Name

Officially, the Empire was known as the Empire of Iranians (Middle

Persian: ērānšahr, Parthian: aryānšahr); the term is first attested in the Great Inscription of Shapur I,
where the king says "I am the ruler of Empire of Iranians" (Middle Persian: ērānšahr xwadāy
hēm, Parthian: aryānšahr xwadāy ahēm).[21]
More commonly, due to the fact that the ruling dynasty was named after Sasan, the Empire is known
as the Sasanian Empire in historical and academic sources. This term is also recorded in English as
the Sassanian Empire, the Sasanid Empire and the Sassanid Empire. Historians have also referred
to the Sasanian Empire as the Neo-Persian Empire, since it was the second Iranian empire that rose
from Pars (Persis);[9] while the Achaemenid Empire was the first one.

History
See also: Timeline of the Sasanian Empire

Origins and early history (205–310)

Further information: Kings of Persis, Sasan, and House of Sasan

Initial coinage of founder Ardashir I, as King of Persis Artaxerxes (Ardaxsir) V. Circa CE 205/6–223/4.
Obv: Bearded facing head, wearing diadem and Parthian-style tiara, legend "The divine Ardaxir, king" in
Pahlavi.
Rev: Bearded head of Papak, wearing diadem and Parthian-style tiara, legend "son of the divinity Papak,
king" in Pahlavi.

Conflicting accounts shroud the details of the fall of the Parthian Empire and subsequent rise of the
Sassanian Empire in mystery.[22] The Sassanian Empire was established in Estakhr by Ardashir I.
Ardashir's father, Papak, was originally the ruler of a region called Khir. However, by the year 200,
Papak had managed to overthrow Gochihr and appoint himself the new ruler of the Bazrangids.
Papak's mother, Rodhagh, was the daughter of the provincial governor of Pars. Papak and his eldest
son Shapur managed to expand their power over all of Pars. Subsequent events are unclear due to
the elusive nature of the sources. It is certain, however, that following the death of Papak, Ardashir,
the governor of Darabgerd, became involved in a power struggle with his elder brother Shapur.
Sources reveal that Shapur, leaving for a meeting with his brother, was killed when the roof of a
building collapsed on him. By the year 208, over the protests of his other brothers, who were put to
death, Ardashir declared himself ruler of Pars.[23][24]
1840 illustration of a Sasanian relief at Firuzabad, showing Ardashir I's victory over Artabanus IV and his
forces.

Rock relief of Ardashir I receiving the ring of kingship by the Zoroastrian supreme god Ahura Mazda.

Once Ardashir was appointed shah (King), he moved his capital further to the south of Pars and
founded Ardashir-Khwarrah (formerly Gur, modern day Firuzabad). The city, well protected by high
mountains and easily defensible due to the narrow passes that approached it, became the centre of
Ardashir's efforts to gain more power. It was surrounded by a high, circular wall, probably copied
from that of Darabgird. Ardashir's palace was on the north side of the city; remains of it are extant.
After establishing his rule over Pars, Ardashir rapidly extended his territory, demanding fealty from
the local princes of Fars, and gaining control over the neighbouring provinces
of Kerman, Isfahan, Susiana and Mesene. This expansion quickly came to the attention of
Artabanus V, the Parthian king, who initially ordered the governor of Khuzestan to wage war against
Ardashir in 224, but Ardashir was victorious in the ensuing battles. In a second attempt to destroy
Ardashir, Artabanus himself met Ardashir in battle at Hormozgan, where the former met his death.
Following the death of the Parthian ruler, Ardashir went on to invade the western provinces of the
now defunct Parthian Empire.[25]

Rock-face relief at Naqsh-e Rostam of Persian emperor Shapur I (on horseback) capturing Roman
emperor Valerian (standing) and Philip the Arab (kneeling), suing for peace, following the victory at Edessa.

At that time the Arsacid dynasty was divided between supporters of Artabanus V and Vologases VI,
which probably allowed Ardashir to consolidate his authority in the south with little or no interference
from the Parthians. Ardashir was aided by the geography of the province of Fars, which was
separated from the rest of Iran.[26] Crowned in 224 at Ctesiphon as the sole ruler of Persia, Ardashir
took the title shahanshah, or "King of Kings" (the inscriptions mention Adhur-Anahid as
his Banbishnan banbishn, "Queen of Queens", but her relationship with Ardashir has not been fully
established), bringing the 400-year-old Parthian Empire to an end, and beginning four centuries of
Sassanid rule.[27]
In the next few years, local rebellions occurred throughout the empire. Nonetheless, Ardashir I
further expanded his new empire to the east and northwest, conquering the provinces
of Sakastan, Gorgan, Khorasan, Marw (in modern Turkmenistan), Balkh and Chorasmia. He also
added Bahrain and Mosul to the Sassanid possessions. Later Sassanid inscriptions also claim the
submission of the Kings of Kushan, Turan and Makuran to Ardashir, although based on numismatic
evidence it is more likely that these actually submitted to Ardashir's son, the future Shapur I. In the
west, assaults against Hatra, Armenia and Adiabene met with less success. In 230, Ardashir raided
deep into Roman territory, and a Roman counter-offensive two years later ended inconclusively,
although the Roman emperor, Alexander Severus, celebrated a triumph in Rome.[28][29][30]

The Humiliation of Valerian by Shapur (Hans Holbein the Younger, 1521, pen and black ink on a chalk
sketch, Kunstmuseum Basel)

Ardashir I's son Shapur I continued the expansion of the empire, conquering Bactria and the western
portion of the Kushan Empire, while leading several campaigns against Rome. Invading Roman
Mesopotamia, Shapur I captured Carrhae and Nisibis, but in 243 the Roman
general Timesitheus defeated the Persians at Rhesaina and regained the lost territories.[31] The
emperor Gordian III's (238–244) subsequent advance down the Euphrates was defeated
at Meshike (244), leading to Gordian's murder by his own troops and enabling Shapur to conclude a
highly advantageous peace treaty with the new emperor Philip the Arab, by which he secured the
immediate payment of 500,000 denarii and further annual payments.
Shapur soon resumed the war, defeated the Romans at Barbalissos (253), and then probably took
and plundered Antioch.[31][32] Roman counter-attacks under the emperor Valerian ended in disaster
when the Roman army was defeated and besieged at Edessa and Valerian was captured by Shapur,
remaining his prisoner for the rest of his life. Shapur celebrated his victory by carving the impressive
rock reliefs in Naqsh-e Rostam and Bishapur, as well as a monumental inscription in Persian
and Greek in the vicinity of Persepolis. He exploited his success by advancing into Anatolia (260),
but withdrew in disarray after defeats at the hands of the Romans and
their Palmyrene ally Odaenathus, suffering the capture of his harem and the loss of all the Roman
territories he had occupied.[33][34]
The spread of Manichaeism (300–500)[35]

Shapur had intensive development plans. He ordered the construction of the first dam bridge in
Iran and founded many cities, some settled in part by emigrants from the Roman territories, including
Christians who could exercise their faith freely under Sassanid rule. Two
cities, Bishapur and Nishapur, are named after him. He particularly favoured Manichaeism,
protecting Mani (who dedicated one of his books, the Shabuhragan, to him) and sent many
Manichaean missionaries abroad. He also befriended a Babylonian rabbi called Samuel.
This friendship was advantageous for the Jewish community and gave them a respite from the
oppressive laws enacted against them. Later kings reversed Shapur's policy of religious tolerance.
When Shapur's son Bahram I acceded to the throne, he was pressured by the Zoroastrian high-
priest Kartir Bahram I to kill Mani and persecute his followers. Bahram II was also amenable to the
wishes of the Zoroastrian priesthood.[36][37] During his reign, the Sassanid capital Ctesiphon was
sacked by the Romans under Emperor Carus, and most of Armenia, after half a century of Persian
rule, was ceded to Diocletian.[38]
Succeeding Bahram III (who ruled briefly in 293), Narseh embarked on another war with the
Romans. After an early success against the Emperor Galerius near Callinicum on the Euphrates in
296, he was eventually decisively defeated by them. Galerius had been reinforced, probably in the
spring of 298, by a new contingent collected from the empire's Danubian holdings.[39] Narseh did not
advance from Armenia and Mesopotamia, leaving Galerius to lead the offensive in 298 with an
attack on northern Mesopotamia via Armenia. Narseh retreated to Armenia to fight Galerius's force,
to the former's disadvantage: the rugged Armenian terrain was favourable to Roman infantry, but not
to Sassanid cavalry. Local aid gave Galerius the advantage of surprise over the Persian forces, and,
in two successive battles, Galerius secured victories over Narseh.[40]

Rome and satellite kingdom of Armenia around 300, after Narseh's defeat

During the second encounter, Roman forces seized Narseh's camp, his treasury, his harem, and his
wife.[40] Galerius advanced into Media