NPTEL web course
on
Complex Analysis
A. Swaminathan
I.I.T. Roorkee, India
and
V.K. Katiyar
I.I.T. Roorkee, India
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Complex Analysis
Module: 2: Functions of a Complex Variable
Lecture: 2: Stereographic Projection
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Functions of a complex variable
Stereographic projection
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Stereographic projection
Objective
The real line has two infinities, viz., +∞ and −∞.
What about the situation in the complex plane C?
The complex plane is considered equivalent to a sphere.
The process is called Stereographic projection.
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Stereographic projection
Three dimensional structure
Let C be the complex plane. At first, we visualize that this plane is finite
but very large. Through the origin construct the line perpendicular to
C. Let this be γ axis of three dimensional euclidian space in which a
point has co-ordinates (α, β, γ).
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Stereographic projection
Two cases
(i) Considering a sphere with center at (0, 0, 0) and radius 1. In this
case the sphere will intersect the plane along the unit circle.
(ii) Considering a sphere with center at (0, 0, 1/2) and radius 1/2. In
this case the plane touches sphere through origin.
Both these cases will have the upper most point (0, 0, 1).
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Stereographic projection
Two cases
(i) Considering a sphere with center at (0, 0, 0) and radius 1. In this
case the sphere will intersect the plane along the unit circle.
(ii) Considering a sphere with center at (0, 0, 1/2) and radius 1/2. In
this case the plane touches sphere through origin.
Both these cases will have the upper most point (0, 0, 1).
Our consideration
Theory: First case.
Picture: Second case.
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Stereographic projection
Mathematical construction
Consider the radius of sphere of radius 1 and center at (0, 0, 0). i.e.
n o
S = (α, β, γ) ∈ R3 : α2 + β 2 + γ 2 = 1 .
The plane γ = 0 coincide with the complex plane and at this situation α
and β are coordinates correspond to x axis and y axis respectively. Let
Q(x, y , 0) be any point of the plane. Through the point N = N(0, 0, 1)
draw a straight line NQ, intersecting the sphere at a point (α, β, γ).
Then (α, β, γ) is called a stereographic projection or image of (x, y , 0)
on the surface of the sphere.
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Stereographic projection
Mathematical construction
Now we will express α, β, γ in terms of x and y
The line in R 3 passing through (0, 0, 1) and (x, y , 0) (which contains
the point (α, β, γ)) is given by
α−0 β−0 γ−0
= = = t1
x −0 y −0 0−1
=⇒ α = xt ; β = yt; γ = 1 − t, −∞ < t < ∞.
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Stereographic projection
Mathematical construction
Thus
α2 + β 2 + γ 2 = 1 =⇒ (xt)2 + (yt)2 + (1 − t)2 = 1
=⇒ (x 2 + y 2 + 1)t 2 + 1 − 2t = 1
2 2
=⇒ t = 0 or t = 2 2
= 2
.
x +y +1 |z| + 1
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Stereographic projection
Mathematical construction
2
For t 6= 0, t = . Thus
|z|2 +1
2x 2Re z
α = xt =⇒ α=
2
=
|z| + 1 |z|2 + 1
2y 2Im z
β = yt =⇒ β = 2
=
|z| + 1 |z|2 + 1
2 |z|2 − 1
γ = 1 − t =⇒ γ = 1 − 2 = .
|z| + 1 |z|2 + 1
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Stereographic projection
P
β
φ y, α
P̂
x, β
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Stereographic projection
Mathematical construction
So the point (α, β, γ) is given by
2Im z |z|2 − 1
2Re z
, , .
|z|2 + 1 |z|2 + 1 |z|2 + 1
Hence for every (x, y ) in the finite plane there exist a point
2Im z |z|2 − 1
2Re z
, ,
|z|2 + 1 |z|2 + 1 |z|2 + 1
on the surface of the sphere S.
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Stereographic projection
Mathematical construction
So the point (α, β, γ) is given by
2Im z |z|2 − 1
2Re z
, , .
|z|2 + 1 |z|2 + 1 |z|2 + 1
Hence for every (x, y ) in the finite plane there exist a point
2Im z |z|2 − 1
2Re z
, ,
|z|2 + 1 |z|2 + 1 |z|2 + 1
on the surface of the sphere S.
Now x = α/t, y = β/t and t = 1 − γ (since t 6= 0, γ 6= 1), implies
α β
x= , y= .
1−γ 1−γ
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Stereographic projection
Riemannian Sphere
At t = 0, we have γ = 1, α = 0, and β = 0. This is the point N(0, 0, 1).
There exist no point in the finite plane corresponding to it. This point is
generally called the North pole and the sphere S is called the
Riemannian sphere. Mapping this point to points in the entire complex
plane which are not finite, makes a representation for every point on
the Riemannian sphere in the complex plane C.
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Stereographic projection
Riemannian Sphere
At t = 0, we have γ = 1, α = 0, and β = 0. This is the point N(0, 0, 1).
There exist no point in the finite plane corresponding to it. This point is
generally called the North pole and the sphere S is called the
Riemannian sphere. Mapping this point to points in the entire complex
plane which are not finite, makes a representation for every point on
the Riemannian sphere in the complex plane C.
Note
Unlike the real case, in the complex number system it is regarded that
it has only one point at infinity, with reference to stereographic
projection. Hence in the study of complex plane, even though the
unbounded domain scatter in different directions, they converge
towards the point at infinity. Hence the definition of neighbourhood at
z = ∞ has a meaning. This is nothing but the exterior of all circles
centered at origin.
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Stereographic projection
Example
√
Question. Find the point corresponding to 1 + i 3 in the Riemannian
sphere. √
Answer. Let (x, y ) = (1, 3) in the plane. Let the corresponding point
be (α, β, γ). Then
2Re z
2Im z |z|2 − 1
α= β= , , γ=
|z|2 + 1
|z|2 + 1 |z|2 + 1
√
2 2 3 3
=⇒α = , β = , γ= .
5 5 5
√
Hence the point is (1/5, 2 3/5, 3/5).
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Stereographic projection
Example
Question. Find the image of |z|2 > 1 in the Riemannian sphere.
Answer. z = x + iy , |z|2 > 1 implies
|z|2 − 1
γ= > 0.
|z|2 + 1
Hence the corresponding values in the Riemannian sphere are points
on the upper hemisphere of S.
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Stereographic projection
Example
Question. For all lines and circles in the complex plane C what is the
corresponding structure in the the Riemannian surface S.
Answer. Consider the equation
A(x 2 + y 2 ) + Bx + Cy + D = 0
which corresponds to the following in the complex plane.
A = 0, D 6= 0 is the equation of a line not passing through origin.
A 6= 0, D = 0 is the equation of a circle passing through origin.
A = 0, D = 0, is the equation of a line passing through origin.
A 6= 0, D 6= 0 is the equation of a circle not passing through origin.
Now applying the values x = α/(1 − γ) and y = β/(1 − γ), we get
Bα + Cβ + (A − C)γ + A + D = 0
which is the equation of a plane in aAnalysis
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Complex three dimensional structure. 16 / 16
