products, drinks, perfumeries, and cosmetics. At
present, there is a growing interest in EOs and their components, particularly for their broad-
spectrum antimicrobial activity, which can provide, for instance, alternative functional
ingredients to extend the shelf life of food products and ensure microbial safety for
consumers (Gonzalez et al., 2011).
Around 3000 EOs have been produced from at least 2000 plant species, out of which
300 are important from a commercial point of view (Djilani et al., 2012). Essential oils are
volatile secondary metabolites formed by aromatic plants and can generally be recognized by
their characteristic odor (Bakkali et al., 2007). Essential oils have several health benefits
including radical scavenging and antimicrobial properties (de Sousa Barros et al., 2015).
Essential oils are projected to protect the plant by acting as antifungal, antibacterial,
insecticidal or antiviral components and are also thought to promote the dispersion of seeds
and pollens by attracting insects (Bakkali et al., 2007).
These properties and the increase of demand for natural food additive make essential
oils suitable alternatives to synthetic antioxidants and antibiotics (Dashipour et al., 2015). In
preference to natural spices, usage of oleoresin is gaining interest due to its high flavor
intensity, low microbial contamination and economy in use (Singh et al., 2004). Interest in
essential oils is based not only on the possibility of obtaining aromatic compounds (pleasant
odor) and the application of products such as perfumes, fragrances and cosmetics, but also on
possessing therapeutic properties such as insecticides, fungicides, bactericides or a precursor
compound of molecules with high added value (Andrade EHA, Guimarães EF & Maia JGS,
2009). The essential oils extracted from different organs of many specimens is constituted
mainly of monoterpene hydrocarbons (e.g., _-pinene, myrcene, limonene, _-terpinene, p-
cymene), oxygenated monoterpenoids (e.g., 1,8-cineole, linalool, terpinen-4-ol, borneol,
camphor), sesquiterpene hydrocarbons (e.g., _-caryophyllene, _-humulene, germacrene D,
bicyclogermacrene, _-cubebene), oxygenated sesquiterpenoids (e.g., spathulenol, (E)-
nerolidol, caryophyllene oxide, _-cadinol, epi-_-bisabolol) and phenylpropanoids (e.g.,
safrole, dillapiole, myristicin, elemicin, (Z)-asarone, eugenol) (Nascimento et al., 2012).
From a chemical point of view, essential oils are complex mixtures of volatile
substances that are lipophilic and usually odoriferous and liquid (Takeara et al., 2017). They
are endowed with aromas that are almost always pleasant and colorless when recently
extracted (Parra et al., 2013). They can contain from 20 to 60 or more different compounds at
various concentrations (Simões et al., 2007). The composition of essential oils is constantly
being transformed, according to seasonal variation and circadian rhythms and it may also be
determined by genotype, environmental factors, and plant cultivation and collection
procedures (Takeara et al., 2017). The Piper essential oils are characterized by the presence
of monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes and phenylpropanoids with significant biological effects
(Parmar et al., 1997).
The literature reports that some tropical species of Piper have presented high yields of
essential oils (Maia et al., 2009). EOs that extracted from Piper species also possesses
antifungal or insecticide and deterrent activities on most research. The organoleptic properties
and biological activities of essential oils are distinguished by their respective compositions (I.
Rasooli, 2007; S.M. Pourmortazavi & S.S. Hajimirsadeghi, 2007). The chemical composition
of essential oils is generally very complex and difficult to separate in high yields of sufficient
purity (Ingle et al., 2017). Additionally, the essential oils had their growth inhibitory
activities evaluated against the bacteria Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa
and against the fungus Candida albicans by means of agar diffusion method (Costantin et al.,
2001).
The essential oil of Piper mollicomum has an economic potential due to presence of
camphor, camphor derivates, and nerolidol, which are expensive compounds of which
separation through more economical methods would be of considerable interest to the
pharmaceutical and perfume industries (Masetto et al., 2011). Some of the main constituents
of essential oils are monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes that represent a large and diverse group
of natural products (Marques et al., 2018). They share a number of important properties. They
display a wide range of biological activities including antibacterial, antiviral, antioxidant and
antiparasitic activity (Heydari et al., 2018).
Biological value of Piper nigrum
Piperaceae family has provided many past and present civilizations with a source of
medicines and food spices; the secondary metabolites of different species in the genus piper
have been used for various biological activities including insect repellent activities (Ahmad et
al., 2012).
The active compounds having insecticidal activity are the piperamides extracted from
different species of piper including Piper nigrum (Scott et al., 2008).
Recently scientists from different biological fields screen plants for various secondary
metabolites which can be used for preparation of medicines and biocontrol agents
(Hamrapurkar et al., 2011),
Most of the plant species including piper produces secondary metabolites which help in body
metabolism and also used as defense system against various agents such as insect feeding
plants and animals (Ahmad et al., 2011).
Black pepper and peppercorn are used to cure various digestive disorders, fevers obesity and
respiratory tract diseases caused by different pathogenic agents such as bacteria, viruses and
fungal strains (Ahmad et al., 2012).
Introduction
Piper Nigrum
Piper nigrum is famous as the spices pungent quality (Srinivasan K., 2007). Piper or
Piperaceae is a Latin name derived from Greek, which in turn originates from the Arabic
babary, which means black pepper (Takeara et al., 2017). Piper nigrum L. (black pepper) is
the most famous species of this genus, it is known as the “king of spices” due to its pungent
principle piperine and the popularity in use for flavoring food throughout the world (Ahmad
et al., 2012). The genus piper has more than 1000 species but the most well-known species
are P.nigrum, P.longum and P.betle; 51 cultivars of p. nigrum have been reported from the
tropical and subtropical regions of India (Khan S. et al., 2010). Piperaceae family at Brazil is
represented by about 500 species distributed in the Piper, Peperomia and Manekia genera
(Guimarães EF et al., 2009).
According to Abdallah et al. (2018), P. nigrum is a woody climbing vine growing to 9
m (30 ft) or more in length; the grayish stem may reach 1.2 cm (0.5 in) diameter, that is why
numerous rootlest grow from swollen stem nodes; leaves dark green above and pale green
beneath, glossy, ovate and acutely tipped and range in size from 13-25cm (5-10 in) in length.
The flower spikes, each producing from 50–60 single-seeded dark red berries, approximately
5millimeters (0.20 in) in diameter, always appear on stems opposite the leaves (Nelson &
Eger, 2011). Piper nigrum corn is a widely used spices throughout the world (Kavita & Mani,
2017). P. nigrum fruits are also used to produce white pepper and green pepper and are
valued due the presence of piperine including its different isomers (Zaveri M. et al., 2010).
The pungency of black pepper is due to its nonvolatile alkaloid components, piperine (1-
peperoyl piperidine) (Morsy et al., 2017).
Black pepper is important for its medicinal value (Dhanya et al., 2007). Medicinally
black pepper can be used for digestive disorders like large intestine toxins, different gastric
problems, diarrhea and indigestion and also can be used against respiratory disorders
including cold, fever and asthma (Fan LS et al., 2011). The West African Black pepper, (P.
guineense), important as flavorant and its different parts are used as internal medicine for
curing bronchitis, gastric ulcer, rheumatism and as antiviral agent (Parmar VS et al., 1997).
Different parts of the plant are used for medicinal purposes; however, the part commonly
used as the spice black pepper is the cooked and dried unripe berry (Charles, 2013). These
spices is to treat the eye problem by applied as an ointment in traditional medicine. It also
sometimes added to tonic or as a rubefacients to relieve the acute or chronic pain. According
to recent global interest in natural products, medicinal plants and traditional medicine, studies
on spices should be revived in order to innovate new natural drugs then to encouraging this,
up to 80% of the world populations are still rely on medicinal plants and natural products in
their primary health-care needs (Beyene & Deribe, 2016).
Black pepper can be used for different purposes such as human dietaries, as medicine,
as preservatives and as biocontrol agents (Awen BZ, Ganapati S & Chandu BR, 2010). This
plant and its active component piperine can stimulate the digestive enzymes of pancreas and
intestines and also increases biliary bile acid secretion when orally administrated (Tiwari P &
Singh D, 2008). Some reports have been demonstrated that black pepper consumption in
humans increased orocecal transit time (Chatterjee S et al., 2007). This valuable species also
has the power to minimize different mutations like ethylcarbamte induced mutation in
Drosophila (Ahmad et al., 2012). As compare to mutation, black pepper also reduced tumor
formation in ice such as Ehrlich ascites tumour and Doltons lymphoma cells (El-Hamss R et
al., 2003).
The essential oil of P. nigrum L, has been found to possess multiple application in the
food and pharmacological industries, perfumery, cosmetics and home remedies (Ravindran &
Kallupurackal, 2004). Different parts of the plant are used for medicinal purposes; however,
the part commonly used as the spice black pepper is the cooked and dried unripe berry
(Charles, 2013). Medicinal uses of P. nigrum include antibacterial, antifungal, antiapoptotic,
antidepressant, antidiarrheal, anti-inflammatory, antimutagenic, antioxidative, antipyretic,
antispasmodic, antitumor, to improve appetite and digestive power, anti-cold, anti-cough,
dyspnea, for curing from throat diseases, anti-intermittent fever, anti-colic, anti-dysentery, get
rid of worms and piles (Islam, Noor & Hossain, 2015). A large number of natural products
are being used as traditional medicine in several countries for the treatment of various
diseases (Junqueira et al., 2007). Recently, an interesting study has shown effects of piperine
on mood and cognitive disorder (Wattanathorn J et al., 2008).
The species of this genus have diverse biological activities and are used in
pharmacopeia throughout the world (Takeara et al., 2017). Piper genus is the species of this
genus have diverse biological activities and are used in pharmacopeia throughout the world.
They are also used in folk medicine for treatment of many diseases in several countries
including Brazil, China, India, Jamaica and Mexico (Reis MS, 2002).
In tropical countries, many species of Piper are used by traditional societies by their
anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties, and have large potential for the pharmaceutical
industry (Dyer et al., 2004). The phytoconstituents obtained from Piper species are
characterized by the production of typical classes of compounds such as amides, benzoic
acids, chromenes, terpenes, phenylpropanoids, lignans, other phenolics and a series of
alkaloids (Junqueira et al., 2007). They have shown antifeeding, antibacterial, antifungal,
antiplatelet, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antiamoebic, insecticidal, cytotoxic,
antiplasmodial and DNA damaging activities (Flores et al., 2008). Secondary metabolites
from P. nigrum play defensive role against infections by microbes, insects and animals
(Ahmad N et al., 2011). Piper species produce a number of metabolic classes with diverse
biological activities (Takeara et al., 2017). Piper has been a model genus for ecological and
evolutionary studies, and Piper species are considered important due their association with
frugivorous bats (Jaramillo et al., 2001). A suite of insect herbivores feeds on the leaves of
Piper, the ripening fruits are attacked by a variety of seed predators, and ripe fruits provide
food for frugivorous bats and birds, and other animals surely use Piper fruits as food at least
occasionally (Dyer et al., 2004).
