a j/ Liveay variafle di fercuh Asansformer (Lv0T) TA 38 yrott cody coed injuchve Avamsquer te Aramslole the Cisvear motion ints electrical agaeks Source Prim, Arm — Buplacemnt a ™y ma ay Sec. Bier 2 7» Not Via= Vig XO" fas one prim. ad twe sec. coins See. cond fave equal wo of furns, and art ideupreatty placed om either aide go primary wry A wovadle sof fron core is plac) inside the formen The displacemend ib fo Le measured fr applied fo arm attached do (rt. To proche core JS made t dish per re ail ity ekel wow, whieh Yo hyd ree ayueated Was giro low harmove fow nall eae aw) oh sensibly Sree When prin is exched, if prodeces oc cae In gee, Whe yucd emb in feof 260 coy. olp weds 7 ac Sg os Ved a Se 2 Ve a Scanned with CamScannerThe eon secomames are conned 4 opposition Wo tanh offers slp a © Core ie ad ahr paypal ( null) goshon, the Laking Gath Gath ec. wns & ore equ and ego eofs are jp Ouced At welt pear hoy Vo = NS4> Vig tobe w Flux tren Vo > Vay- Vie =O N . SS core is move) fo she lefty J Nott positon, wore Flax Labs ith Sa gud Vay > = WOS Vo —> Ave 204 in habe cots prim, Seilely > TTF Core it prone) qe Me DEM, 7 nat ponhion, Neu >Ne, a Vp a rve | ED 100 mt J pha uth pre Tue Qilfer bal voltages ave Bo" cut J phere ote each ather- The auowd 4 volrace cha mM adher gee. a) is pre pat Bona Gyo aera Hl rmovernen}. 9 we, by nobing ofp vethoge is ® ow \, ort cau Delewmue Jirchon J wehon ai i yor The cane és Linear 7 (A ie eet fer a Limits rege I . \ : J | | / Psplacement fro the \ ; ‘ : / be nuth podihen o | aot (aceymey — Pinel Scanned with CamScanner ws \—~ Kessons fer yesiduel vobtage ot null pasitionn | Moy be gue te harmonics present in tle vote ge and terre olf voltage, ‘ nay net be exactly identical « \ Secondary sind gs Spray magnetic field Scanned with CamScannerPrimary Senaing Elements and Transducers 815 When the two stator windings are excited, the outputs are as under Fra Foi.g 6088+ Bg._, sin ...25.104) Fra-a™ Fo2.¢ 008 0-Boy_ 9 sin 8 (28:05) When two rotor windings are excited, we get the following outputs from the stator win: oy. = Epy.g C08 O- Exa_4 sin 8 ...(25.106) arta Fag 4 250+ Egy. sin 85.107) For all above equations 6 = angular displacement Fig. 28.103 Schematig ‘diagram of a parallel of rotor, plate capdcitive transducer, 25.27.1 Classification of Resolvers ‘The capacitive transducer works on the Principle Resolvers are classified in two groups : of change of capacitance Which may be caused by: A. Computing resolvers and Véi) Change in overlapping area A, A. Synchro resolvers Ai) Change in the distance d between the plates, and Computing Resolvers are used for Benerating sine, ii) Change in dielectric constant. Cosine, and tangent functions as well as for solving Beometric relationships. These changes are caused by physical variables Synchro Resolvers are used. ed eee ie displacement force and pressure in most of the They perform the same functions as synchro ge in capacitance may be caused by ae change in dielectric constant a0 thee \ ‘transmitters, receivers and control transformers but meanremena ot ma dor ge levee is ase in witha beter accuracy. ‘The capacitance may be measured with bridge 25.27.3 Applications of Resolvers Circuits. The output impedance of a capacitive The applications of resolvers are-: transducer is : (Vector resolution, X,=1/29f¢, (Gi) Vector composition, where C= capacitance and (fii) Vector angle and component resolution, J =frequency of excitation in Hz (v) Pulse amplitude control and pulse resoluti In general, the outpr (0 Peeemig wm anterihigh tut impedance of a capacitive This fact calls for a careful design of the output circuitry. CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCERS ‘The capacitive transducers are commonly used ©The principle of operation of capacitive for “measiremem of Tinear displacement. These ‘transducers is based upon the familiar equation for fansducers use the following effects : ‘capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor. ir Thange in capacitance due to change in overlapping area of plates, and Capacitance C=e A/d i) Change in capacitance due to change in ef Ald 050) distance between the two plates, Where A= overlapping area of plates ; m2, 25.28.1. Transducers Using Change in = distance between two plates ; m, ‘Area of Plates ©= €,£9 = permittivity of medium ; F/m, Examining the equation for capacitance (Eqn. 25.108), «, = elative permittivity, i itis found that the capacitance is directly pro ittivity of ; to the aes, A of Ie alates Thar te ‘capacitance * ae ee eee changes linearly with change ini area of plates. Hence . . this type of capacitive transducer is useful for ‘A parallel plate capacitors is shown in Fig, 25,103. ‘measurement of moderate to large displacements say se displacements 3 Scanned with CamScanner816 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation from 1 mm to several centimetres. The elementary ams of two types of capacitive transducers are Shen in Figs. 25.104(a) and (#). The area changes linearly with displacement and also the capacitance. Figure 25.105 shows the variation of capacitance. As ‘mentioned earlier, the response is linear as shown, the initial non-linearity is due to edge effects. The principle _of change of capacitance with change in area can be employed for measurement of angular displacement. Figure 25.106(a) shows a two- "plate capacitor. One plate is fixed and the other is movable. The arigular displacement to be measured is applied to movable plate. The angular displacement ‘changes the effective area Between the plates and thus ‘changes the capacitance. The capacitance is maximum, “When the two plates completely overlap each oth ~ Maximum value of capacitance . eA _ ner 1 Ca = = EF (25.114) Capacitance at angle 0 is, vor (25.115) 2d where @ mngular displacement in radian. Scanned with CamScannerPrimary Sensing Elements and Transducers 817, x ec _ er Sensitivity x. ity S-5 25.116) Fixed plate “ue Max: “Angular Min Seplacement,@ yt Cc} Fig 25-106 Capacitive transducer for measurement of angular displacement. _Therefore, the variation of capacitance with angular _Aisplacement is linear. This is shown in Fig. 25.106(), It should be understood that the above, mentioned capacitive transducer can be used for a maximum angular displacement of 180°. 25.28.2. Trensducers Using Change in Distonce between Plates Figure 25.107(a) shows the basic form of a capacitive transducer utilizing the effect of change of capacitance with change in distance between the two plates. One is a fixed plate and the displacement to be measured is applied to the other plate which is movable. Since, the capacitance, C, varies inversely as the distance d; between the plates the response of this transducer is not linear and as shown in Fig. 25.107(b). Thus, this transducer is useful only for measurement of extremely small disp! Sensitivity (25.117) From Egn. 25.108, itis clear that the sensitivity of this type of transducer is not constant but varies over the range of the transducer. Thus, as explained earlier ansducer exhi ‘linear characteristics. The relationship between variation of capa- citance, C with variation of distance between plates, x, plate iV pute 0 — TH capscace mores . = er TH g a g 5 1 a ‘Op — Displacements —4 ® 07 Capacttive transducer using the principle ef change of cpectence wit change of distance between plates. is hyperbolic and is only approximately linear over a ‘small range of displacement, The linearity can be closely approximated by use of a piece of dielectric ‘material like mica having a high dielectric constant. In this type of transducer, a thin piece of mica thinner than the minimum gap distance is inserted between the plates. ‘Theoretically, the sensitivity of the transducer can bbe increased to any desirable value by making the distance between the plates extremely small. But a practical limit is reached when the electric field strength in the MPBap exceeds the breakdown voltage. ‘The breakdown limit in air at atmospheric pressure is about 3 kV/mm. Figure 25.108 shows an arrangement for measure rmient of linear displacement. The displacement when applied to the cantilever type spring plate moves it towards the second plate decreasing the distance. This increases the capacitance of the capacitor. It is clear that the capacitance of air dielectric capacitor does not vary linearly with change in distance between the plates and therefore, this arrangement is funda- ‘mentally non-linear. However, linearity can be closely approximated by keeping the change in the distance small or by having a medium of high dielectric constant in the space between the two plates. Scanned with CamScannerPrimary Sensing Elements and Transducers B23 Capacitance of transducer caac = Sele wee Sensitivity of transducer 2C_ Ay ad 88.85 «107172510 0.25x 10° = -3540 pF/m = 3.54 pF/mm (Disregarding the sign). Example 25.40 A capacitive transducer uses two ‘quartz diaphragms of area 750 mm, separated by a distance (f 35 mam. A pressure of 900 KNinn” when applied to the top diaphragm produces a deflection of 0.6 mm. The capacitance is 370 pF when no pressure is applied to the diaphragms. Find the value of capacitance aftr the application of a pressure of 900 KNIm?. Solution. Suppose C, and C, are respectively the values of capacitance before and after application of pressure. Let d, and d, be the values of distance between the diaphragms for the corresponding pressure conditions. C=eA/d, and C,=cA/d, Caen or = G4 2Gx4 Gog But d, =35 mmand d, =35-06=29mm «Value of capacitance after application of pressure C, =370 3.5/2.9 = 446.5 pF Example 25.41. A pressure measuring instrument uses 1 capacitive transducer having a spacing of ¢ mm between its diaphragms. A pressure of 600 KNim’ produces an average deflection of 0.3 mm of the diaphragm of the transducer. The transducer which has a capacitance of 300 pF before application of pressure and is connected in an oscillator circuit having a frequency of 100 kHz. Determine the change frequency of the oscillator after the pressure is applied to the transducer. Solution. The subscript 1 is used for values before application of pressure and 2 is used for values after application of pressure. Resonant frequency fg=V2nVC The inductance is constant but the capacitance is variable. os fy =W/2nJLC, and fy =1/2n,JLC ‘Thus we have, Foal fn =VOIG C=eA/d, G=eAld, fa. & = B fa VS VA ‘The frequency of the oscillator after the appli- cation of pressure is : fa [in (0.3 + 4. 40 Change in frequency of oscillator = 100 -96.2 = 3.8 kHz. Example 25.42 A capacitive transducer is made up of oo concentric cylindrical electrodes. The outer diameter of the inner cylindrical electrode is 3 mm and the dielectric medium is air. The inner diameter of the outer electrode is 3.1 mm. Calculate the dielectric stress when a voltage of 100 V- is applied across the electrodes. Is it within safe limits ? The length of electrodes is 20 mm. Calculate the change in capacitance if the inner electrode is moved through a distance of 2 mm. The breakdown strength of air is 3 kV/mm. Solution. Length of air gap between the two electrodes (3.1-3)/2 = 0.05 mm -. Dielectric stress = 100/0.05 = 2000 V/mm =2 kV/mm ‘The breakdown strength of air is 3 kV/mm and hence the dielectric is safe. Capacitance of the transducer = 2nel Jog,(D,/ D,) _ 2x 8,85x 107 x 20x10? 10g,(3.1/3) The moving in electrode is shifted through a distance of 2 mm. 1220-2 =18 mm = 18x10 m New value of capacitance nx 8.85x 1071? x 18x10 10g,8.1/3) Change in value of capacitance AC = 33.9 ~30.5=34 pF But and x100=96.2 kHz F=33.9 pF F=339 pF Scanned with CamScannerExample 25.43 A capacitive transducer circuit used Jor measurement of linear displacement. The transducer is a parallel plate air capacitor wherein the capacitance can be changed by changing the distance between the plates. This transducer is to be used for dynamic measurements. Suppose a flat frequency response with an amplitude ratio within 5% is required down to a frequency range of 20 Hz. What is the minimum allowable value of time constant ? Calculate the phase shift at this frequency. The area of plates is 300 mm and the distance between plates is 0.125 mm. Calculate the value of series resistance R. What is the ‘amplitude ratio at 5 Hz with the above time constant ? Calculate the high frequency voltage sensitivity of the transducer ifthe battery voltage is 100 V. Solution. For a flat response within 5 percent, the amplitude ratio is M=1-0.05 =0.95 From Eqn. 25.125 Me f+(1/ or)? | 1 095 = 1+(1/2x wx20x 2) or Minimum time constant = 242 x 10% 5=24.2 ms From Eqn. 25.126, phase shift $=x/2-tan cor = /2—tan™ (2x x 20 x 24.2 x10) =18.2° Capacitance | _ 8.85% 10"? x300x 10% | “0125x107 I = 2124x107? :. Series resistance x _ 242x107 C 2124x10 14x 10°Q =11409 Amplitude ratio at 5 Hz is : 1 M = f+ (0/2xnx5x24.2x 1 605 Thus the output is reduced nearly to 60% of its high frequency value. Therefore this transducer arrangement cannot be used for iow frequency applications. High frequency sensitivity of the transducer x=, __10_ x 0.125 x10 =800x10°V / 800 kV/m. 824 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation sample 25.44 A parallel plate capacitive transducer ses ane of area 500 mm’ which are separated by a distance 0.2 mm. Calculate the value of capacitance when the di- electric is air having a permittivity of 8.85 x 107” Fj m (0) Calculate the change in capacitance if a linear displacement reduces the distance between the plates to 0.18 mm. Also calculate the ratio of per unit change of capacitance to per unit change of displacement (Gi). Suppose a mica sheet 0.01 mm thick is inserted in the gap. Calculate the value of original capaci- lance and change in capacitance for the same displacement. Also calculate the ratio of per unit change in capacitance to per unit change in displacement. The dielectric constant of mica is 8. Solution. Initial capacitance fA a = 8.85 x10" x 500 x10 “02x10 =22.125pF (@ Change in displacement Ad =0.2 -0.18=0.02mm Capacitance after application of displacement, 8.85 x10"? x 500 x10* S88 x10 = 50x10" 0:18 «10 =24.583 pF (Change in capacitance AC = 24.583 - 22.125 = 2.458 pF. C+AC= 111 (0.02 /0.2) (i) Initially the displacement between the plates is 0.2 mm. Since the thickness of mica is 0.01 mm, the length. of air gap between the plates Initial capacitance of transducer, = EA. © [64,18 = 885x107 x 500 x10°* (0.19 /1 + 0.01/8)x 10 =23.137pF When a displacement of 0.02 mm is applied, the length of air gap is reduced to (0.19 - 0.02) =0.17 mm. co - Scanned with CamScanner825 j Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers ' Capacitance with displacement applied 885010 Ps ROO 10 - AW 28 Op (017/14 001/810 Change in capacitance AC = 28.839 23137 = 2.702 pF Ratio AC/C _ 702 /25.839) ad/d” (002/02) 1.046 Example 25.45 A variable capacitance angular Selocty pickup ws shown in Fig, 25.118(a). Prove that the current. flowing im the circuit in which the transducer is connected across a battery of constant dic. vollage Ey is 4irectly proportional to the angular velocity d0/ dt. Since roltage signals are readily manipulated, how might the ‘current signal be transduced to a proportional voltage ? The «area of capacitor ts A = KO. Fixed plate Bg a | « a Movable plate o S11 ‘Capacitive transducer for measurement of angular velocity. Solution. The battery voltage, E, is constant while the capacitance, C, is variable and its value depends upon the angular displacement. The overlapping area of plates is proportional to angular displacement, 0, Let A= K@, where K =a constant ‘Suppose the charge is q and the capacitance is C. ac E Coren a a Les Now capacitance C=eA/dand Current j= 6," where K' =a constant Hence current / is proportional to d0/dt or the angular velocity fhe > de, ek Jo A circuit for conversion of current ta. voltage signals is shower in Pig. 25 119 _| Fig. 25.119 Voltage output from a capacitive transducer | ae Scanned with CamScanner