ARELLANO UNIVERSIT and Scott Island and the Balleny Islands,

Y – Jose Rizal Campus claimed by New Zealand.

SCHOOL OF HOSPITALITY AND TOURISM
MANAGEMENT Physical Geography
Gov. Pascual Ave. Malabon City, Metro
Manila 1. Physical Features
TPC 1: GLOBAL CULTURE & TOURISM
The Antarctic Ice Sheet dominates the
GEOGRAPHY
region. It is the largest single piece of ice on
MIDTERM LECTURES
Earth. This ice sheet even extends beyond the
LESSON 2
continent when snow and ice are at their most
ANTARCTICA (from National extreme.

Geographic Society) The ice surface dramatically grows in

size from about 3 million square kilometers (1.2
The continent of Antarctica makes up
million square miles) at the end of summer to
most of the Antarctic region. The Antarctic is a
about 19 million square kilometers (7.3 million
cold, remote area in the Southern Hemisphere
square miles) by winter. Ice sheet growth
encompassed by the Antarctic Convergence.
mainly occurs at the coastal ice shelves,
The Antarctic Convergence is an uneven line of
primarily the Ross Ice Shelf and the Ronne Ice
latitude where cold, northward-flowing
Shelf. Ice shelves are floating sheets of ice that
Antarctic waters meet the warmer waters of the
are connected to the continent. Glacial ice
world’s oceans. The Antarctic covers
moves from the continent’s interior to these
approximately 20 percent of the Southern
lower-elevation ice shelves at rates of 10 to
Hemisphere.
1,000 meters (33-32,808 feet) per year.
Antarctica is the fifth-largest continent
Antarctica has a number of mountain
in terms of total area. (It is larger than both
summits, including the Transantarctic
Oceania and Europe.) Antarctica is a unique
Mountains, which divide the continent into
continent in that it does not have a native
eastern and western regions. A few of these
population. There are no countries in
summits reach altitudes of more than 4,500
Antarctica, although seven nations claim
meters (14,764 feet). The elevation of the
different parts of it: New Zealand, Australia,
Antarctic Ice Sheet itself is about 2,000 meters
France, Norway, the United Kingdom, Chile,
(6,562 feet) and reaches 4,000 meters (13,123
and Argentina.
feet) above sea level near the center of the
The Antarctic also includes island
continent.
territories within the Antarctic Convergence.
Without any ice, Antarctica would
The islands of the Antarctic region are: South
emerge as a giant peninsula and archipelago of
Orkney Islands, South Shetland Islands, South
mountainous islands, known as Lesser
Georgia, and the South Sandwich Islands, all
Antarctica, and a single large landmass about
claimed by the United Kingdom; Peter I Island
the size of Australia, known as Greater
and Bouvet Island, claimed by Norway; Heard
and McDonald islands, claimed by Australia;
Antarctica. These regions have different Precipitation in the Antarctic is hard to
geologies. measure. It always falls as snow. Antarctica’s
interior is believed to receive only 50 to 100
Greater Antarctica, or East Antarctica,
millimeters (2-4 inches) of water (in the form of
is composed of older, igneous and metamorphic
snow) every year. The Antarctic desert is one of
rocks. Lesser Antarctica, or West Antarctica, is
the driest deserts in the world.
made up of younger, volcanic and sedimentary
rock. Lesser Antarctica, in fact, is part of the The Antarctic region has an important
“Ring of Fire,” a tectonically active area around role in global climate processes. It is an integral
the Pacific Ocean. Tectonic activity is the part of the Earth’s heat balance. The heat
interaction of plates on Earth’s crust, often balance, also called the energy balance, is the
resulting in earthquakes and volcanoes. Mount relationship between the amount of solar heat
Erebus, located on Antarctica’s Ross Island, is absorbed by Earth’s atmosphere and the
the southernmost active volcano on Earth. amount of heat reflected back into space.

The majority of the islands and Antarctica has a larger role than most
archipelagos of Lesser Antarctica are volcanic continents in maintaining Earth’s heat balance.
and heavily glaciated. They are also home to a Ice is more reflective than land or water
number of high mountains. surfaces. The massive Antarctic Ice Sheet
reflects a large amount of solar radiation away
The oceans surrounding Antarctica
from Earth’s surface. As global ice cover (ice
provide an important physical component of the
sheets and glaciers) decreases, the reflectivity of
Antarctic region. The waters surrounding
Earth’s surface also decreases. This allows
Antarctica are relatively deep, reaching 4,000 to
more incoming solar radiation to be absorbed
5,000 meters (13,123 to 16,404 feet) in depth.
by the Earth’s surface, causing an unequal heat
2. Climate balance linked to global warming, the current
Antarctica has an extremely cold, dry period of climate change.
climate. Winter temperatures along Antarctica’s Interestingly, NASA scientists have
coast generally range from -10° Celsius to -30° found that climate change has actually caused
Celsius (14° Fahrenheit to -22° Fahrenheit). more ice to form in some parts of Antarctica.
During the summer, coastal areas hover around They say this is happening because of new
0°C (32°F) but can reach temperatures as high climate patterns caused by climate change.
as 9°C (48°F). These patterns create a strong wind pattern
In the mountainous, interior regions, called the "polar vortex." Polar vortex winds
temperatures are much colder, dropping below lower temperatures in the Antarctic and have
-60°C (-76°F) in winter and -20°C (-4°F) in been building in strength in recent decades—as
summer. In 1983, Russia’s Vostok Research much as 15 percent since 1980. This effect is
Station measured the coldest temperature ever not seen throughout the Antarctic, however,
recorded on Earth: -89.2°C (-128.6°F). An even and some parts are experiencing ice melt.
lower temperature was measured using satellite The waters surrounding Antarctica are a
data taken in 2010: -93.2°C (-135.8°F) key part of the “ocean conveyor belt,” a global
system in which water circulates around the The most familiar animal of Antarctica is
globe based on density and on currents. The probably the penguin. They have adapted to the
cold waters surrounding Antarctica, known as cold, coastal waters. Their wings serve as
the Antarctic Bottom Water, are so dense that flippers as they “fly” through the water in
they push against the ocean floor. The Antarctic search of prey such as squid and fish. Their
Bottom Water causes warmer waters to rise, or feathers retain a layer of air, helping them keep
up well. warm in the freezing water.

Antarctic upwelling is so strong that it Cultural Geography

helps move water around the entire planet. This
1. A Culture of Science
movement is aided by strong winds that
circumnavigate Antarctica. Without the aid of While the Antarctic does not have
the oceans around Antarctica, the Earth’s permanent residents, the region is a busy
waters would not circulate in a balanced and outpost for a variety of research scientists.
efficient manner. These scientists work at government-supported
research stations and come from dozens of
3. Flora and Fauna
different countries. The number of scientists
Lichens, mosses, and terrestrial algae conducting research varies throughout the
are among the few species of vegetation that year, from about 1,000 in winter to around
grow in Antarctica. More of this vegetation 5,000 in summer.
grows in the northern and coastal regions of
Researchers from a variety of scientific
Antarctica, while the interior has little if any
backgrounds study the Antarctic not only as a
vegetation.
unique environment, but also as an indicator of
The ocean, however, teems with fish and broader global processes. Geographers map the
other marine life. In fact, the waters surface of the world’s coldest and most isolated
surrounding Antarctica are among the most continent. Meteorologists study climate
diverse on the planet. Upwelling allows patterns, including the “ozone hole” that hovers
phytoplankton and algae to flourish. Thousands over the Antarctic. Climatologists track the
of species, such as krill, feed on the plankton. history of Earth’s climate using ice cores from
Fish and a large variety of marine mammals Antarctica’s pristine ice sheet. Marine biologists
thrive in the cold Antarctic waters. Blue, fin, study the behavior of whales, seals, and squid.
humpback, right, minke, sei, and sperm whales Astronomers make observations from
have healthy populations in Antarctica. Antarctica’s interior because it offers the

One of the apex, or top, predators in clearest view of space from Earth.

Antarctica is the leopard seal. The leopard seal Even astrobiologists, who study the
is one of the most aggressive of all marine possibility of life outside Earth’s atmosphere,
predators. This 3-meter (9-foot), 400-kilogram study materials found in the Antarctic. In 1984,
(882-pound) animal has unusually long, sharp a meteorite from Mars was found in Antarctica.
teeth, which it uses to tear into prey such as The markings on this meteorite were similar to
penguins and fish. markings left by bacteria on Earth. If this
meteorite, millions of years old, actually has the
remains of Martian bacteria, it would be the continent. In 1979, Base Esperanza became the
only scientific evidence for life outside Earth. continent’s first shortwave radio broadcaster,
connecting the research station with
2. Daily Life at Antarctica’s Research
Argentina’s continental territory.
Stations
Davis Station is Australia’s busiest
Antarctica is a unique cultural place
scientific research station. It is located in an
that is best defined by daily life at its diverse
ice-free area known as the Vestfold Hills. Like
research stations. McMurdo Station is a U.S.
most research stations in Antarctica, food is
research center on the southern tip of Ross
very important at Davis Station. Residents live
Island, a territory claimed by New Zealand.
and work closely together in facilities and
McMurdo is the largest station in Antarctica,
outdoor environments that are often very
capable of supporting 1,250 residents. Most of
monotonous. As such, food plays an important
these residents are not scientists, but work to
role in providing variety to residents like those
support station operations, construction,
at Davis Station.
maintenance, and daily life. McMurdo has more
than 80 buildings and operates like a small Food supplies are, however, very limited.

city. It has world-class laboratory and research The food supply for a year at Davis Station is

facilities but also a firehouse, dormitories, rationed, per person per year. Residents live

stores, and the continent’s only ATM. mostly on frozen and canned food. The chef is
often thought of as one of the most important
Like all Antarctic research stations,
people at Davis Station. He or she must make
McMurdo has a specific method of receiving
sure to use all commodities in such a way that
necessary supplies. Once a year, cargo ships
is both creative and sustainable. Some of the
bring more than 5 million kilograms (11 million
station’s most important events revolve around
pounds) of equipment and supplies, ranging
the chef’s creations, such as the Midwinter
from trucks and tractors to dry and frozen
Dinner, a traditional, sumptuous feast first
foods, to scientific instruments. These cargo
celebrated during the 1901-04 British Antarctic
ships can only reach Winter Quarters Bay,
Expedition.
McMurdo’s harbor, during summer, when the
pack ice can be breached by U.S. Coast Guard Like many of Antarctica’s research

icebreakers. Additional supplies and personnel facilities, Davis Station has a hydroponic

are flown in from Christchurch, New Zealand, greenhouse. Hydroponics is the practice of

when weather permits. growing plants with water and nutrients only.
Hydroponics requires excellent gardeners
Base Esperanza, Argentina’s largest
because produce is grown without soil. Fresh
Antarctic facility, is located in Hope Bay on the
produce adds variety and nutrition to Antarctic
tip of the Antarctic Peninsula. The station is
meals. The greenhouse also serves as a
known for a number of Antarctica “firsts.” It is
sunroom for sunlight-deprived residents,
the birthplace of Emilio Marcos Palma, the first
especially during the long winter months.
person to be born in Antarctica. Base
Esperanza also houses the first Catholic chapel Political Geography
(1976) and first school (1978) built on the
1. Historic Issues
 For many European and North Pole on January 17, 1912, suffering from
American powers, Antarctica represented the malnutrition, snow blindness, exhaustion, and
last great frontier for human exploration. injury. They all died on their journey home.
Fueled by nationalist pride and supported by
Hoping to one-up his predecessors,
advances in science and navigation, many
Shackleton, of the United Kingdom, attempted
explorers took on the “Race for the Antarctic.”
the first transcontinental crossing of Antarctica
Explorers first skimmed the boundaries in 1914. Shackleton planned the trip by using
of Antarctica on sea voyages. By the early 20th two ships, the Aurora and the Endurance, at
century, explorers started to traverse the opposite ends of the continent. Aurora would
interior of Antarctica. The aim of these sail to the Ross Sea and deposit supplies. On
expeditions was often more competitive than the opposite side, Endurance would sail
scientific. Explorers wanted to win the “Race to through the Weddell Sea to reach the continent.
the South Pole” more than understand Once there, the team would march to the pole
Antarctica’s environment. Because early with dog teams, dispose of extra baggage, and
explorers confronted extreme obstacles and use supplies left by Aurora to reach the other
debilitating conditions, this period of time end of the continent.
became known as the “Heroic Age.” Roald
The plan failed. The Endurance became
Amundsen, Robert Falcon Scott, Edward Adrian
frozen in the pack ice of the Weddell Sea. The
Wilson, and Ernest Shackleton all competed in
pack ice crushed and sunk the ship.
the Race to the South Pole.
Shackleton’s team survived for roughly four
months on the ice by setting up makeshift
camps. Their food sources were leopard seals,
In 1911, Amundsen, of Norway, and
fish, and, ultimately, their sled dogs. Once the
Scott, of the United Kingdom, began expeditions
ice floe broke, expedition members used
with the aim of becoming the first man to reach
lifeboats to reach safer land and were picked up
the South Pole. Amundsen’s team set out from
on Elephant Island 22 months after they’d set
the Bay of Whales in the Ross Sea on October
out on their journey. Although some of the crew
19, while Scott set out from Ross Island on
sustained injuries, they all survived.
November 1.
The journey of the Endurance expedition
Each team used different methods, with
symbolizes the Heroic Age, a time of extreme
drastically different levels of success.
sacrifice and bravery in the name of exploration
Amundsen’s team relied on dog sleds and skiing
and discovery. Apsley George Benet Cherry-
to reach the pole, covering as much as 64
Garrard, a polar explorer, summed up the
kilometers (40 miles) per day. Scott’s team, on
Heroic Age in his book The Worst Journey in
the other hand, pulled their sleighs by hand,
the World: "For a joint scientific and
collecting geological samples along the way.
geographical piece of organisation, give me
Amundsen’s team became the first to reach the
Scott; for a Winter Journey, Wilson; for a dash
South Pole on December 15. The team was
to the Pole and nothing else, Amundsen: and if I
healthy, and successfully made the journey out
am in the devil of a hole and want to get out of
of Antarctica. Scott’s team reached the South
it, give me Shackleton every time.”
 2. Contemporary Issues within each of these territorial claims. Today,
47 states have signed the Antarctic Treaty.
The second half of the 20th century was
a time of drastic change in the Antarctic. This The Antarctic Treaty was an important
change was initially fueled by the Cold War, a geopolitical milestone because it was the first
period of time defined by the division between arms control agreement established during the
the United States and the Soviet Union, and the Cold War. Along with the IGY, the Antarctic
threat of nuclear war. Treaty symbolized global understanding and
exchange during a period of intense division
The International Geophysical Year (IGY)
and secrecy.
of 1957-58 aimed to end Cold War divisions
among the scientific community by promoting Many important documents have been
global scientific exchange. The IGY prompted an added to the Antarctic Treaty. Collectively
intense period of scientific research in the known as the Antarctic Treaty System, they
Antarctic. Many countries conducted their first cover such topics as pollution, conservation of
Antarctic explorations and constructed the first animals and other marine life, and protection of
research stations on Antarctica. More than 50 natural resources.
Antarctic stations were established for the IGY The yearly Antarctic Treaty Consultative
by just 12 countries: Argentina, Australia, Meeting (ATCM) is a forum for the Antarctic
Belgium, Chile, France, Japan, New Zealand, Treaty System and its administration. Only 28
Norway, South Africa, the Soviet Union, the of the 47 treaty-states have decision-making
United Kingdom, and the United States. powers during these meetings. These include
In 1961, these countries signed the the 12 original signatories of the Antarctic
Antarctic Treaty, which established that: the Treaty, along with 16 other countries that have
region south of 60°S latitude remain politically conducted substantial and consistent scientific
neutral; no nation or group of people can claim research there.
any part of the Antarctic as territory; countries
cannot use the region for military purposes or 3. Future Issues
to dispose of radioactive waste; and research
Two important and related issues that
can only be done for peaceful purposes.
concern the Antarctic region are climate change
The Antarctic Treaty does support
and tourism. The ATCM continues to address
territorial claims made before 1961, by New
both issues.
Zealand, Australia, France, Norway, the United
Antarctic tourism has grown
Kingdom, Chile, and Argentina. Under the
substantially in the last decade, with roughly
treaty, the size of these claims cannot be
40,000 visitors coming to the region in 2010. In
changed and new claims cannot be made. Most
2009, the ATCM held meetings in New Zealand
importantly, the treaty establishes that any
to discuss the impact of tourism on the
treaty-state has free access to the whole region.
Antarctic environment. Officials worked closely
As such, research stations supported by a
with the International Association of Antarctica
variety of treaty-states have been constructed
Tour Operators (IAATO) to establish better
practices that would reduce the carbon
footprint and environmental impact of tour
ships. These include regulations and
restrictions on: numbers of people ashore;
planned activities; wildlife watching; pre- and
post-visit activity reporting; passenger, crew,
and staff briefings; and emergency medical-
evacuation plans. The ACTM and IAATO hope
more sustainable tourism will reduce the
environmental impacts of the sensitive
Antarctic ecosystem.

Tourism is one facet of the ACTM’s

climate change outline, discussed during
meetings in Norway in 2010. Climate change
disproportionately affects the Antarctic region,
as evidenced by reductions in the size of the
Antarctic Ice Sheet and the warming waters off
the coast. The ACTM recommended that treaty-
states develop energy-efficient practices that
reduce the carbon footprint of activities in
Antarctica and cut fossil fuel use from research
stations, vessels, ground transportation, and
aircraft.

The Antarctic has become a symbol of

climate change. Scientists and policymakers are
focusing on changes in this environmentally
sensitive region to push for its protection and
the sustainable use of its scientific resources.

Prepared by: Mr. Medxandrie Kennelly C.

Lazaro, MBAc

Faculty, SHTM