1

GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISMS:

SCIENCE, HEALTH, AND POLITICS

INTRODUCTION

In 2001, Rosalie Ellasus, a former overseas Filipino worker in Singapore turned farmer, attended the
Integrated Pest Management – Farmers Field School and was introduced to Bt Corn, a genetically modified
corn that is resistant to the destructive Asian corn borer. Ms. Ellasus volunteered for demo-testing in her field.
Bt Corn yielded 7.2 tons per acre as compared to a regular yield of 4.2 tons per hectare. No insecticide spraying
was needed. This is one of the success stories of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) (Ongkiko, 2016).
Genetic engineering has been with the human society since selective breeding was introduced to
humankind and when animals were domesticated. Yet, the process of genetic alterations is all but natural.
It was in 1951 that the term genetic engineering was coined by Jack Williamson, author of the science
fiction novel Dragon’s Island (Stableford 2004). The general process of genetic engineering is the deliberate
manipulation of the organism’s genes, where it may involve transfer of genes from other organisms.
An antibiotic-resistant E. coli bacteria was created in 1973. To date, there are ongoing researches on
GMOs such as using genetically modified male mosquitoes as pest control over female mosquito carriers of
Zika virus.
However, despite the many possibilities of creating solutions for problems and opening doors for
innovations, genetic engineering, faces much opposition. Opponents raise ethical, social, and environmental
issues related to genetic engineering and its GMOs.

Genetically Modified Organisms

Genetically modified organisms (GMO) is the term used for an organism created through genetic
engineering. The World Health Organization (WHO, 2014) defines GMO as an “organism, either plant,
animal, or microorganism, in which the genetic material (DNA) has been altered in a way that does not
occur naturally by mating or natural recombination”.

Figure: The Genetic Engineering Process on a Plant

The development of GMOs was perceived to help in the achievement of technology for the benefits of
humans in different industries like agriculture and medicine.

GMOs in Food and Agricultural Industries

The Center for Biogenetics and Environmental Health (CBEH, 2013) identified the following roles of
GMOs in the food and agricultural industries.
 2

1. Pest Resistance – genetically modified plants to resist certain pests.

An example in Bt Corn. The DNA (genome) of the Bt corn has been modified with the gene of a
soil bacterium that produces proteins which is toxic to corn borers (worms).

2. Virus Resistance – genetically modified plants to resist certain viruses.

An example is GM papaya or rainbow papaya. The papaya ringspot virus (PRSV) is known to be
the detrimental to papaya plants. The proteins of PRSV was introduced to the papaya plant
through plant tissue which turned out to be resistant to the virus itself. The effect was like the
vaccines humans have against measles or influenza virus.

3. Herbicide Tolerance – genetically modified plants to tolerate herbicide.

An example is Roundup Ready soybean. Glyphosate, an herbicide for weeds, was introduced to
soybeans making it tolerant to the herbicide itself. Farmers then can spray the herbicide killing
the weeds but not the soybeans.

4. Fortification – genetically modified plants fortified with ceratin minerals.

An example is Golden Rice. Beta-carotene, a precursor of vitamin A, was introduced through
biosynthesis genes to the rice, making the rice grains fortified with vitamin A.
 3

5. Cosmetic Preservation – genetically modified plants resists natural discoloration.

An example is Arctic Apple. The apple variety was genetically modified to suppress the
browning of apple due to superficially damage.

6. Increase Growth Rate – a genetically modified organism that has higher yield in growth than
normal species.
An example is AquAdvantage salmon. A gene from an ocean pout, an eel-like fish was
introduced to Pacific Chinook salmon, making the salmon grow faster than its normal rate.

GMOs in Non-Foods Crops and Microorganisms

Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in non-food crops and some microorganisms involve the
following:
1. Flower Production – GMOs in flower production are seen in modified color and extended vase life
of flowers.
Examples are Blue Roses. The so-called “blue” roses, which are, in reality, lilac or purple,
contained cyanidin 3.5-diglucoside, together with large amounts of flavonols. The introduction
of the flavonoid 31, 51-hydroxylase gene into pelargonidin- or cyanidin- producing rose cultivars
 4

diverts the anthocyanin biosynthetic pathway toward the production of delphinidin glucosides
and the flower color to blue (Elomaa & Holton, 1994).

2. Paper Production – modified characteristics of trees for higher yield of paper production.
Examples are poplar trees. Lignin is a complex polymer in trees that is removed from wood to
make paper through kraft process, through inserting genes that code for ferulic acid in young
poplar trees, the lignin structure is modified, making lignin easier to breakdown (Veniza, 2014).

3. Pharmaceutical Productions – modified plants to produce pharmaceutical products.

Examples are periwinkle plants. Bacterial genes were added to the periwinkle plant to enhance
the production of vinblastine, an alkaloid usually added to drugs for cancer treatments like
Hodgkin’s lymphoma (Runguphan, 2010).

4. Bioremediation – use of modified plants that can assist in the bioremediation of polluted sites.
As example is shrub tobacco or nicotiama glauca, genetically modified with phytochelatin
TaPCSII, is used for bioremediation. Its shows high level accumulation of zinc, lead, cadmium,
nickel, and boron and produces high biomass.
 5

5. Enzyme and Drug Production – use of modified microorganisms that can produce enzymes for
food processing and medicines.
One of example of this is COTase, Cyclomaltodexitin glocosyltransferase (CGTase), and
enzyme used for food flavor enhancer, is produced in higher quantity by bacterium, bacillus
which was genetically modified with the gene of a thermophilie anaerobe, Thermoanaerobacter,
carrying CGTase (Pedersen & Jorgensen, 1995).

6. GMOs in the Medical Field – genetic engineering is playing a significant role from diagnosis to
treatment of human-dreaded diseases. It helps in the production of drugs, gene therapy, and
laboratory researches.
One classic example is Humulin, the genetically engineered insulin used by Type 1 diabetes
patients who are insulin-dependent. In the past, insulin is extracted from the pancreases of pigs
and cows that have caused allergic reactions to some diabetics using it. In 1978, researchers from
the City of Hope National Medical Center and Genentech Biotechnology Company were able to
produce human insulin. The gene for insulin was inserted to bacterial DNA that was able to
produce almost exactly the same human insulin. This was breakthrough in the mass production
of human insulin. In 1996, modified human insulin was approved, called the Humalog.
 6

Benefits of GMOs
Studies show some of the potential benefits of GMOs:
 Higher efficiency in farming – with the use of pesticide-resistant/herbicide-tolerant GMO crops,
there will be less use for herbicides/pesticides, and lower cost for labor and cultivation.
 Increase in harvest – GMO crops resistant to pests and diseases means increase in potential growth
and harvest.
 Control in fertility – controlling the purity of the hybrid seeds (GMO seeds) ensures higher yields.
 Increase in food processing – altered characteristics of GMO crops help ease food processing.
 Improvement of desirable characteristics – GMOs offer longer shelf life, enhanced color and
taste, enhanced production or reduction of enzymes, and other modified characteristics of plants,
animals, and microorganisms.
 Nutritional and pharmaceutical enhancement – GMO crops like maize fortified with lysine and
Golden Rice fortified with Vitamin A and iron. These are now edible vaccines for viral and and
diarrheal diseases.
 Reduce the use of fertilizer and pesticides.

There are over 400 million acres of GMO farmlands all over the world (top 5 countries: United States,
Brazil, Argentina, India, and Canada). Alfalfa, corn, papaya, soya bean, sugar beet, and squash are some of the
GMO agricultural that have been approved for public consumption and market.
Researches in the animal industry like studies on Pacific salmons and chickens resistant to bird flu
viruses are ongoing. However, these GMO animals are not yet approved for public consumption.

Potential Risks of GMOs

Despite the promising claims of GMOs, the opponents of GMOs claim otherwise. This caused additional
problem to more than 12 million acres of farms in the United States.
Opponents of GMOs have the following major concerns:
1. Since genetic engineering is still a young branch of science, there are inadequate studies on the
effects of GMOs to humans and the environment.
2. Genetic engineering promotes mutation in organisms which the long-term effect is still unknown.
3. Human consumption of GMOs might have the following effects:
 More allergic reactions
 Gene mutation
 Antibiotic resistance
 Change in nutritional value

Potential Environmental Risks Caused by GMOs

Karki (2006) summarized the perceived potential environmental risks caused by GMOs. The identified
major risks are the following:
1. Risk in gene flow – there is a potential risk of the modified gene to be transferred from the GMO
crop to its wild relative or organism in the soil and human intestine (when ingested).
2. Emergence of new forms of resistance and secondary pests and weed problems – GMO crops
resistant to certain pesticides may trigger new form of pest resistance while GMO herbicide-tolerant
crops may lead to the over use of the herbicides which may trigger new form of weed resistance.
3. Recombination of Virus and Bacteria to Produce New Pathogens – the modified gene can be
transferred and integrated in the viral or bacterial genes which may lead to viral or bacterial gene
modification or mutation.
Other direct and indirect environmental risks caused by GMOs (Molfino & Zucco, 2008):
 7

1. Direct environmental risks are:

o introduction of the gmos in the natural environment may cause disruption of the natural
communities through competition or interference;
o the possibility of unexpected behavior of the gmos in the environment if it escapes its
intended use and may post threats or become pest;
o may cause harmful effects to ecosystem processes if gmos interfere with the natural
biochemical cycles; and
o the persistence of GMO genes after its harvest which may cause negative impacts to the
consumer of GMO products.
2. Indirect environmental risks are:
o Alteration of agricultural practices like managing negative impacts of GMOs to the
environment such as evolution of insects, pests, and weeds that became resistant to GMO
crops;
o May have impacts to biodiversity caused by the alteration in agricultural practices; and
o May have varied environmental impacts due to GMOs interaction and release in the natural
environment.

Potential Human Health Risks caused by GMOs

A concern in the use and consumption of GMOs is its effect on human beings, primarily on human
health. Some potential health risks are identified (Akhter, 2001), such as:
 may have adverse effects since it is not naturally or organically produced;
 may alter the balance of existing microorganisms in the human digestive system;
 production of toxins may be detrimental to human health; and
 production of allergies may have adverse effect on humans.
Worldwide, there are many groups that campaign against GMO consumption. In the Philippines, the
Supreme Court has ruled against the line of Bt eggplant, another genetically modified crop (Ongkiko, 2016).
Other potential risks that raise major concerns are:
o Human Genome Project (HGP) – mapping of human genes to provide framework for research and
studies in the field of medicine.
o Mutation of genetically engineered microorganisms – genetically modified bacteria and viruses
may mutate to become more resistant or virulent that may cause more dreadful diseases for human
beings.
o Cloning – the asexual production of an organism using parent cell through genetic engineering.
Scientists and medical practitioners would definitely continue search for ways to persevere lives. Gene
therapy and gene alteration are promising ways to improve human health conditions.
There are many things to be considered first before a certain medical process using genetic engineering
be accepted.
The primary issue on GMO presented in public debate is its unnatural production of what is termed to be
violation of nature. Another concern is the potential risks to the environment and human health, to which so
much is unknown yet.

Biosafety on GMOs
There are initiatives for the protection of the general human population regarding the issues and
concerns about GMOs.
 The Codex Alimentarius Commission (Codex). Is an intergovernmental body that develops the
Codex Alimentarius, know us International Food Code. It’s also responsible for the development of
standards, codes of practices, guidelines, and recommendations for food safety.
 8

 Cartagena Protocol on Biodiversity (est. 2003). Is an international environmental treaty that

regulates the transboundary movements of Living Modified Organisms (LMOs).
 International Trade Agreement on labelling of GM food and food products. The agreement requires
exporters of GM food and food products to label their products and give rights to importing parties
to reject or accept the GM products.
The World Health Organization (WHO, 2014) claims that all GM products that are available in the
international market have passes safety assessment by national authorities.

GMOs in Philippine Context

Introduction of GMOs in our country created issues and controversies similar to other countries
with GMOs. There are, of course, proponents and opponents of these issues.
The GMO concern started in the 1990s with the creation of the National Committee on Biosafety
of the Philippines (NCBP) through Executive Order No. 430 of 1990. In 2002, the Department of
Agriculture released Administrative Order No. 8, the guideline for the importation of and release into
the environment of GM plants and plant products. The Philippines was marked to be the first country in
Asia to approved commercial cultivation of GMOs when GM corn planting was approved in 2002
(Serapio & Dela Cruz, 2016).
From December 2002 to present, there are 70 GMO applications approved by the Department of
Agriculture for the release to the environment.
In 2004, the Philippine was classified by International Service for acquisition of agri-biotech
applications as one of the fourteen biotech-mega countries which grow 50,00 hectares or more of GMO
crops annually (James, 2004).
In 2006, the Philippine became part of the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety. In the same year,
Executive Order No. 514 was issued to address the biosafety requirements of the Cartagena Protocol and
the establishment of the National Biosafety Framework (NBF).
In 2010, the Organic Agriculture Act was issued, encouraging organic agriculture that GMO-
related agriculture.
In 2012, Representative Teddy Casiño, together with the other congressmen, filled a bill pushing
for a mandatory labeling of GM foods and products.
A study on the biosafety regulations of the Philippines concluded that the existing regulation is
weak, which can be fixed through the legislation such as republic act (Richmond, 2006).
In December 2015, the Supreme Court ordered to put an end to the field testing of GMO Bt.
eggplant and declared Administrative Order No. 8, series of 2002 of the Department of Agriculture a s
null and void.
In March 7, 2016, five government agencies (Department of Science and Technology,
Department of Agriculture, Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Department of Health,
and Department of Interior and Local Government) passed a joint Department Circular No. 1, series of
2016 on rules and regulations for the research and development, handling and use, transboundary
movement, release in the environment, and management of the genetically modified plant and plant
products derived from the use of modern biotechnology. This joint department circular paves way to
issuance of the new permits for planting and importing GM products in the country.