How Products Are Made

Made How Volume 1 Refrigerator

Refrigerator
Background

Prior to the development of artificial refrigeration techniques during the 1800s,

people utilized a variety of means to chill and preserve foodstuffs. For centuries,
ice served as the principal refrigerant. Ironically, the ancient Indians and
Egyptians pioneered an ice-making technique that served as the conceptual basis for
the first "modern" refrigerators developed during the nineteenth century:
evaporation. The relatively quick evaporation of a liquid creates an expanding
volume of gas. As water vapor rises, its kinetic energy increases dramatically, in
part because the warm vapor is drawing in energy from its surroundings, which are
cooled by this process. The Indians and Egyptians took advantage of this phenomenon
by placing wide, shallow bowls filled with water outside during the cool nights. As
some water quickly evaporated, the remaining water cooled, forming ice. With this
method, it was possible to create sizeable chunks of ice that could then be used to
cool food.

Using a more primitive means of procuring ice, the ancient Chinese simply
transported it from the mountains to cool their food; later, the Greeks and Romans
adopted this practice. To preserve the ice itself, people stored it in pits or
caves insulated with straw and wood, by which means they could maintain a supply of
ice for months. In industrialized nations, ice served as the primary method of
chilling food through the nineteenth century, when people inserted blocks of ice in
insulated cabinets alongside the food they wished to store. Even today, in many
developing nations ice remains the sole available refrigerant.

The first known attempt to develop an artificial refrigerator took place in

Scotland at the University of Glasgow. There, in 1748, William Cullen revived the
ancient Indian-Egyptian practice of freezing liquid by means of evaporation,
although he accelerated the process by boiling ethyl ether into a partial vacuum
(ethyl evaporates more quickly than water). Cullen attempted this merely as an
experiment, as did American Oliver Evans, who designed another refrigerator in
1805. Evans's machine, based on a closed cycle of compressed ether, represented the
first effort to use simple vapor instead of vaporizing a liquid. While Evans never
developed his machine beyond the prototype stage, in 1844 an American doctor named
John Gorrie actually built a very similar machine to provide ice for the hospital
in which he worked. Gorrie's machine compressed air that was next cooled with
water. The cooled air was then routed into an engine cylinder, and, as it re-
expanded, its temperature dropped enough so that ice could be made.

In 1856 another American, Alexander Twinning, began selling a refrigeration machine

based on the same vapor-compression principle, and soon after that Australian James
Harrison enlarged the American design (meant to be used in individual homes) for
the meat-packing and beer-making industries. Three years later, Ferdinand Carre
refined the basic concept underlying all of these refrigerators when he introduced
ammonia as a coolant. Ammonia represented an advance because it expands more
rapidly than water and can thus absorb more heat from its environs. Carre also
contributed other innovations. His refrigerator operated by means of a cycle in
which a refrigerant vapor (ammonia) was absorbed in a liquid (a mixture of ammonia
and water) that was subsequently heated. The heat caused the refrigerant
The outer cabinet and door, made of sheet metal, are either welded or clinched
together. While some manufacturers also use sheet metal for the inner cabinet, some
manufacturers and some models use plastic for inner liners. The plastic liners are
made by vacuum forming. In this process, a thick piece of plastic slightly larger
than the finished part has its outer edges clamped and is then heated. The hot
plastic is next pulled by vacuum into a mold and cooled. After trimming, the
resulting part is ready for assembly.
The outer cabinet and door, made of sheet metal, are either welded or clinched
together. While some manufacturers also use sheet metal for the inner cabinet, some
manufacturers and some models use plastic for inner liners. The plastic liners are
made by vacuum forming. In this process, a thick piece of plastic slightly larger
than the finished part has its outer edges clamped and is then heated. The hot
plastic is next pulled by vacuum into a mold and cooled. After trimming, the
resulting part is ready for assembly.
to vaporize, thereby creating a cooling effect (after it vaporized, the refrigerant
was condensed so that it could once again be absorbed in the liquid, repeating the
cycle). Carre's machine not only sold extremely well, it also inaugurated modern
refrigeration by upgrading Evans's compression concept and adding a more
sophisticated refrigerant. These components remain the basis of most refrigerators
used today.

Ammonia itself posed several problems, however. While it served as a very effective
coolant, it was both odiferous and poisonous when it leaked, and it quickly
disappeared from refrigeration after synthetic alternatives were developed during
the 1920s. The best known of these, patented by Du Pont under the name freon, was
created by chemically altering the methane molecule, substituting two chlorine and
two fluorine atoms for its four hydrogen atoms. The resulting gas (technically,
dichlorofluoromethane) was hailed because its low boiling point, surface tension,
and viscosity rendered it an ideal—and ostensibly problem-free—refrigerant. Later,
in the 1970s, scientists realized that freon posed problems of its own related to
the environment (see "Environmental Concerns" section below) and began searching
for new agents to use in refrigeration.
Raw Materials

Refrigerators today consist of several basic components: the exterior cabinet and
door, the inner cabinet or liner, the insulation inserted between the two, the
cooling system, the refrigerant, and the fixtures. The cabinet and door are made of
aluminum or steel sheet metal that is sometimes prepainted. The metal is generally
purchased in a coil that is either fed directly into the manufacturing process or
cut to size and fed sheet by sheet. The inner cabinet is made of sheet metal, like
the outer cabinet, or of plastic. The insulation that fills the gap between the
inner and outer cabinets consists of fiberglass or polyfoam. The components of the
cooling system (compressor, condenser, coils, fins) are made of aluminum, copper,
or an alloy. The tubing is usually copper, because of that metal's ductility—its
ability to bend without breaking. Freon remains the most commonly used refrigerant,
and almost all of the large interior fixtures (door and cabinet liners) are made
from vacuum-formed plastic; smaller fixtures (butter compartments, egg trays, salad
crispers) are purchased as small plastic blanks or in pre-formed pieces.
Design

The contemporary refrigerator is based on two basic laws of physics: one, that heat
flows from warmer material to cooler materials and never the reverse; two, that
decreasing the pressure of a gas also decreases its temperature. Although
refinements have been made since Carre introduced his model during the late
nineteenth century, these basic principles are still visible in today's
refrigerators.

A refrigerator works by removing the warmth from the air within its interior
compartments and relaying that heat to the air outside. Beginning in the
evaporator, the freon is heated and begins to draw heat from the air within the
refrigerator. Having absorbed this heat, the freon is then routed to the condenser
by the compressor. In this set of copper coils (usually mounted at the back or on
the bottom of the refrigerator), the freon returns to a liquid state, transferring
its heat into the outside air as it does so. After cooling, the freon returns to
the evaporator, where the cycle begins again.
A refrigerator works by removing the warmth from the air within its interior
compartments and relaying that heat to the air outside. Beginning in the
evaporator, the freon is heated and begins to draw heat from the air within the
refrigerator. Having absorbed this heat, the freon is then routed to the condenser
by the compressor. In this set of copper coils (usually mounted at the back or on
the bottom of the refrigerator), the freon returns to a liquid state, transferring
its heat into the outside air as it does so. After cooling, the freon returns to
the evaporator, where the cycle begins again.

Refrigerators work by removing the warmth from the air within their interior
compartments and relaying that heat to the air outside. The coolant (freon)
accomplishes this transfer as it passes through a circuit, moving from the
evaporator to the condenser. Beginning in the evaporator, which lies inside an
insulated cabinet, the freon is heated. Because it has been made to boil, the freon
draws heat from the air within the refrigerator. Having absorbed this heat, the
freon is then routed to the condenser. In this set of copper coils (usually mounted
at the back or on the bottom of the refrigerator), the freon condenses—returns to a
liquid state—transferring its heat into the outside air as it does so. After
cooling, the freon then returns to the evaporator, where it is once again heated
and begins to absorb heat from the food stored within the refrigerator. Sometimes,
to increase their surface area (and thus facilitate thermal transfer), the
evaporator and the condenser are fitted with metal fins.

For defrosting, a coil is wrapped around the freezer unit. When the timer reaches
defrost, the refrigerant is passed through this coil while it is hot to raise the
temperature and melt the ice. The coil is generally positioned away from any ice
makers to prevent the ice cubes from melting and freezing together.
The Manufacturing
Process
Outer cabinet and door

1 Pieces of sheet metal are either welded or clinched together. Clinching is a

process closely resembling stapling in that the two pieces are crimped together
under pressure, though no additional pieces such as staples are added. If the part
of the cabinet is to be visible, it will be welded and ground down to appear as one
piece. The extent to which the welding process is automated depends on the company
and the number of refrigerators being produced.
2 If the sheet metal was not purchased in precoated form, it is now painted.
Some manufacturers use spray equipment to lay a uniform coat of paint on the metal.
Others dip the parts in a paint/solvent mixture before heating them to bake the
paint onto the surface.

Inner cabinet

3 The inner cabinet is sometimes made from sheet metal very similar to the
outer shell. Any seams are caulked to improve insulation and looks. Some
manufacturers and some models use plastic for inner liners; for example, the inner
door is almost exclusively made from plastic today. The plastic liners are vacuum
formed. In this process, a thick piece of plastic slightly larger than the finished
part has its outer edges clamped and is then heated. The hot plastic is next pulled
by vacuum into a mold and cooled. After trimming, the resulting part is ready for
assembly.
4 The inner cabinet is inserted into the outer cabinet, and the two are snapped
together before the fixtures are inserted. Some tubes and wires are run through the
gap between the two before it is filled with insulation. A dispensing device
(sometimes robotically operated, sometimes a manually operated long 'gun') inserts
foam between the walls. When heated in an oven, this foam expands to add rigidity
and insulation to the cabinet. A similar process is used for the doors.

Cooling system

5 The refrigeration components are attached to the cabinet using screws and
clips. The tubing is soldered together, and a protective coating is sprayed on the
joints. The order of this assembly varies between manufacturers and models. The
copper tubing from which the coils (condensers and evaporators) have separately
been cut, bent, and soldered is then attached to the refrigerator as a unit.
6 The seal on the refrigerator door is created by means of magnet laden gaskets
that are attached to the doors with screws. Handles and hinges are also screwed
onto the door before its hinges are screwed onto the cabinet. Some adjustment is
allowed for proper operation of the door.

Testing and adding accessories

7 Most manufacturers mix testing with manufacturing from this point on. The
unit is leak tested with nitrogen (a safe gas that makes up about 79 percent of the
air); if it passes, it is charged with refrigerant and subjected to further
testing. Next, the accessories (shelves, crispers, ice trays, etc.) are added and
taped down for shipping. The unit is given a final look and then packaged for
shipping.

Quality Control

As mentioned above, all subassemblies of tubing that will contain refrigerant are
pressure-tested with nitrogen, which will reveal any flaws in the tubing and in the
soldering that joins it. The entire unit is also leak-tested prior to charging with
freon. Once charged, the unit is tested as a whole to ensure that it is capable of
reaching design temperatures including those necessary during the defrost cycle.
The unit is operated with sensors inside that determine the temperature changes
over time. Sometimes the refrigerant pressures are also measured. The unit is then
subjected to a final 'sniff test by a machine that detects refrigerant to ensure
that no leaks have developed during testing.
By products/Waste

Metal components that are rejected are sold to metal recycling companies. Plastic
components are ground into small pieces and either reused as raw material or
returned to the vendor for reuse. If a unit is rejected after it has been charged,
the refrigerant is drained by special equipment and reused.
Environmental Concerns

In the mid-1970s, scientists began to understand that as gases in the

chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) group, which includes freon, waft upward into the
stratosphere (the upper layer of the atmosphere), they gradually decompose,
The space between the inner and outer cabinets is filled with foam insulation,
usually polystyrene, which can be inserted manually or automatically by a robot.
When heated in an oven, this foam expands to add rigidity and insulation to the
cabinet. Because this insulation releases CFCs, which contribute to the destruction
of the ozone layer, researchers are searching for substitutes. The polystyrene may
be replaced by the same kind of vacuum insulation that is used in thermos bottles,
since vacuum insulation is more efficient in terms of both space and energy.
The space between the inner and outer cabinets is filled with foam insulation,
usually polystyrene, which can be inserted manually or automatically by a robot.
When heated in an oven, this foam expands to add rigidity and insulation to the
cabinet.
Because this insulation releases CFCs, which contribute to the destruction of the
ozone layer, researchers are searching for substitutes. The polystyrene may be
replaced by the same kind of vacuum insulation that is used in thermos bottles,
since vacuum insulation is more efficient in terms of both space and energy.
releasing chlorine atoms as they do so. The problem with this is that each chlorine
atom can destroy tens of thousand of ozone molecules, ozone being the triatomic
form of oxygen that comprises a protective layer in the stratosphere, absorbing
much solar ultraviolet radiation that would harm animal life if it reached the
earth's surface. As researchers realized that CFC emissions were exacerbating the
hole in the ozone layer over the Antarctic continent, public pressure to limit
emissions mounted. In 1987, representatives from nations around the globe signed an
agreement, the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, in
which they agreed to phase out production of the chemicals known to deplete the
ozone layer, including freon. Unfortunately, chlorofluorocarbons are also present
in the polystyrene foam that some manufacturers use as an insulator between the
external case and the interior lining of their refrigerators. So, efforts to reduce
the CFC emissions from refrigerators are presently continuing on two fronts, as
manufacturers attempt to find alternatives to both the coolant freon and the
insulator polystyrene.

The Future

In terms of freon, several intermediate steps have been taken to minimize CFC
emission as researchers attempt to identify safe coolant alternatives. Refrigerator
designs have been improved to reduce the amount of freon needed; leak detection
systems have been installed; maintenance has been limited to trained, authorized
personnel; and refrigerant is recovered and recycled whenever possible. Moreover,
long-term replacements for freon are being explored. Thus far, the most promising
among them is HCFC-22, which, although still a chlorofluorocarbon, contains an
additional hydrogen atom that reduces the molecule's ozone-depletion capacity by 95
percent. While its cost (three to five times greater than that of freon) is
problematic, HCFC-22 is presently undergoing tests to determine its toxicity.

CFC-containing insulation may be replaced by the same kind of vacuum insulation

that is used in thermos bottles. Research indicates that vacuum insulation is more
efficient in terms of both space and energy, so, at present, it appears that
insulation alternatives will become viable well before freon substitutes.
Where To Learn More
Books

Boast, Michael F. Newnes Refrigeration Pocket Book. Butterworth-Heinemann, 1991.

Cerepnalkovski, I. Modern Refrigerating Machines. Elsevier Science Publishing,

1991.

Dellino, Clive V. Cold and Chilled Storage Technology. Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1989.

Marsh, R. Warren and Olive C. Throats. Principles of Refrigeration. Delmar

Publishers Inc., 1979.

Stoecker, W. F. and J. W. Jones. Refrigeration & Air Conditioning. McGraw-Hill,

1982.
Periodicals

"Refrigeration's Revitalization." Appliance, February 1993, pp. 54-58.

"Refrigerator Doors Have a 'Clear' Edge." Design News. January 7, 1991, p. 33.

"A $30-million Super-Efficient Refrigerator." Electrical World. July, 1992, p. 30.

Marbach, William D. "Now, An Icebox That's Cool for the Environment." Business
Week. July 22, 1991, p. 65.
Murray, Charles J. "Plastic Welding Technique Aids Refrigerator Assembly: Special
Parts Replace Metal Anchors on Refrigerator Liners." Design News. February 15,
1988, p. 230.

— Barry M. Marton
Other articles you might like:
Also read article about Refrigerator from Wikipedia
User Contributions:
1
kevork Barsoumian
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Sep 20, 2006 @ 3:03 am
We need information about how to manufacter condenser coils for domestic
refrigerator
2
simon lyangi
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Nov 20, 2017 @ 3:15 pm
Am a small engines mechanic and I used guess myself to fix a fridge and I some
similar parts like capacitor and arltinators I used to found them in generators so
am I correct?
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