Members of the Commission

__Our Common Future,

- --A
CHAIRMAN: Gro Harlem Brundtland (Norway)
VICE CHAIRMAN: Mansour Khalid (Sudan)

Susanna Agnelli (Italy)

Saleh A. Al-Athel WORLD COMMISSION ON
Bernard Chidzero (Zimbabwe) ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT
Lamine Mohammed Fadika (C&e dlvoire)
Volker Hauff (Federal Republic of Germany)
Istvan Lang (Hungary)
Ma Shijun (People’s Republic of China)
Margarita Marino de Botero (Colombia)
Nagendra Singh (India)
Paulo Nogueira-Neto (Brazil)
Saburo Okita (Japan)
Shridath S. Ramphal (Guyana)
William D. Ruckelshaus (United States)
Mohamed Sahnoun (Algeria)
Emil Salim (Indonesia)
Bukar Shaib (Nigeria)
Vladimir Sokolov (USSR) .
Janez Stanovnik (Yugoslavia)
Maurice Strong (Canada)

Ex O@cio

Jim MacNeill (Canada)

Oxford New York

OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS
1987
 2
TOWARDS SUSTAINABLE
J4 ‘I DEVELOPMENT
i’ / I
:,)I
Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of future generations to
meet their own needs. It contains within it two key concepts: !
. n the concept of ‘needs’, in particular the essential needs of the
world’s poor, to which overriding priority should be given; and
. the idea of limitations imposed by the state of technology and
social organization on the environment’s ability to meet present
and future needs.
Thus the goals of economic and social development must be defined
in terms of sustainability in all countries-developed or developing,
market-oriented or centrally planned. Interpretations will vary, but
must share certain general features and must flow from a consensus
on the basic concept of sustainable development and on a broad
strategic framework for achieving it.
Development involves a progressive transformation of economy
and society. A development path that is sustainable in a physical
sense could theoretically be pursued even in a rigid social and
political setting. But physical sustainability cannot be secured unless
development policies pay attention to such considerations as changes
in access to resources and in the distribution of costs and benefits.
Even the narrow notion of physical sustainability implies a concern
for social equity between generations, a concern that must logically
be extended to equity within each generation.

I. THE CONCEPT OF SUSTAINABLE

DEVELOPMENT
The satisfaction of human needs and aspirations is the major objective
of development. The essential needs of vast numbers of people in
developing countries -for food, clothing, shelter, jobs-are not being
met, and beyond their basic needs these people have legitimate
aspirations for an improved quality of life. A world in which poverty
44 COMMON CONCERNS TOWARDS SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 45

and inequity are endemic will always be prone to ecological and other
crise,s. ‘Sustainable development requires meeting the basic needs of CA communications gap has kept environmental, population, and de-
all and extending to all the opportunity to satisfy their aspirations velopment assistance groups apart for too long, preventing us from
for a better life. being aware of our common interest and realizing our combined power.
Living standards that go beyond the basic minimum are sustainable Fortunately, the gap is closing. We now know that what unites us is
only if consumption standards everywhere have regard for long-term vastly more important than what divides us.
sustainability. Yet many of us live beyond the world’s ecological We recognize that poverty, environmental degradation andpopulation
means, for instance in our patterns of energy use. Perceived needs growth are inextricably related and that none of these fundamental
are socially and culturally determined, and sustainable development problems can be successfully addressed in isolation. We will succeed or
requires the promotion of values that encourage consumption stand- fail together.
ards that are within the bounds of the ecological possible and to Arriving at a commonly accepted definition of ‘sustainable devel-
which all can reasonably aspire. opment’ remains a challenge for all the actors in the development
-’ Meeting essential needs depends in part on achieving full growth process. 3
potential, and sustainable development clearly requires economic’ ‘Making Common Cause’
growth in places where such needs are not being met. Elsewhere, it, U.S.-Based Development, Environment, Population NGOs
WCED Public Hearing, Ottawa, 26-27 May 1986
can be consistent with economic growth, provided the content of
growth reflects the broad principles of sustainability and non:
exploitation of others. But growth by itself is not enough. High levels
-of- -productive
- activity and widespread poverty can coexiz, and can
i’ development must not endanger the natural systems that support life
on Earth: the atmosphere, the waters, the soils, and the living beings.
_-_endanger_ _. the environment. H-ence sustainable development requires i Growth has no set limits in terms of population or resource use
that societies meet human needs both by increasing. productiv\e beyond which lies ecological disaster. Different limits hold for the
potential and by ensuring equitable opportunities for all. \ use of energy, materials, water, and land. Many of these will manifest
An expansion in numbers -can-increase the pressure on resourceb themselves in the form of rising costs and diminishing returns, rather
and slow the rise in living standards in areas where deprivation ib than in the form of any sudden loss of a resource base. The
widespread. Though the issue is not merely one of population size accumulation of knowledge and the development of technology can
but of the distribution of resources, sustainable development can only I ‘enhance the carrying capacity of the resource base. But ultimate limits
be pursued if demographic developments are in harmony with the there are, and sustainability requires that long before these are
changing productive potential of the ecosystem.
A &%3ety may in many ways compromise its ability to meet the
‘( reached, the world must ensure equitable access to the constrained
‘resource and reorient technological efforts to relieve the pressure.
essential needs of its people in the future-by overexploiting resources, Economic growth and development obviously involve changes in
for example. The direction of technological developments may solve the physical ecosystem. Every ecosystem everywhere cannot be
some immediate problems but lead to even greater ones. Large preserved intact. A forest may be depleted in one part of a watershed
sections of the population may be marginalized by ill-considered and extended elsewhere, which is not a bad thing if the exploitation
. development. has been planned and the effects on soil erosion rates, water regimes,
Settled agriculture, the diversion of watercourses, the extraction of , and genetic losses have been taken into account. In general, renewable__:
minerals, the emission of heat and noxious gases into the atmosphere, ‘. resources like forests and fish stocks need not be depleted provided
commercial forests, and genetic manipulation are all examples of +* the rate of use is within the limits of regeneration and natural growth.
human intervention in natural systems during the course of de- i _-.But ._. - most
- renewable resources are part of a complex and interlinked
velopment. Until recently, such interventions were small in scale and ecosystem, and maximum sustainable yield must be defined after
their impact limited. Today’s interventions are more drastic in scale taking into account system-wide effects of exploitation.
and impact, and more threatening to life-support systems both locally ‘1, %_
/’ As for non-reneyable resources, like fossil fuels and minerals, their
and globally. This need not happen. At a minimum, sustainable use reduces the stock available for future generations. But this does
 -. -._ ._. - ._ TOWARDSSUSTAINABLEDEVELOPMENT 47
46 COMMONCONCERNS
-“\
not mean that such resources should not be used. In general the rate . In a watershed, the ways in which a farmer up the slope uses
of depletion should take into account the criticality of that resource,‘, land directly affect run-off on farms downstream.
the availability of technologies for minimizing depletion, and the’ m The irrigation practices, pesticides, and fertilizers used on one
likelihood of substitutes being available. Thus land should not be farm affect the productivity of neighbouring ones, especially
degraded beyond reasonable recovery. With minerals and fossil fuels, among small farms.
the rate of depletion and the emphasis on recycling and economy of 9 The efficiency of a factory boiler determines its rate of emission
use should be calibrated to ensure that the resource does not run out of soot and noxious chemicals and affects all who live and work
before acceptable subsfitutes are available. Sustainable development around it.
requires that the rate of depletion of non-renewable resources sho@d m The hot water discharged by a thermal power plant into a river
foreclose as few future options as possible. or a local sea affects the catch of all who fish locally.
Development tends to simplify ecosystems and to reduce their T~l$ional - I- social
. _. ) _L - I systems recognized some aspects of this in-
diversity of species. And species, once extinct, are not renewable. The @dependence and enforced community control ’ over a&cultural
loss of plant and animal species can greatly limit the options of future practices and traditional rights relating to water, forests, and land.
generations; so sustainable development requires the conserxation of This enforcement of the ‘common’in~eres? did not necessari$‘&.~ed~
plant. and animal species. \ growth and expansion though*it may ha~~~iiiiitea~~~~cept~~~~ &
So-called free goods like air and water are also resources. The di.f&sion of technical inn&at&& ’ I-**
materials and energy of production processes are only partly conve Local‘ interd&endence has, if anything, increased because of the
to useful products. The rest comes out as wastes. technology used in modern agriculture and manufacturing. Yet with
development requires that the adverse impacts on the quality of air, this surge of technical progress, the growing ‘enclosure’ of common
’ -__ water,and other natural elements are minimized so as to sustain the lands, the erosion of common rights in forests and other resources,
ecosystem’s overall integrity. --- and the spread of commerce and production for the market, tk,
In essence, sustainable development is a process of change inwhich. responsibilities for decision making are being taken away from bzyh
the exploitation of resources, the direction of investments, the @ZGu~~~n~d individuals. This shift is still under way in many developing
countries. _0s.. .m
orientation of technological development, and institutional change
‘ are all in harmony and enhance both current and future potential to ltistinott,hat there,is.one”set of villains r ,a. and
_.I\/ another
jl/ of victims. All
,/ would be better &if each person took into account the effect of his
’ . -. meet
- - - human
- -._ _ T ---- -- ._ --- _,” -_. ----’
_- - needs ax&aspirations. --- -
_- -. .,. __ _, .- _ or her acts upon others. But each is unwilling to assume that others
will behave in this socially desirable fashion, and hence all continue
II. EQUITY AND THE COMMON INTEREST to pursue narrow self-interest. Communities or governments can
compensate for this isolation through laws, education, taxes, subsidies,
Sustainable development has been described here in general terms.
How are individuals in the real world to be persuaded or made to and other methods. Well-enforced laws and strict liability legislation
can control harmful side effects. Most important, effective par-
&%“““in_ I.~II”Iuu,uA~.*,
the common ‘ _I” ~~“~.~ ~,interest?
I.-- The, answer lies partly in education ticipation in decision-making processes by local communities can help
z?itutionaldevelopment, and law enforcement But m a n y problems
them articulate and effectively enforce their common interest.
of“>^ Ilw.~__j or, “I _, “I depletion and environmental stress. arise .from disparities
resource
Interdependence is not simply a local phenomenon. Rapid growth
in economic and political power. An industry may get away with in production has extended it to the international plane, with both
unacceptable levels of air and water pollution because the people who
physical and economic manifestations. There are growing global and
bear the brunt of it are poor and unable to complain effectively. A
regional pollution effects, such as in the more than 200 international
forest may be destroyed by excessive felling because the people living river basins and the large number of shared seas.
there have no alternatives or because timber contractors generally
The enforcement of common interE!t often suffers because areas
have more influence than forest dwellers.
Ecological interactions do not respect the boundaries of individual of>,political jurisdictions
I“~,1 *a* wa.>d <1x and areas of impact do not coincide. Energy
policies in one jurisdiction cau$<cid precipitation in another. The
ownership and political jurisdiction. Thus:
48 COMMON CONCERNS TOWARDS SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 49

As-a _Asystem
^. _ _, approaches ecological limits, inequalities sharpen.
&If the desert is growing, forest disappearing, malnutrition increasing, Thus when a watershed deteriorates, poor farmers suffer more because
and people in urban areas living in very bad conditions, it is not because they cannot afford the same anti-erosion measures as richer farmers.
we are lacking resources but the kind of policy implemented by our When urban air quality deteriorates, the poor, in their more vulnerable
rulers, by the elite group. Denying people rights and peoples’ interests areas, suffer more health damage than the rich, who usually live in
is pushing us to a situation where it is only the poverty that has a very more pristine neighbourhoods. When mineral resources become
prosperous future in Africa. And it is our hope that your Commission, depleted, late-comers to the industrialization process lose the benefits
the World Commission, will not overlook these problems of human of low-cost supplies. Globally, wealthier nations are better placed
rights in Africa and will put emphasis on it. Because it is only free financially and technologically to cope with the effects of possible
people, people who have rights, who are mature and responsible citizens, climatic change.
who then participate in the development and in the protection of the Hence, our inability to promote the common interest in sustainable
environment. 9 developme~I’%‘&%n a product of the relative neglect of economic
Speaker from the floor
and social justice within &%i’ among,st na.tibns_, _
WCED Public Hearing, Nairobi, 23 Sept 1986

fishing policies of one state affect the fish catch of another. No III. STRATEGIC IMPERATIVES
supranational authority exists to resolve such issues, and the common
interest can only be articulated through international cooperation. The world must quickly design strategies that will allow nations to
In the same way, the ability of a government to control its national move from their present, often destructive, processes of growth and
economy is reduced by growing international economic interactions. development onto sustainable development paths. This will require
For example, foreign trade in commodities makes issues of carrying policy changes in all countries, with respect both to their own
capacities and resource scarcities an international concern. (See development and to their impacts on other nations’ development
Chapter 3.) If economic power and the benefits of trade were more possibilities. (This chapter concerns itself with national strategies.
equally distributed, common interests would be generally recognized. The required reorientation in international economic relations is dealt
But the gains from trade are unequally distributed, and patterns of with in Chapter 3.)
trade in, say, sugar affect not merely a local sugar-producing sector, Critical objectives for environment and development policies that
but the economies and ecologies of the many developing countries foll.?w from the concept of sustainable development include:
that depend heavily on this product. ; = reviving growth;
for“.% IkhYcommon ’ . changing the quality of growth;
..*I --Y _,/ l<..e.ae*l’. & i interest
I _/“,A ~m.x- would be less difficult if all
and envlronrnen~“,prob!ems, had solutions that would l meeting essential needs for jobs, food, energy, water, and
leave ~e~e<ypne~~&%er &E’This is seldom the case, and the-r: .afe sanitation;
l ensuring a sustainable level of population;
uTui?y win_n_e_ys and.Iq?qrs. Many problems arise from inequahtles m
n conserving and enhancing the resource base;
a~~<ss’S-I:~;esources. An inequitable landownership structure can lead
to overexploitation of resources in the smallest holdings, with harmful : . reorienting technology and managing risk; and
effects on both environment and development. Internationally, mono- . a merging environment and economics in decision making.
L
polistic ‘control over resources can drive those who do not share in
them to excessive exploitation of marginal resources. The differing Reviving Growth
capacities of exploiters to commandeer,‘free’ goods-locally, nation- As indicated earlier, development that is sustainable has to address
ally, and internationally- is another manifestation of unequal access tbl~ problem ofthew’hblarge number of--people who livemg;i
in absolute
p~vFr~~~~--<~s,.. are “u;&f-e--to sa~-fy-&ltKe~ “x;-;; if
to resources. ‘Losers’ in environment/dEyelopment..co&nflicts include
t~S~~.,.~@o asuff&*%&e-than’%&-
\ .“- ., _““.“_. . *. ” f,& share of the health,, property, t6%!%eeds. Pzyrty reduces people’s capacity to use resources in a
and ecosystem damage costs of pollution. sustainable manner; it intensifies pressure ori tlie- environment Most
, _,” - - 8’ I -‘I
50 COMMON CONCERNS TOWARDS SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 51

The assumptions here about redistribution reflect three judgements.

Box 2-l. Growth, Redistribution, and Poverty
First, in most situations redistributive policies can only operate on
The poverty line is that level of income below which an individual or increases in income. Second, in low-income developing countries the
household cannot afford on a regular basis the necessities of life. The surplus that can be skimmed off for redistribution is available only from
percentage of the population below that line will depend on per capita the wealthier groups. Third, redistributive policies cannot be so precisely
national income and the manner in which it is distributed. How quickly targeted that they deliver benefits only to those who are below the poverty
can a developing country expect to eliminate absolute poverty? The line, so some of the benefits will accrue to those who are just a little
answer will vary from country to country, but much can be learned from above it.
a typical case. The number of years required to bring the poverty ratio down from 50
Consider a nation in which half the population lives below the poverty to 10 per cent ranges from:
line and where the distribution of household incomes is as follows: The . 18-24 years if per capita income grows at 3 per cent,
top one-fifth of households have 50 per cent of total income, the next . 26-36 years if it grows at 2 per cent, and
fifth have 20 per cent, the next fifth have 14 per cent, the next fifth have . 51-70 years if it grows only at 1 per cent.
9 per cent, and the bottom fifth have just ,7 per cent. This is a fair In each case, the shorter time is associated with the redistribution of 25
representation of the situation in many low-income developing countries. per cent of the incremental income of the richest fifth of the population
In this case, if the income distribution remains unchanged, per capita and the longer period with no redistribution.
national income would have to double before the poverty ratio drops So with per capita national income growing only at 1 per cent a year,
from 50 to 10 per cent. If income is redistributed in favour of the poor, the time required to eliminate absolute poverty would stretch well into
this reduction can occur sooner. Consider the case in which 25 per cent the next century. If, however, the aim is to ensure that the world is well
of the incremental income of the richest one-fifth of the population is on its way towards sustainable development by the beginning of the next
redistributed equally to the others. century, it is necessary to aim at a minimum of 3 per cent per capita
national income growth and to pursue vigorous redistributive policies.
such absolute poverty is in developing countries; in many, it has been 4.5 per cent, which at current rates of population growth would mean
aggravated by the economic stagnation of the 1980s. A necessary but per capita income growth of only a little over 1 per cent.2 Moreover,
not a sufficient condition for the elimination of absolute poverty is a during the 198Os, growth nearly halted and in two-thirds of the
relatively rapid rise in per capita incomes in the Third World. It is countries per capita income declined.3 Attaining a minimum level of
therefore essential that the stagnant or declining growth trends of growth in Africa requires the correction of short-term imbalances,
this decade be reversed. and also the removal of deep-rooted constraints on the growth
While attainable growth rates will vary, a certain minimum is process.
needed to have any impact on absolute poverty. It seems unlikely GLQ.wh,,m,ust .bs re$ved in developing :pun$e_s because t@ is
that, taking developing countries as a whole, these objectives can be where the links between economic gyqwth, the alleviation ‘&f ,ppverty,
lur^‘,~L.n.“-.w-“.e’~~ *.O1”teliX , * ,_, _
accomplished with per capita income growth of under 3 per cent. a?d environmental conditi,q,ns operate most directly. + developing
(See Box 2-l.) Given current population growth rates, this would Fountries are part of a!! interdependent world economy; their prospects
require overall national income growth of around 5 per cent a year also depend on the levels and patterns of growth in
in the developing economies of Asia, 5.5 per cent in Latin America, qatioos. T%!z+medium-term prospects for industrial countries are for
and 6 per cent in Africa and West Asia.
---- - r growth of 3-4 @r dent, ‘the minimum+ that internat‘iot&l financial
orders of~~,~gnitud~~attaint,~i~a~~~? The record in South and ir$t$ions cori$+r peces@ry if. these. cogq@es are going t~&~~a,
e-past q&rter-century and especially over the last . part in expandingI “““.,the
five years suggests that 5 per cent annual growth can be attained in ‘.-.*p”” world economy.
m _ \/ %~a.” y&““” s/.x - *vi *Such growth ‘rates could be
~~i%i;ti;ie$~& sustainable if industrialized nations can continue the
most countries, including the two largest, India and China. In Latin recent shifts in the content of their growth towards less material- and
America, average growth rates on the order of 5 per cent were energy-intensive activities and the improvement of their efficiency in
achieved during the 1960s and 197Os, but fell well below that in the using materials and energy.
first half of this decade, mainly because of the debt crisis.1 A revival As industrialized nations
of Latin American growth depends on the resolution of this crisis. -“ll”.l. use. ^__ y less materials and energy, however,
they%&!@?%deV~maller
-.- - . -. ”I.L. . . ” markets for coiiitiodities and tiinerals‘from
In Africa, growth rates during the 1960s and 1970s were around 4- the developing nations. Yet if developing nations focus their efforts
F _
52 COMMON CONCERNS TOWARDS SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 53

upon eliminating p&overty and satisfying essential human needs, then

d”;;irii&6??6rn&d will increase for both agricultural products and I CPeople have acquired, often for the first time in history, both an idea
I of their relative poverty and a desire to emerge from it and improve the
manufactured goods and ,some. services. H_egs;e.ibe, very logic of
@%@iZ”l~ deie!o$ment imp!ies an internal stimulus to Third World quality of their lives. As people advance materially, and eat and live
better, what were once luxuries tend to be regarded as necessities. The
net result is that the demandforfood, raw materials, andpower increases
theless, in large numbers of developing countries markets are
to an even greater degree than the population. As demand increases, a
very small; and for all developing countries high export growth,
greater and greater strain is put on the finite area of the worlds land to
especially of non-traditional items, will also be necessary to finance
produce the products needed. 9
imports, demand for which will be generated by rapid development.
Thus a reorientation of international economic relations will be Dr. I. P. Garbouchev
necessary for sustainable development, as discussed in Chapter 3. Bulgarian Academy of Sciences
WCED Public Hearing, Moscow, 1 I Dee 1986

Changing the Quality of Growth

Sustainable development involves more than growth. It requires a impoverishes many people and can increase pressures on the natural
change in the content of growth, to~l.~~~~~ ,it less materia!: and resource base through overcommercialized agriculture and through
ez&@ls. ltiiQb2+ct. Xhse, c$i+:g_es,are the marginalization of subsistence farmers. Relying more on small-
regur@ip a!~,.~,~u@ri~~ 92. p@ of a .package of measures to maintain holder cultivation may be slower at first, but more easily sustained
t%i ~t~&of~~cologi~l capital, to improve the distributiqn of income, - over the long term.
and to reduce the degree of vulnerability to economic crises. Economic development is unsustainable if it increases vulnerability
The process of economic development must be more soundly based to $$i”$g.lx &tight may .fbrce farm&-s to slaughter animals needed
upon the realities of the stock of capital that sustains it. T&&k rare!z,,“, for sustaining production in future years. A drop in prices may cause
done in either farmers or other producers to overexploit natural resources to
a I (develqpe&
‘~ ,- 9~ ~cJev$~p~p~, cWquntrjgF. For ex&$e,
%%gmk”%orn forestry operations is conventionally measured in terms maintain incomes. But vulnerability can be reduced by using tech-
of the value of timber and other products extracted, minus the costs nologies that lower production risks, by choosing institutional options
of extraction. The costs of regenerating the forest are not taken into that reduce market fluctuations, and by building up reserves, especially
account, unless money is actually spent on such work. Thus figuring of food and foreign exchange. A development ~_-^---. path
. ..-_that
_ Lcombines
profits from logging rarely takes full account of the losses in future growth with reduced-vq&ra$ility
+--N,- ..,~.-Ev-----~- G46.d& sustai*gable that 0~:~ $+t
revenue incurred through degradation of the forest. Similar incomplete d&is not.
accounting occurs in the exploitation of other natural resources, Yet
.__a-- it ^. isI_ not enough to broaden the range of economic variables
especially in the case of resources that are not capitalized in enterprise taken into a&%%: Sti<tainri‘biIify requires views of human needs and
or national accounts: air, water, and soil. In all countries, rich or poor, tiejl-being t&~n&rp&%suchVfiori%cotitimic variables as educ&ii*
economic development must take full account in its measurements of and health enjoyed for their own sake, clean air and water, and the
growth of the improvement or deterioration in the stock of natural protection of n%urai* bea;ty. it‘rn&t &&~ork*‘lo;&r;nbve disabilitie’s
resources. from disadvantaged groups, many of whom live in ecologically
vulnerable areas, such as many tribal groups in forests, desert nomads,
groups in remote hill areas, and indigenous peoples of the Americas
and Australasia.
C&-the -~~at.t~_..~&growth requires
--~~----~~“.~.““. “.II -- changing our approach
to development efforts to take account o~‘;;ii”‘~~-~~~~-~~~~~~~~~~~’
i;;“sta~~~;-~Fi~~i;d”iidwerproject shotil?l -not be seen mereli’as‘ a way
of producing more electricity; its effects upon the Iocal environment
inequitable. In the long run, such a path may not be sustainable; it and the livelihood of the local community must be included in any
54 COMMON CONCERNS TOWARDS SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 55

balance sheets. Thus the abandonment of a hydro project because it

will disturb a rare ecological system could be a measure of progress, CIn the developing world, mostly in the Third World, we realize that the
not a setback to development. 4 Nevertheless, in some cases, sus- main problem we have is that we do not have employment opportunities,
tainability considerations will involve a rejection of activities that are and most of these people who are unemployed move from rural areas
financially attractive in the short run. 1 and they migrate into the cities and those who remain behind always
Economic and social development can and should be mutu.ally. indulge in processes-for example charcoal burning-and all this leads
@$i%S’c~~“XIoney
ohpw”e+.-~l~^x~, WXI ,*, , I * , Ir . spent on education and health can raise hum-an-.. to deforestation. So maybe the environmental organizations should step
productivity. Economic development can accelerate social de- in and look for ways to prevent this kind of destruction.7
velopment by providing opportunities for underprivileged groups or Kennedy Njiro
by spreading education more rapidly. Student, Kenya Polytechnic
WCED Public Hearing, Nairobi, 23 Sept 1986

Meeting Essential Human Needs

The satisfaction of human needs and aspirations is so obviously an more readily attainable. But increased food production should not
objective of productive activity that it may appear redundant to assert be based on ecologically unsound production policies and compromise
its central role in the concept of sustainable development. All too long-term prospects for food security.
often poverty is such that people cannot satisfy their needs for survival Energy is another essential human need, one that cannot be
and well-being even if goods and services are available. At the universally met unless energy consumption patterns change. +Q&M~J..
same time, the demands of those not in poverty may have major ~r~ent~~pr.okle,mis the requir~rnenw.o~~-~~~r, ThirdWorld households,.,.
environmental consequences. which depend mainly on fuelwood. By the turn of the century, 3
T’~‘QtipaL ,de~al~m~~nt chc@ngec _is to, Feet the ar_leeds-a and _ billion people may live in areas where wood is cut faster than it grows
a~$$~o~sS~of’an~ expanding developing world population The most or where fuelwood is extremely scarce.’ Corrective action would both
basic of all needs is for a livelihood: that is, em$oyment. Between reduce the drudgery of collecting wood over long distances and
1985 and 2000 the labour force in developing countries will increase preserve the ecological base. The minimum requirements for cooking
by nearly 900 million, and new livelihood opportunities will have to fuel in most developing countries appear to be on the order of 250
be generated for 60 million persons every year.5 The pace and kilogrammes of coal equivalent per capita per year. Th”is,a fraction
pattern of economic development have to generate sustainable work of” the
----.household
.**““I” *_,r,.I..*- energy
._1_ .<%., ‘,_ consumption in industrial
._* ,. *’ d /.,. *.v.“.,wr L-y”.,I . ~ a+. ~ *“ w4u i * *l/x(/ countrie$.-‘
^ ~~~~~ms..w. ,m.~“*-~
opportunities on this scale and at a level of productivity that would T_h_e,lmkaLbasic needs of heusi~g~ w,@er supply, sadatio.Gand .
enable poor households to meet minimum consumption standards. hea&ca~- .arUalsoen~ron~ important., Deficiencies in these
uired not merely to feed more people but to attack areas are often visible manifestations of environmental stress. In the
For the developing world to eat, person for Third World, the failure to meet these key needs is one $?I%
the industrial world by the year 2000, annual major causes~ of many” co~mmunicable -diseases such as malaria,
increases of 5.0 per cent in calories and 5.8 per cent in proteins are gast;o-i;ltestinaiinf;lstations~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~d.
. _j”x i “. , *w-Y.,% . . -.!- . 1 -” Population growth
needed in Africa; of 3.4 and 4.0 per cent, respectively, in Latin and t&YIrift” into cities threaten to make these problems worse.
America; and of 3.5 and 4.5 per cent in Asia.6 Foodgrains and starchy Planners must find ways of relying more on supporting community
roots are the primary sources of calories, while proteins are obtained initiatives and self-help efforts and on effectively using low-cost
primarily from products like milk, meat, fish, pulses, and oil-seeds. technologies.
Though the focus at present is necessarily on staple foods, the
projections given above also highlight the need for a high rate of Ensuring a Sustainable Level of Population
growth of protein availability. In Africa, the task is particularly
The
@.” W,%sustainabilit~~f~~~pmee~i--n~imately
-.“ .X XI*,” &_“* _.___ i_ linked~amics,
challenging given the recent declining per capita food production and
kL%?&~irnP~~ “%x&&haJ
the current constraints on growth. In Asia and Latin America, the y where
. - .levels
”e_.s of material
required growth rates in calorie and protein consumption seem to be burdec on the Earth’s
.“-->--*e~ -... -
56 COMMON CONCERNS TOWARDS SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 57

Esources
. -“-,&. , “_-l_ than
i- a.chiId.born in a poorer country, A similar argument deterioration is likely, given that most urban growth will take place
applies within countries. Nonetheless, sustainable development can in the largest cities. Thus more manageable cities may be the principal
be pursued more easily when population size is stabilized at a level gain from slower rates of population growth.
consistent with the productive capacityof the ecosystem. Urbanization is itself part of the development process. The challenge
In industrial countries, the overall rate of population growth is is to manage the process so as to avoid a severe deterioration in the
under 1 per cent, and several countries have reached or are ap- quality of life. Thus the development of smaller urban centres needs
proaching zero population growth. The total population of the to be encouraged to reduce pressures in large cities. Solving the
industrialized world could increase from its current 1.2 billion to impending urban crisis will require the promotion of self-help housing
about 1.4 billion in the year 2025.” and urban services by and for the poor, and a more positive approach
The greater part of global population increase will take place in to the role of the informal sector, supported by sufficient funds for
developing countries, where the 1985 population of 3.7 billion may water supply, sanitation, and other services.
increase to 6.8 billion by 2025.9 The Third World does not have the
option of migration to ‘new’ lands, and the time available for Conserving and Enhancing the Resource Base
adjustment is much less than industrial countries had. Hence the If needs are to be met on a sustainable basis the Earth’s natural
challenge now is to quickly lower population growth rates, especially resource base must be conserved and enhanced. Major changes in
in regions such as Africa, where these rates are increasing. policies will be needed to cope with the industrial world’s current
Birth rates declined in industrial countries largely because of high levels of consumption, the increases in consumption needed to
ezonomic, -and social development. Rising levels of income and meet minimum standards in developing countries, and expected
urbanization and the changing role of women all played important *‘1 . - population growth. However, the case for the conservation of nature
roles. Similar processes are now at work in developing* countries. should not rest only with development goals. It is part of our moral
These should be recognized and encouraged. Population policies obligation to other living beings and future generations.
should be integrated with other economic and social development PKessure on resources -creases when people lack alternatives.
programmes-female education, health care, and the expansion of Development policies must widen people’s options ‘for’ earning a
the livelihood base of the poor. But time is short, and developing sustainable livelihood, particularly for resource-poor households and
countries will also have to promote direct measures to reduce fertility, in areas under ecological stress. In a hilly area, for instance, economic
to avoid going radically beyond the productive potential to support self-interest and ecology can be combined by helping farmers shift
their populations. In fact, increased access to family planning services from grain to tree crops by providing them with advice, equipment,
is itself a form of social development that allows couples, and women and marketing assistance. Programmes to protect the incomes of
in particular, the right to self-determination. farmers, fishermen, and foresters against short-term price declines
Population growth in developing countries will remain unevenly may decrease their need to overexploit resources.
distributed between rural and urban areas. UN projections suggest The conservation of agricultural resources is an urgent task because
that by the first decade of the next century, the absolute size of rural in many parts of the world cultivation has already been extended .
populations in most developing countries will start declining. Nearly tq~~marginal
90 per cent of the increase in the developing world will take place in >/.” <.a .G<TW lands, and -fis-her-y andi forestry resources have been. _
overexploited. These resources must be’ conserved and‘enhanced to
urban areas, the population of which is expected to rise from 1.15 i?-GXss of growing populations. Land use in agriculture and
billion in 1985 to 3.85 billion in 2025.iO The increase will be forestry should be based on a scientific assessment of land capacity,
particularly marked in Africa and, to a lesser extent, in Asia. and the annual depletion of topsoil, fish stock, or forest resources
Developing-country cities are growing much faster than the capacity must not exceed the rate of regeneration.
of authorities to cope. Shortages of housing, water, sanitation, and The pressures on agricultural land from crop and livestock pro-
mass transit are widespread. A growing proportion of city-dwellers duction can be partly relieved by increasing productivity. But short-
live in slums and shanty towns, many of them exposed to air and sighted, short-term improvements in productivity can create different
water pollution and to industrial and natural hazards. Further forms of ecological stress, such as the loss of genetic diversity in
..
58 COMMON CONCERNS TOWARDS SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 59

be+approached far sooner than the limits imposed by other material

CI work with rubber trees in the Amazon. I am here to speak about the resources. First, there are the supply problems: the depletion of oil
“-%.a.,a..4
tropical forest. reserves, th,e high cost and environmental impact of coal mining, and
We live from this forest they want to destroy. And we want to take the hazards of nuclear technology. Second, there are emission
this opportunity of having so many people here gathered with the same problems, most notably acid pollution and carbon dioxide build-up
objective in mind to defend our habitat, the conservation of forest, of leading to global warming.
tropical forest. Some of these problems can be met by increased use of renewable
In my area, we have about 14-1.5 native products that we extract energy sources. But the exploitation of renewable sources such as
from the forest, besides all the other activities we have. So I think this fuelwood and hydropower also entails ecological problems. Hence
must be preserved. Because it is not only with cattle, not only with sustainability requires a clear focus on conserving and efficiently using
pasture lands, and not only with highways that we will be able to develop energy.
the Amazon. Industrialized countries must recognize that their energy con-
When they think of falling trees, they always think of building roads sumption is polluting the biosphere and eating into scarce fossil fuel
and the roads bring destruction under a mask called progress. Let us supplies. Recent improvements in energy efficiency and a shift towards
put this progress where the lands have already been deforested, where it less energy-intensive sectors have helped limit consumption. But the
is idle of labour and where we have to$nd people work, and where we process must be accelerated to reduce per capita consumption and
have to make the city grow, But let us leave those who want to live in encourage a shift to non-polluting sources and technologies. The
the forest, who want to keep it as it. simple duplication in the developing world of industrial countries’
We have nothing written. I don’t have anything that was created in energy use patterns is neither feasible nor desirable. Changing these
_somebody’s qfice. There is no philosophy. It is just the real truth, patterns for the better will call for new policies in urban development,
because this is what our life is.7 industry location, housing design, transportation systems, and the
Jaime da Silva Araujo choice of agricultural and industrial technologies.
National Council of Rubber Tappers Non-fuel mineral resources appear to pose fewer supply problems.
WCED Public Hearing, Sao Paulo, 28-29 Ott 1985 Studies done before 1980 that assumed an exponentially growing
demand did not envisage a problem until well into the next century.12
standing crops, salinization and alkalization of irrigated lands, nitrate Since then, world consumption of most metals has remained nearly
pollution of ground-water, and pesticide residues in food. Ecologically constant, which suggests that the exhaustion of non-fuel minerals is
more benign alternatives are available. Future increases in produc- even more distant. The history of technological developments also
tivity, in both developed and developing countries, should be based suggests that industry can adjust to scarcity through greater efficiency
on the better controlled application of water and agrochemicals, as in use, recycling, and substitution. More immediate needs include
well as on more extensive use of organic manures and non-chemical modifying the pattern of world trade in minerals to allow exporters
means of pest control. These alternatives can be promoted only by a higher share in the value added from mineral use, and improving
an* agricultural policy based on ecological realities. (See Chapter 5.) the access of developing countries to mineral supplies, as their
In the case of fisheries and tropical forestry, we rely largely on the demands increase.
exploitation of the naturally available stocks. The sustainable yield The prevention and reduction of air and water pollution will remain
from these stocks may well fall short of demand. Hence it will be a critical task of resource conservation. Air and water quality come
necessary to turn to methods that produce more fish, fuelwood, and under pressure from such activities as fertilizer and pesticide use,
forest products under controlled conditions. Substitutes for fuelwood urban sewage, fossil fuel burning, the use of certain chemicals, and
can be promoted. various other industrial activities. Each of these is expected to increase
The ultimate limits to global development are perhaps determined the pollution load on the biosphere substantially, particularly in
by the availability of energy resources and by the biosphere’s capacity developing countries. Cleaning up after the event is an expensive
to absorb the by-products of energy use.11 These energy limits may solution. Hence all countries need to anticipate and prevent these
60 COMMON CONCERNS TOWARDS SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 61

pollution problems, by, for instance, enforcing emission standards CIndigenous peoples are the base of what I guess could be called the
that reflect likely long-term effects, promoting low-waste technologies, environmental security system. We are the gate-keepers of success or
and anticipating the jmpact of new products, technologies, and wastes. failure to husband our resources. For many of us, however, the last few
Reorienting Technology and Managing Risk centuries have meant a major loss of control over our Lands and waters.
We are still the first to know about changes in the environment, but we
The fulfilment of all these tasks will require the reorientation of are now the last to be asked or consulted.
technology-the ,key link between humans and nature. First, the We are the first to detect when the forests are being threatened, as
capacity for technological innovation needs to be greatly enhanced they are under the slash and grab economics of this country. And we
in developing countries so that they can respond more effectively to are the Last to be asked about the future of our forests. We are the first
the challenges ” of 1, ~ nisustainable
l 8 I .<, _ ‘ I yydevelopment~~~,Second,
_, the *orientation of to feel the pollution of our waters, as the Ojibway peoples of my own
te&%logy development must be changed to pay greater attention to homelands in northern Ontario will attest. And, of course, we are the
environmentalx .w ,” 1%.factor-.
%./h last to be consulted about how, when, and where developments should
The technologies of industrial countries are not always suited or take place in order to assure continuing harmony far the s e v e n t h
easily adaptable to the socio-economic and environmental conditions generation.
of developing countries. To compound the problem, the bulk of world The most we have learned to expect is to be compensated, always too
research and development addresses few of the pressing issues facing late and too little. We are seldom asked to help avoid the need for
these countries, such as arid-land agriculture or the control of tropical compensation by lending our expertise and our consent to development. 9
diseases. Not enough is being done to adapt recent innovations in
materials technology, energy conservation, information technology, Louis Bruyere
President, Native Council of Canada
and biotechnology to the needs of developing countries. These gaps WCED Public Hearing, Ottawa, 26-27 May 1986
must be covered by enhancing research, design, development, and
extension capabilities in the Third World.
In all countries, the processes of generating alternative technologies, stressed beyond a certain point. The fact that they are connected
upgrading traditional ones, and selecting and adapting imported through networks tends to make them immune to small disturbances
technologies should be informed by environmental resource concerns. but more vulnerable to unexpected disruptions that exceed a finite
Most technological research by commercial organizations is devoted threshold. Applying sophisticated analyses of vulnerabilities and
to product and process innovations that have market value. Tech- past failures to technology design, manufacturing standards, and
nologies are needed that produce ‘social goods’, such as improved contingency plans in operations can make the consequences of a
air quality or increased product life, or that resolve problems normally failure or accident much less catastrophic.
outside the cost calculus of individual enterprises, such as the external The best vulnerability and risk analysis has not been applied
costs of pollution or waste disposal. consistently across technologies or systems. A major purpose of large
The role of public policy is to ensure, through incentives and system design should be to make the consequences ,of failure ok.
disincentives, that commercial organizations find it worthwhile to sabotage less serious. There <iset7hus a nee-d, for new tec~hniques *and ”
take fuller account of environmental factors in the technologies they ~~~~~-@g,&e+--~ well.%-m1 - 1as
iwee WI*X*1IsY”“.RY.*“..ru*( ”- “1 -7,l$,g_l~_~~~~~~~~~~tional . >.A*?3 / P >T. mqfc~sF-nimzLoxe
.r‘* , “?v I nh
develop. (See Chapter 8.) Publicly funded research institutions also safety des~g.~_ggd_,wn&g& accident _*,s,twkww.u ~w*r -p,wamt~o~, cpntingency plmxing,
need such direction, and the objectives of sustainable development d~~~-~i~~~~~~n~rovision -I l~~-.--,,~wm-. of relief2
and environmental protection must be built into the mandates of the Qn~iro~nrnental r.&sarising fro-m technological and developmental
institutions that work in environmentally sensitive areas. decisions impinge on,, individuals wu+ari* * I ~.. w * grid, areas” that”t.,have little or no
The development of environmentally appropriate technologies is influence on those decisions. Their interests must -be taken into -”
closely r~elqted to questions of risk management. Such systems as account. National and international institutional mechanisms are
nuclear reactors, electric and other utility distribution networks, needed to assess potential impacts of new technologies before they
communication systems, and mass transportation are vulnerable if are widely used, in order to ensure that their production, use,
 62 COMMON CONCERNS TOWARDS SUSTAINABLE D E V E L O P M E N T 63

O~~n~~~~poytant rigidity is the tendency to deal with one industry or

4 The issues that have been brought forward here, I think, are wide- sector in isolation, failing to recognize the importance of inteisectoral
ranging and maybe you know, maybe you don’t know, the answers to linkages. Modern agriculture uses substantial amounts of com-
all those issues. But at least by hearing all those questions, stories, all mercially produced energy and large quantities of industrial products.
these expressions that have been put forward, at least you could have At the same time, the more traditional connection-in which ag-
some idea. riculture is a source of raw materials for industry-is being diluted
You don’t know the answers nor the solutions, but you could suggest by the widening use of synthetics. The energy-industry connection is
the way to solve many problems and this is by suggesting either to also changing, with a strong tendency towards a decline in the energy
governments, or the UN, or international agencies, to solve any problem intensity of industrial production in industrial countries. In the Third
the best way: that is to include those with direct interests in it. The World, however, the gradual shift of the industrial base towards the
beneJiciaries, as well as the victims of any development issue should be basic material-producing sectors is leading to an inc~9~s~~i,~Jhe energy
included, should be heard. intensity of industrial production. :.f” ’
I think that is the one thing maybe that all of us are hearing here, or These
1.1 “‘intersectoral connections cre atterns of economic and
expecting.. that in every development planning or development issue as eco>logical interde,pendence rarely reflected in the ways in which policy
much as possible to listen and to include, to consult the people concerned. is rn$de. Sectoral organizations tend to pursue sectoral objectives and
If that is taken care of, at least one step of the problem is resolved.7 to treat their impacts on other sectors as side effects,. tak& into
CF Ismid Hadad acg>tiqwQL,tiy .if,cs,t~~~o so. Hence impacts on forests rarely
C h i e f E d i t o r , Prisma worry those involved in guiding public policy or business activities
WCED Public Hearixig, Jakarta, 26 March 1985
in the fields of energy, industrial development, crop husbandry, or
foreign trade. Many ALU. of the environment and development problems
and disposal do not overstress environmental resources. Similar that confront us have their. roots in this. sectoral fragmentation of
arrangements are required for major interventions in natural systems, responsibility. Sustainable development requires that such frag-
such as river diversion or forest clearance. In addition, liability for mentation be overcome.
damages from unintended consequences must be strengthened and Sustainability requires the enforcement of wider responsibilities for
enforced. the impacts of decisions. This requires changes in the legal and
institutional frameworks that will enforce the common interest. Some
Merging Environment and Economics in Decision Making necessary changes in the legal framework start from the proposition
The common theme throughout this strategy for sustainable de- that an environment adequate for health and well-being is essential
velopment is the need to integrate economic and ecological con- for all human beings-including future generations. Such a view
sideK+tions.in @ision making. They are, after all, integrated in the places the right to use public and private resources in its proper social
workings of the real world. This will require a change in attitudes context and provides a goal for more specific measures.
and objectives and in institutional arrangements at every level. The law alone cannot enforce the common interest. It principally
Economic and ecological concerns are not necessarily in opposition. needs community knowledge and support, which entails greater public
For example, policies that conserve the quality of agricultural land participation in the decisions that affect the environment. This is best
x and protect forests improve the long-term prospects for agricultural secured by decentralizing the management of resources upon which
development. An increase in the efficiency of energy and material local communities depend, and giving these communities an effective
’ use serves ecological purposes but can also reduce costs. E3Ft*,7[he say over the use of these resources. It will also require promoting
\ compatibility of environmental and economic,.objectiyes is* often lost citizens’ initiatives, empowering people’s organizations, and strength-
. X”r.rxlh.<~, . ‘*1
l~,,~&p~~rsuit of& indiy@ual or groin gains, with litttle rcgar,d Jar the ening local democracy. l3
impacts on others, with a blind faith in science’s ability tQ find Some large-scale projects, however, require participation on a
solutions, and in ignorance of the distant consequences of today’s different basis. Public inquiries and hearings on the development and
gec&ons. Institutional rigidities add to this myopia. environment impacts can help greatly in drawing attention to different
64 COMMON CONCERNS TOWARDS SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 65
I
sustainable development requires the unification of economics and
&It has not been too dtficult to push the environment lobby of the North ecology in international relations, as discussed in the next chapter.
and the development lobby of the South together. And there is now in
fact a blurring of the distinction between the two, so they are coming to
have a common consensus around the theme of sustainable development. IV. CONCLUSION .
The building blocks are there. Environmental concern is common to
In its broadest sense, the strategy for sustainable development aims
both sides. Humanitarian concern is common to both sides. The differ-
ence lies in the methods of each and the degree to which each side tries to promote harmony among human beings and between humanity
to achieve its own economic interest through the development assistance and nature. In the specific context of the development and environment
crises of the 198Os, which current national and international political
process.
and economic institutions have not and perhaps cannot overcome,
The time is right for bridging this gap for some very pragmatic
the pursuit of sustainable development requires:
political reasons. First of all, the people of the North do not want to see
a political system that secures effective citizen participation in
their taxes wasted. Secondly, they do not want to see growing poverty,
and they obviously care for the environment, be it the environment of decision making,
the North, where they live, or of the South. And the majority of people an economic system that is able to generate surpluses and
technical knowledge on a self-reliant and sustained basis,
in the South do not want short-term overpass solutions.
a social system that provides for solutions for the tensions arising
In eflect, there is a poi2ical community of interest, North and South,
in the concept of sustainable development that you can build upon. 3 from disharmonious development,
a production system that respects the obligation to preserve the
Richard Sandbrook ecological base for development,
International Institute for Environment and Development
WCED Public Hearing, Oslo, 24-25 June 1985 a technological system that can search continuously for new
solutions,
an international system that fosters sustainable patterns of trade
points of view. Free access to relevant information and the availability and finance, and
of alternative sources of technical expertise can provide an informed an administrative system that is flexible and has the capacity for
basis for public discussion. When the environmental impact of a self-correction.
proposed project is particularly high, public scrutiny of the case These requirements are more in the nature of goals that should
should be mandatory and, wherever feasible, the decision should be underlie national and international action on development. What
subject to prior public approval, perhaps by referendum. matters is the sincerity with which these goals are pursued and the
Changes are also required in the attitudes and procedures of effectiveness with which departures from them are corrected.
both public and private-sector enterprises. Moreover, environmental
regulation must move beyond the usual menu of safety regulations,
zoning laws, and pollution control enactments; environmental ob-
jectives must be built into taxation, prior approval procedures for
investment and technology choice, foreign trade incentives, and all
components of development policy.
The integration of economic and ecological factors into the law
and into decision-making systems within countries has to be matched
at the international level. The growth in fuel and material use dictates
that direct physical linkages between ecosystems of different countries
will increase. Economic interactions through trade, finance, invest-
ment, and travel will also grow and heighten economic and ecological
interdependence. Hence in the future, even more so than now,
66 COMMON CONCERNS

Notes
I UNCTAD, Hundbook o f International Trude and Development Statistics 1985
Supplement (New York: 1985).
)
2 Ibid.
3 -Department of International Economic and Social Affairs (DIESA), Doubling
Development Finance: Meeting a Global Challenge, Views and Recommendations oj
the Committee for Development Planning (New York: UN, 1986).
4 One example of such a decision to forgo a developmental benefit in the interest of
conservation is provided by the dropping of the Silent Valley Hydro project in
India.
5 Based on data from World Bank, World Development Report 1984 (New York:
Oxford University Press, 1984).
6 Based on per capita consumption data from FAO, Production Yearbook 1984
(Rome: 1985) and population projections from DIESA, World Population Prospects
Estimates and Projections as Assessed in 1984 (New York: UN, 1986).
7 FAO, Fuelwood Supplies in the Developing Countries, Forestry Paper No. 42 (Rome:
1983).
8 DIESA, World Population Prospects, op. cit.
9 Ibid.
10 Ibid.
11 W. Hafele and W. Sassin, ‘Resources and Endowments, An Outline of Future
Energy Systems’, in P.W. Hemily and M.N. Ozdas (eds.), Science and Future Choice
(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1979).
12 See, for example, OECD, Interfutures: Facing the Future (Paris: 1979) and Council
on Environmental Quality and US Department of State, The Global 2000 Report
to the President: Entering the Twenty-First Century, The Technical Report, Vol.
Two (Washington, DC: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1980).
13 See ‘For Municipal Initiative and Citizen Power’, in INDERENA, L a C a m p a n a
Verde y 10s Concejos Verdes (Bogota, Colombia: 1985).