MODULE IN

HUMAN HISTOLOGY

MLS 212

Department of Medical Laboratory Science

 SCHOOL OF NATURAL SCIENCES

MLS 212

COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the module, you should
be able to:
1. discuss the basic characteristics of
cells and tissues and relate these to
their function
2. discuss the inter-relatedness of the
different organ-systems at the
cellular-tissue in their embryologic
development and on their
dependence on each other in the
maintenance of homeostasis
3. discuss clinical conditions by
tracing their pathophysiology
arising from altered histophysiology
4. demonstrate critical thinking in all
aspects of the course
5. apply research skills in
HUMAN HISTOLOGY understanding health trends and
developments in the field of human
histology
6. apply proper cognitive and
affective domains in the
performance of assigned tasks
7. display professional and ethical
netiquette as they participate in
OBL and CBL tasks
 MODULE NERVOUS SYSTEM

3
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
SPECIAL SENSES
COURSE INTRODUCTION
Dear future Registered Medical Technologist,
“Learning must continue”, that is the battle cry of our education secretary Ms. Leonor Briones.
Making a stand, this 79-year-old strong willed, visionary secretary said that learners cannot be
deprived of their basic right to education, not even by a deadly virus. These are not empty words
for someone who at 4 years old, learned to read and write on banana leaves during the last World
War.

The challenge to learning presented by the COVID 19 pandemic is not unique. Ms. Briones
did not learn on her own, she had a determined mother-teacher, and she was a student, a blank
canvas open and ready to learn in the middle of screaming war planes and exploding ordnance.

We are surrounded by technology. We are better equipped to meet the challenge of the
times. This course, Histology as a branch of anatomy will deal with parts and functions of the human
body. Human Anatomy in your first year was mostly gross, Histology on the other hand is
microscopic. In other words, you will rediscover the human body on the microscopic scale. This will
provide opportunities to understand histophysiology as well. Understanding how the body works at
the cellular level offers a better perspective that provides competency and knowledge to the
Medical Laboratory Science student in navigating the intricacies of pathology, the study of
diseases. The course includes both theory and laboratory practice using histology atlases. The
lecture portion will follow the traditional and logical sequence of cells to tissues to organs. Within,
the sequence will be a description/ discussion of the different cells and tissues with their
corresponding functions and some clinical correlations.

The destination awaits, let your discovery driven journey bear the good fruits of you labor.
MODULE 3 – Absorption and Excretion
This module will bring you to the ‘command center’ of the body. Essentially, everything that
goes on in the body and its ability to maintain ‘milieu interieur’ or the internal environment is a
function of at least 2 systems, the Nervous and the Endocrine systems. A close relationship between
them and the special senses is best seen at the microscopic level with their shared and intimate
embryologic development. You will be made aware of their distinct abilities to conduct and
integrate information in a manner that makes the human body a self-regulating and highly
responsive organism.
MODULE SELF MONITORING FORM

To help you keep track of your module tasks, you are provided below with a self-monitoring form.
Take the time to tick on the “Yes” box for each activity that you finish and be reminded about pending
activities that you are yet to do. Remember that your success in achieving the module objectives depends
entirely on how conscientious you are of your own progress.
you are of your own progress.

Done?
ACTIVITIES
YES NO

Read the Module Introduction, Module Contents, and Module Objectives

Read Lecture Activity 3.1.1 The Nervous System

Read Lecture Activity 3.1.2 Histology of the Nervous System

Read Lecture Activity 3.1.3 Nerve Fibers

Accomplish Evaluation on Lecture Unit 3.1 The Nervous System

Read Lecture Activity 3.2 The Endocrine System

Accomplish Evaluation on Lecture Unit 3.2 The Endocrine System

Read Lecture Activity 3.3 Special Senses

Accomplish Evaluation on Lecture Unit 3.3 Special Senses

MODULE CONTENTS
Module Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................4
Module Self-Monitoring Form ....................................................................................................................................4
Module Contents ........................................................................................................................................................5
Module Objectives .....................................................................................................................................................5

3.1 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM ................................................................................................ 7

3.1.1 The Nervous System .................................................................................................................................................. 7
3.1.1A The Nervous System ........................................................................................................................................................ 9
3.1.1B Nervous Tissue................................................................................................................................................................ 9
3.1.2 Histology of the Nervous System .............................................................................................................................. 15
3.1.2A Connective Tissue Covering of the Brain ....................................................................................................................... 15
3.1.2B CSF Circulation ............................................................................................................................................................... 17
3.1.2C Histology of Cerebrum ................................................................................................................................................... 17

3.1.2D Histology of Cerebellum ................................................................................................................................................ 20

3.1.2E Histology of Brainstem .................................................................................................................................................. 21

3.1.2F Histology of Spinal Cord ................................................................................................................................................ 23

3.1.3 Nerve Fibers ............................................................................................................................................................ 25

Evaluate ................................................................................................................................................................................ 27

3.2 THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM ..................................................................................................... 29

3.2.1 The Endocrine System .............................................................................................................................................. 30

3.2.1A Thyroid Gland ................................................................................................................................................................. 36

3.21B Parathyroid Gland............................................................................................................................................................ 40

Evaluate ................................................................................................................................................................................. 43

3.3 THE SPECIAL SENSES ......................................................................................................................................... 44

3.3.1 Role of Special Senses in Homeostasis ................................................................................................................................ 44

3.3.1A Eyes ............................................................................................................................................................................... 45

3.3.1B Ears ............................................................................................................................................................................... 52

3.31C Taste ............................................................................................................................................................................... 59

3.31D Olfaction ......................................................................................................................................................................... 61

3.3.2 Summary Algorithm of All Physiology of Special Senses ..................................................................................................... 63

Evaluate ................................................................................................................................................................................ 65

MODULE OBJECTIVES:
After you are done reading and doing the tasks in this module, you are expected to be able to:
1. Describe the basic tissue structure of the nervous, endocrine systems and the special senses
2. Discuss tissue-organ dynamics in homeostasis
3. Discuss clinical conditions that arise from an altered structure/function of a tissue-organ
component

This module is divided into three (3) lecture units:

Lecture Unit 3.1 – Nervous system

Unit Objectives:
1. Identify the structures of the Nervous System
2. List and explain the three basic functions of the nervous system.

3. Classify the organs of the nervous system into central and peripheral divisions and their
subdivisions, and indicate the paths of afferent and efferent information.
4. Accurately understand the histologic tissue component of the Nervous tissue. Contrast
the general functions of neuroglia and neurons.

Lecture Unit 3.2- Endocrine system

Unit Objectives:
1. Identify important groups of chemicals which can act as hormones:
2. Discuss major endocrine Organs
o The sole or major function of the organ is the synthesis, storage and secretion of
hormones.
3. Identify endocrine components within other solid organs
4. Describe the endocrine components of the pancreas, ovary, testis and kidney, in the
form of clusters of endocrine cells within other tissues.
5. Correlate the diffuse Endocrine System

Lecture Unit 3.3– Special Senses

Unit Objectives:
1. To describe the structural and functional components of the Special Senses
2. Describe the Physiology and histologic significance of Special Senses
3. Describe homeostatic role of the Special senses
4. Discuss clinical conditions associated with specific components of the Special senses
 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
UNIT 3.1
Lecture activity 3.1.1 Role of the nervous system in
homeostasis

What will you do? When you see out of the corner of your eye?

You might then go find the furry object…

What you are most likely to do is instantly

flick the object off your forearm!

Only to find out…

• The glimpse of the furry object

• The rapid flick to get rid of it
• The curiosity on your part
• The increase in your heart rate

The brain interprets the impulses and responds, sending impulses along motor nerves to the muscles in
your legs and feet.
The brain interprets the impulses and responds, sending impulses along motor nerves to the muscles in
your legs and feet.
Sensory cells in your eyes respond, impulses are then carried along sensory nerves to the brain.

NERVOUS SYSTEM IN ACTION!

LECTURE ACTIVITY 3.1.1

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

Objectives:
1) Identify the structures of the Nervous System
2) List and explain the three basic functions of the nervous system.
3) Classify the organs of the nervous system into central and peripheral divisions and their
subdivisions, and indicate the paths of afferent and efferent information.
 4) Accurately understand the histologic tissue component of the Nervous tissue. Contrast the
general functions of neuroglia and neurons.

INTRODUCTION

The nervous system and endocrine system is responsible for maintaining homeostasis in the human
body. Nervous tissue is composed of two types of cells, neurons and glial cells. Neurons are the primary
type of cell that most anyone associates with the nervous system. They are responsible for the
computation and communication that the nervous system provides. They are electrically active and
release chemical signals to target cells. Glial cells, or glia, are known to play a supporting role for nervous
tissue. Ongoing research pursues an expanded role that glial cells might play in signaling, but neurons
are still considered the basis of this function. Neurons are important, but without glial support they would
not be able to perform their function.

TOPIC OUTLINE:
NERVOUS SYSTEM

A. Definition
B. Organization

NERVOUS TISSUE

A. Definition
B. Neurons
a. Parts
b. Classification
i. Function

ii. Action

iii. Shape

iv. Size

v. Number of Neuronal Processes

vi. Axon Length

vii. Location

viii. Myelinated or Unmyelinated

C. Supporting Cells
a. Schwann Cells
b. Ependymal Cells
c. Neuroglial Cells
3.1.1A THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
DEFINITION:
• Stimulus-response mechanism made up of well- coordinated interconnecting/
intercommunicating network of cells and fibers linking all and every part of the body to
coordinate all body activities in response to external and internal stimuli
• The body has 2 integrating coordinating systems:
o Nervous system
o Endocrine system - coordinates metabolic activities
▪ Combined: Neuroendocrine system

ORGANIZATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

3 Divisions:

1. Central Nervous System (CNS)

• Consists of organs and structures located within the cranial cavity and vertebral canal
• Includes brain and spinal cord
• Brain consists of:
o Cerebrum
o Cerebellum
o Brainstem - which includes:
▪ Diencephalon
▪ Midbrain
▪ Pons
▪ Medulla oblongata
2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
• Includes organs and structures located outside the cranial cavity and vertebral canal
• Includes:
o 12 pairs of Cranial nerves
o 31 pairs of Spinal nerves
o Sympathetic, Peripheral (i.e. Auerbach’s plexus) and Spinal ganglia
o Sensory receptors (pain receptors, Meissner’s corpuscles)

3. Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

• Aka “Vegetative/Involuntary/Visceral Nervous System”
• Functional division of the Nervous System
• Innervates viscera, smooth and cardiac muscles and glands which are all involuntary
• Divided into Sympathetic & Parasympathetic
 3.1.1B NERVOUS TISSUE
• Tissue that makes up the nervous system
• Basic property: Conductivity (Conduction of nerve impulses)
• Made up of cells and fibers

1. Cellular component
a. Neurons/Nerve cell
b. Supporting Cells (Neuroglia/Glial Cells)

2. Nerve fibers

3. Blood-brain barrier

o Selective restriction of blood-borne substances between blood vessels and nervous tissue

NEURONS
• Structural and functional units of the NS
• Number of neurons in the body: 1010 - 1011 PARTS

1. CELL BODY OR SOMA

2. PERIKARYON
• Soma + Cytoplasm
• Contains the organelles in the fish- eyed nucleus (pale, poorly- stained with darkly staining
nucleolus)

3. NISSL BODIES
• Polyribosomes attached to endoplasmic reticulum, indicating high metabolic activity

4. NEURONAL PROTOPLASMIC PROCESSES

a. Axons
• only 1, elongated, conducts impulses from the cell body to an effector organ
b. Dendrites
• maybe multiple, usually short, carries impulses towards the cell body

5. AXON COLLATERALS
• Branches of axons

6. SYNAPSES
• Conducts between neurons appearing as end feet/ terminal buttons
7. AXON TERMINAL
• Impinges on the effector organ

8. AXOLEMMA
• cell membrane of axon

9. AXOPLASM
• cytoplasm of axon
A. CLASSIFICATION OF NEURONS
1. Based on function:
a. Afferent/Sensory neurons: conduct impulses TOWARDS CNS
b. Efferent/Motor neurons: conduct impulses AWAY from the CNS to the effector organ
c. Internuncial/Interneurons/Central/Intercalated neurons: located between sensory and motor
neurons

2. Based on action:
a. Inhibitory neurons
b. Excitatory neurons
c. Both Excitatory and Inhibitory

3. Based on the shape:

a. Round/spherical/oval
b. Polyhedral/stellate/flask-shaped
c. Pyramidal
d. Polygonal

4. Based on size:
a. Dwarf neurons
▪ < 4 microns in diameter
b. Giant neurons
▪ Betz cells in motor cortex
▪ Paired Mauthner neurons in the medulla oblongata

5. Based on the number of neuronal processes:

a. Unipolar/ Pseudounipolar
In spinal and cerebral ganglia
Only one process; usually the axon; no dendrites
Amacrine cells of retina: no axons; have one
dendrite
Ganglion cells
 b. Bipolar
1 axon, 1 dendrite Figure 1. Basic types of neuron
Neurons of the special senses
In retinal, gustatory, vestibulocochlear, olfactory epithelium
c. Multipolar
Numerous dendrites; one axon
Motor neurons of the spinal cord
Internuncial neurons
Most of the cells in NS are multipolar

6. Based on Axon Length:

a. Golgi Type I
Long axons
Originate in the CNS and terminates distant from its origin to the periphery
− e.g. Cranial nerves
b. Golgi Type II
Short axons
Terminates within the same vicinity
E.g. Purkinje cells of cerebellum

7. Based on location:
a. Nuclei (clusters of neurons in the CNS)
▪ Islands of gray matter/ clusters of nerve cell bodies in the CNS sharing a common
function
▪ Edinger-Westphal nucleus, red nucleus, etc.
b. Ganglia (clusters of neurons in the PNS)
▪ Auerbach’s plexus, Meissner plexus, Dorsal root ganglia

8. Myelinated or Unmyelinated Neurons:

SUPPORTING CELLS

1. Schwann cells
Slender cells that synthesize myelin in the PNS
Form a sheathe called the Sheath of Schwann/ Neurilemmal sheath
Myelin
lipid cover rich in phospholipids in the PNS and rich in glycolipid in the CNS
Oblique discontinuities in the Schwann sheath are called “Schmidt-Lanterman clefts”

2.Ependymal cells
Synthesize CSF
Cuboidal/columnar cells lining the ventricles of the brain and central spina canal that
 synthesize CSF
Beneath ependymal cell layer are numerous BV that form the choroid plexus
Choroid plexus- made up of ependymal cells + BV that synthesize CSF
Cells in the 3rd ventricle that interdigitate with the ependymal cells: TANYCYTES

3.Neuroglia/Neuroglial cells
Classification:
I. Astrocytes
Largest neuroglial cell
Take part in the formation of tight junctions that make up the BBB (fluid and electrolyte
balance)
“End-feet” impinge on BV and neuron to form the BBB
3 Types:
1. Protoplasmic
• Forms BBB in the gray matter
2. Fibrous
• Forms BBB in the white matter

3. SpecializedAstrocytes
Bergman Glial cells in the cerebellum with protoplasmic processes that extend up to
the pia mater
Muller cells intermediate between astrocytes and ependymal cells
Pituicytes in neurohypophysis

II. Oligodendrocytes
Synthesize myelin in the CNS
Correspond to the Schwann cells of the PNS
Myelin in CNS is rich in glycolipids
Myelin in PNS is rich in phospholipids
Classification
1. Interfascicular
In between the fascicles
Located along and in between axons which they myelinate
2. Satellite
Found in the cerebrum and cerebellum
Myelinate several axons (Schwann cells myelinate one nerve fiber)
 Figure 2. Cellular layer of the brain

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________

Label the parts of a Neuron

A._____________________________
B._____________________________
C._____________________________
D._____________________________
E.______________________________
F.______________________________
3.1.2 HISTOLOGY OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
TOPIC OUTLINE:
3.2.1A Connective Tissue Coverings of the Brain

3.2.1B CSF Circulation

3.2.1C Histology of Cerebrum

3.2.1D Histology of Cerebellum

3.21E Histology of Brainstem

3.2.1F Histology of Spinal Cord

3.1.2.A CONNECTIVE TISSUE COVERINGS OF THE BRAIN

System of Loosely Arranged Trabeculae Containing Fibroblasts and Collagen
Subarachnoid Space

• large sponge-like cavity that surrounds the trabeculae, filled with CSF, forms a hydraulic cushion
which protects the CNS from trauma
• Connective tissue of the arachnoid is said to be Avascular
o Arachnoid Villi/Arachnoid Granulation

PIA MATER

• Innermost Layer (rests directly on the surface of brain and spinal

cord)
• Delicate layer
• Lined internally by Flattened, mesenchymally derived cells Figure 3.1 Meninges of the brain
• Pia mater + Glial Layer = Physical Barrier (separates the CNS
tissue from CSF)
• Perivascular Spaces (tunnels covered by the Pia matter
where blood vessels penetrate the CNS

DURA MATER

• Outermost layer
• Thick External layer
• Consisting of dense, fibroelastic connective tissue which is
continuous with the periosteum of the skull
Figure 3.2 Meninges of the spinal cord
• Around the spinal cord, the dura mater is separated from the
periosteum of the vertebrae by the Epidural Space (contains
a plexus of thin-walled veins and areolar connective tissue)
SUBARACHNOID SPACE
• Internal & External surface in the Spinal cord, is covered by Simple Squamous Epithelium

ARACHNOID

• Beneath the dura

Figure 3.3 Meninges of the brain (microscopic) Figure 3.4 The cerebellum and medulla

SUMMARY: MENINGES
DURA MATER:

• a.k.a “Pachymeninx”
• Avascular
• Reflection/folds give rise to venous sinuses (transverse/ sagittal/ cavernous)

ARACHNOID

• Made up of loose CT
• Highly avascular
• Give rise to Arachnoid Villi

o Pacchionian granulations
o Responsible for reabsorbing CSF back to venous blood sinus circulation
PIA MATER

• Highly vascular innermost layer

• Made up of mesenchymal cell
• Gives rise to choroid plexus
o ependymal cells + underlying blood vessels of the pia mater= choroid plexus
o Choroid plexus: CSF production

LEPTOMENINX

• Arachnoid + Pia mater

 3.1.2B CEREBROSPINAL FLUID

• Synthesize by ependymal cells

• Ependymal cells + underlying blood vessels of pia mater= CHOROID PLEXUS
• CSF in Central Spinal Canal
• Central spinal canal is equivalent to ventricles of the brain

3.1.2C HISTOLOGY OF CEREBRUM

Anatomy

• Largest part of the brain and is composed of right and left hemispheres
• Performs higher functions (Touch, vision, hearing, speech, reasoning, emotions, learning, and fine
control movement)
• The surface of the cerebrum has a folded appearance called the sulci and gyri
• Consists of the 70% of the 100 billion nerve cells.
• Nerve cell bodies colour the cortex grey-brown giving it its name – gray matter
 • Folding of the cortex increases the brain’s surface area allowing more neurons to fit inside the skull
and enabling higher functions

Gray mater
• Abundant neuronal cell bodies, dendrites, initial unmyelinated portions of axons, astrocytes, and
neuroglial cells
• Where most synapses occur
• Occupies the thick surface of cortex of both cerebrum and cerebellum

Cerebral Cortex
• Efferent Pyramidal neurons- most conspicuous
o Function: integration of sensory information and initiation of voluntary motor responses
o Have vesicular nucleus and prominent nucleolus
o Have numerous neurofibrils
o Most prominent part: apical dendrites
o Axons: base and pass through white matter
• 1 or more cell type predominate per layer
• Horizontal and radial axons of the neuronal cells gives it Laminated Appearance
• Has 6 layers:

Figure 4.1 Histological Structure of the Cerebral Cortex

 1. Molecular layer
SUMMARY: CEREBRUM
• Also called Plexiform Layer
• Overlying it is a delicate connective tissue • Surface of the cerebrum has folded appearance
in the brain called pia matter called sulci and gyri
• Peripheral portion: neuroglial cells and • Grey mater is located peripherally, white mater
is located centrally
Horizontal Cells of Cajal (small fusiform cell)
• Cortex vs Grey mater
o BOTH: with abundant neuronal cell bodies,
2. Internal Pyramidal layer dendrites, unmyelinated portion of axons,
astrocyte and glial cells
o In cortex, (that’s why it is called cerebral/
• Contains numerous neuroglial cells and
cerebellar cortex) the grey mater of the
largest pyramidal cells (especially in the nerve cell bodies (i.e. neurons) are arranged
motor area- Betz cells are found) into fixed layers
o Grey mater: random layers (i.e. basal
3. Multiform layer ganglia: putamen, globus pallidus)
• Cortex vs grey mater vs neurotil?
o Neurothil: association of the nerve cell
• Fusiform (Pleomorphic/Polymorphic)
bodies with the glial cell
Cell layer
• Deepest layer 6 LAYERS
• Adjacent to white matter
1. Molecular layer
• Consists of intermixed cells of raging • Aka plexiform layer
shapes (spindle- shaped) and sizes • Primarily made up of nerve fibers in
(fusiform, granules, stellate, cells of horizontal direction
Martinotti) • Basket cells, capsular substance cells
4. Intercellular layer • Horizontal cells: Cajal cells
1. Neuroglial
cells (cortex) 2. External granular layer
Small astrocytes and blood vessels (venule and • aka small pyramidal cell layer
capillary • made up of small pyramidal cell
3. External pyramidal layer
• aka medium- sized pyramidal cell layer
• made up of medium- sized pyramidal cell

4. Internal Granular Layer

• Made up of small stellate granular cells
• Aka small stellate granular cell layer

5. Internal pyramidal layer

• Where large pyramidal cells are seen (Betz cell)
• Aka Ganglion cell layer

6. Multiform layer
• Aka Fusiform (Pleomorphic/Polymorphic) Cell
Figure 4.2: Layers of cerebral cortex
layer
• Adjacent to white mater
3.1.2D HISTOLOGY OF CEREBELLUM
 Located at the Dorsum of the brainstem at
the pons and is connected via cerebellar
peduncles
 Coordinates muscular activity
 Maintains posture and equilibrium
 Consists of convoluted folds called the
Cerebellar Folium and this is separated by
Sulci.
 It is covered by Pia mater. It has 2 Layers: The
White Mater and the Gray mater.
 3 layers: Figure 5.1: Cerebellum in transverse cut
1. Molecular Layer
• OUTER;
• relatively fewer and smaller neuronal cell bodies
• many fibers that extend parallel to the length of the folium
2. Purkinje layer –
• CENTER or MIDDLE
• Purkinje cells
• pyriform or pyramidal in shape with ramified dendrites that extend into the molecular
layer
3. Granular layer
• INNER GRANULAR;
• with numerous small neurons that exhibit intensely stained nuclei

In higher magnification, the cortex is seen to consist of 3

layers. Molecular (outer), Inner Granular which is
extremely cellular, and between this two is a single layer
of huge neurons called Purkinje cells

The pointed cells are the Purkinje cells, they have

large cell bodies, axon extending down through
the granular cell layer and its dendritic system
arborizes in the molecular layer.

Figure 5.3: Cerebellum

 SUMMARY CEREBELLUM:
DIVISIONS:

o Neocerebellum
o Archicerebellum
o Paleocerebellum
o Cerebellar hemispheres
o Vermis
• Histology
o Cerebellar medulla
▪ Made up of white mater myelinated nerves
o Cerebellar cortex
▪ Made up of grey mater and is arranged in 3 layers:
o Outer molecular
o Middle Purkinje
o Inner granular
Nerve fibers make synapses in all the layers:
CLIMBING FIBERS

• Nerve fibers that are formed in granular layer: MOSSY FIBERS

3.1.2E HISTOLOGY OF BRAINSTEM

The central trunk of the mammalian brain, consisting of the
✓ Mid brain
✓ Pons
✓ Medulla oblongata
MIDBRAIN

 Connects pons and cerebellum to diencephalon

 Shortest and uppermost part of brainstem
 4th ventricle continues with Sylvius aqueduct at midbrain
 Divided by imaginary line passing through aqueduct into ventral (cerebral peduncle)
and dorsal (tectum)
Cerebral peduncle
1. Basis pedunculi (crus cerebri) : contain corticobulbar, corticospinal, corticopontine
2. Substantia nigra : contain pigmented masses of grey matter belong to extrapyramidal system
3. Tegmentum : contain certain nuclei, tracts and decussations
Tectum
• 2 superior colliculi (visual reflex)
• 2 inferior colliculi (auditory reflex)

PONS

• Middle part of brainstem (between medulla and midbrain)

• Connected to cerebellum by middle cerebellar peduncle.
• Consists of 2 parts: Basis Pontis (ventrally) and Pontine Tegmentum (dorsally)
Basis Pontis:
• Expanded part of pons ventrally connecting cerebrum and cerebellum via middle cerebellar
peduncle-3 parts:
• 3P’s
1. Pontine nuclei (motor)
2. Transverse pontine fibers
3. Descending Longitudinal fibers (Pyramid)and facial nuclei
Pontine tegmentum
• Upwards continuation of medulla posteriorly of pons
• Along the mid line lies the Raphae nuclei

MEDULLA OBLANGATA
• Lower most part of brainstem
• Between pons and spinal cord at foramen magnum
• Connected to cerebellum by inferior cerebellar peduncle
o Inferior olive
o Hypoglossal nuclei
o Pyramids

Figure 4: Medulla Oblangata cross-section

SUMMARY: BRAIN STEM

No cortex but with grey mater

• Grey mater makes up the nuclei, mostly nuclei of origin and nuclei of termination of the
cranial nerves

RED NUCLEUS
• Found in midbrain
• Involved in motor coordination
• Pale pink/ red due to iron which may be present in two forms, hemoglobin and ferritin
SUBSTANTIA NIGRA
• Basal ganglia structure
• Black substance: neuromelanin in dopaminergic neurons
 3.1.2F HISTOLOGY OF SPINAL CORD
SUMMARY: SPINAL CORD
The cross section of spinal cord will show 2 areas:

Inner (Central) Gray mater • Gray mater: central (H- or butterfly- shaped)
• White mater: peripheral
• Arranged roughly in letter “H”
o in cerebrum and cerebellum, it’s
• Consists of dendrites, axons, supporting
the reverse (grey: peripheral;
cells and their processes and nerve cell
white: central)
bodies
• As compared to cerebral and • Dorsal horns are slender and longer
cerebellar arteries, the spinal cord • Ventral horns are wider and shorter
doesn’t have cortex and is not layered • Each side (L and R): joined together by
• Its primary significance is the site of great commissure which contains the
synapse central spinal canal
• Consists of long slender posterior horns • Periphery of spinal cord: Peripheral
and short thick ventral horns joined by neuroglial membrane (devoid of white
horizontal gray commissure mater)
• Ventral horns have large multipolar
neurons (motor) while dorsal horns
SPINAL GANGLION
(sensory)
• made up of large cells surrounded by
• The central spinal cord is lined by
capsular
ependymal cells

Outer (Peripheral) White mater

• There is no nerve cell bodies

• Arranged in ascending and
descending nerve fiber tracts,
supporting cells and their processes.
Perineurium:
a cellular sheath made up of squamous cells that
forms a semi-permeable barrier, characterized by
the abundance of myofilaments & supported by
basal lamina)
o A collection of fascicles form nerve tracts in
the CNS and nerve trunks in the PNS
o Both are covered by dense connective
tissue called the EPINEURIUM

Microglia
Phagocytes
Macrophages of the CNS
 Member of the MPS (Mononuclear Phagocytic system)
Numerous lysosomes indicative of their phagocytic activity
May be involved in AIDS, producing AIDS dementia

Capsular/ Satellite Cells

o Surround the ganglion cells
o Perilymphatic space
o space between ganglion and capsular cells
producing AIDS dementia

______________________________________________________________________________________________________

CHECKPOINT:

MATCHING TYPE:

1. Space between ganglion and capsular cells. a. Microglia

2. Purkinje cells of the cerebellum b. Muller Cells
3. Macrophage in the CNS c. Tanycytes
4. Maybe multiple, usually short, carries impulses toward d. Axon
the cell body e. Dendrite
5. Cell membrane of the axon f. Giant neurons
6. Cells in the third ventricle that interdigitate with the g. Golgi Type I
ependymal cells. h. Golgi Type II
7. Betz cells in the motor cortex i. Axolemma
8. Synthesize myelin in the CNS j. NOTA
9. Synthesize CSF
10. Intermediate between astrocytes and ependymal
cells. jhaeicfjjb
3.1.3 NERVE FIBERS
• Collection of neuronal processes
surrounded connective tissues

• Organization and Covering

o Nerve fibers maybe covered by myelin sheath
o Myelin sheath together with the Schwann cells form the SCHWANN SHEATH/ NEURILEMMAL
SHEATH which is covered by thin, delicate reticular connective tissue “Sheath of
Henle/Sheath of Key and Retzius”)
o ENDONEURIUM
o thin fibrous sheath surrounding the Sheath of Henle
o A collection of nerve fibers form nerve fascicles which is covered by PERINEURIUM

Nerve Fibers

- Applied to long axons but includes all nerve cell processes

- Consist of an axon and sheaths ectodermal origin whether in the CNS or PNS
- Cellular sheath in the CNS is Glia with or without myelin; in the PNS is Neurolemma (Sheath of
Schwann) with or without myelin
- Generalities:
1. All peripheral axons are enclose by Sheath of Schwann cells (Neurolemma)
2. Large peripheral axons are enveloped by myelin sheath found within the neurolemma
3. Smallest axons of periphery nerves lack a myelin sheath so that axons are designated as
myelinated or unmyelinated

Types of Nerve Fibers based on Diameter

1. Group A fibers – large fibers that conduct at 15 to 100 meters/seconds (motor and sensory
fibers)
2. Group B fibers – conduct impulses at 3 to 14m/sec (mainly visceral sensory fibers)
3. Group C fibers – small, unmyelinated fibers conducting at 0.5 to 2 m/sec (autonomic and
some sensory fibers)

Functional Classification of Nerve fibers

- In the brains and spinal cords:

1. Afferent (incoming) pathway - spinothalamic tract and spinocerebellar tract
2. Efferent (outgoing) pathway – cortico-bulbar tract and cortico-spinal tract

Types of Autonomic Nerves based on Secretions

- Sympathetic or adrenergic nerves – stimulation lead s to the liberation of the substance NE

- Parasympathetic or Cholinergic nerves – stimulation leads to liberation of a substance Ach
Receptor Organs

- Meissner’s corpuscle – for touch found in finger tips, lips, palms, soles, nipple and
conjunctiva
- Ruffini’s end organ – for heat sensation found in subcutaneous tissue finger tips and
joint capsule
- End bulb of Krause – sensory organs found in the conjunctiva and external genitalia
- Pacinian Corpuscle – mediate deep pressure and found hand, foot, palms, soles,
peritoneum, pleura, mesenteries, penis, clitoris, urethra, nipple, breast and pancreas
- Golgi Mazzoni – for deep pressure

Nerve Trunk

- Made up several fasciculi as bundles of nerve fibers covered by dense CT (epineurium) then
gives off septa
- Perineurium surrounds the bigger bundles of nerve fibers, then sends finer septa
- Endoneurium that surrounds individual nerve fibers
- Vasa Nervorum blood supply to the nerve; Nervi Nervorum innervates the nerve

CLINICAL NOTES: HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCES DISORDERS

Discuss epilepsy in terms of symptoms, anatomical changes, causes, and treatments:

Epilepsy is a brain disorder that happens when certain nerve cells in your brain misfire. it
causes seizures, which can affect your behavior or the way you see things around you for a
short time. Epilepsy is treated with antiepileptic drugs or surgery may be an option for
people whose seizures are not controlled by medication, or who cannot tolerate the side
effects of seizure medications.

CLINICAL NOTES: HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCES DISORDERS

Discuss multiple sclerosis in terms of symptoms, anatomical changes, causes, and

treatments

Multiple sclerosis (MS) affects the brain and spinal cord. Early MS symptoms include
weakness, tingling, numbness, and blurred vision. Other signs are muscle stiffness, thinking
problems, and urinary problems. Treatment can relieve MS symptoms and delay disease
progression.
 Lecture Activity 3.1.3 Pathophysiology

MATCHING TYPE

_________ 1. End of bulb of Krause A. For touch

_________ 2. Pacinian corpuscle B. For heat sensation

_________ 3. Meissner’s corpuscle C. Sensory organs

_________ 4. Ruffini’s end organ D. Mediate deep pressure

_________ 5. Golgi Mazzoni E. Deep pressure

MODIFIED TRUE OR FALSE

Write T if the underlined word is correct and F if the statement wrong and change the word.
_____, ________ 1. The function of the Central Nervous System is to keep the other tissue of the body in
communication with the Nervous system.

_____,________2. Twigl-ike branching at the terminal ends of the axons is called telodendria.

_____,________3. Group C fibers conduct impulses at 3 to 14 m/sec.

_____,________4. The stimulation of cholinergic nerves leads to the liberation of the substance of
Acetylcholine.

_____,_______5. Bipolar cells appear pyriform in shape.

_____,_______6. Plasma membrane of axons is called neurolemma.

_____,_______7. Sheath of schwann cells enclose all peripheral axons.

_____,_______8. Large bundles of non-myelinated fibers traversing the ganglion show regular
arrangement.

_____,_______9. Dendrons carries impulses toward the cell body.

_____,_______10. Nervi nervorum innervates the nerve.

Consider the scoring rubric below:
9-10 6-8 3-5 0-2
All relevant cause More than half of Less than half of Few relevant
and effect the relevant cause the cause and cause and
interactions are and effect effect interactions effect
CONTENT
included and interactions are are included and interactions are
correct included and correct included and
correct correct
Understanding of Understanding of Understanding of Poor
cause and effect cause and effect cause and effect understanding
interactions are interactions are interactions are of cause and
clearly clearly clearly effect
LOGIC AND
demonstrated by demonstrated by demonstrated but interactions with
UNDERSTANDING
correct links and correct links but with some errors significant errors
descriptive words some descriptive (e.g. Incorrect links
words are and descriptive
inappropriate words)
Concept map is Concept map is Concept map is Concept map is
neat, clear and neat, clear and neat, clear and untidy with links
legible and has legible and has legible but with difficult to follow
PRESENTATION easy to follow easy to follow links, some links that are
links, no spelling has some spelling difficult to follow,
errors errors has some spelling
errors
 ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
UNIT 3.2

What can you observe in the pictures?

Did you ever wonder how can thyroid

gland affect all the major organs of
the body?

Lecture activity 3.1.1 Role of the endocrine system in homeostasis

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

No cell is an island. With the emergence of multi-cellular organisms appeared a need for
communication between cells to coordinate the activities of specialized tissues for the benefit of an
entire organism. The endocrine system plays a major role in this process.

Now, we know that practically every organ sends signals (hormones) to other body parts to elicit
biological responses that adjust the behavior of these target organs to maintain homeostasis. The heart
does it, fat does it, as do the stomach and intestines. However, this chapter covers only the glandular
organs that secrete hormones as their primary function.

Scattered individual hormone cells (or small clumps), usually within an extensive epithelium, e.g. the
gastrointestinal and respiratory tract. The major function of these cells is paracrine that is acting on
adjacent non-endocrine cells rather than entering the blood stream and producing systemic effects.
 Objectives:
1. I Identify important groups of chemicals which can act as hormones:
2. Discuss major endocrine Organs
➢ The sole or major function of the organ is the synthesis, storage and
secretion of hormones.
3. Identify endocrine components within other solid organs
4. Describe the endocrine components of the pancreas, ovary, testis and kidney, in the form
of clusters of endocrine cells within other tissues.
5. Correlate the diffuse Endocrine System
•

LECTURE ACTIVITY 3.1

THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Introduction

The “classic” endocrine glands in the human body include the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal

and pineal glands. Some other glands with endocrine cells have both endocrine and non-endocrine
functions. The pancreas is one of these glands, where the non-endocrine function is secreting digestive
enzymes to the small intestine.

The diagram below shows the endocrine glands and their localization throughout the body. The pineal
gland and the pituitary gland are located in the brain. The thyroid gland, located within the neck,
wraps around the trachea. Four small, disc-shaped parathyroid glands are embedded into the
posterior side of the thyroid. The adrenal glands are located on top of each kidney. The pancreas is
located in the upper portion of the abdomen. In females, the two ovaries are in the pelvic cavity, while
in males, the two testes are located in the scrotum.

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM and NERVOUS SYSTEM

◼ Act together to coordinate functions of all body systems
◼ Nervous system
❑ Nerve impulses/ Neurotransmitters
❑ Faster responses, briefer effects, acts on specific target
◼ Endocrine system
❑ Hormone – mediator molecule released in 1 part of the body but regulates activity of
cells in other parts
❑ Slower responses, effects last longer, broader influence

Main function: Responsible for the synthesis and secretion of chemical messengers known as
hormones.
ENDOCRINE
- release discharge directly into the blood stream or lymph stream
- ductless glands
ex: Pituitary gland, Pineal Gland, Thyroid, Parathyroid, Adrenal, Testis, Ovaries

Figure 5: The Endocrine System and their localizations in the body.

Hormones may be disseminated throughout the body by the bloodstream where they may act on
specific target organs or affect a wide range of organs and tissues. Other hormones act locally, often
arriving at their site of action by way of a specialized microcirculation

4 Main groups of chemicals which can act as hormones:

1. Protein and Glycoprotein molecules: e.g. insulin, growth hormone, parathormone
2. Small peptide molecules: e.g. vasopressin, products of enteroendocrine cells
3. Amino acid derivatives: e.g. thyroxine, epinephrine (adrenaline), and norepinephrine
(noradrenaline)
4. Steroids derived from cholesterol: e.g. adrenal cortical hormones, ovarian and testicular
hormones.

The Endocrine system can be divided into 3 parts:

1. The Major Endocrine Organs
• The sole or major function of the organ is the synthesis, storage and secretion of
hormones.
2. Endocrine components within other solid organs
• The endocrine components of the pancreas, ovary, testis and kidney, in the form of
clusters of endocrine cells within other tissues.
3. The Diffuse Endocrine System
• Scattered individual hormone cells (or small clumps), usually within an extensive
epithelium, e.g. the gastrointestinal and respiratory tract. The major function of these
cells is paracrine that is acting on adjacent non-endocrine cells rather than entering
the blood stream and producing systemic effects.
Pituitary Gland (Hypophysis)
➢ Small bean-shaped gland about 1cm across
➢ Located at the base of the brain beneath the third ventricle, sitting in a bony cavity in the
base of the skull (sella turcica)
➢ Connected to the hypothalamus via the pituitary stalk/infundibulum.
➢ Divided into two parts originating from different embryological sources
1. Posterior pituitary
• Also known as the neurohypophysis or the pars nervosa
• Derived from the down growth of nervous tissue from the hypothalamus joined by
the pituitary stalk
• Largely composed of non-myelinated axons of specialized neurons. The cell bodies
of these neurons are located in the supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei of the
hypothalamus.
• Axons are supported by specialized highly branching glial cells called pituicytes:
with oval nuclei and cytoplasm containing small amounts of yellowish-brown
pigment.
• Secretes/releases 2 hormones
a. Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)/Vasopressin
o Synthesized in the neuron cell bodies of the supraoptic nucleus of the
hypothalamus.
o Main action: increase water permeability in the distal convoluted tubules and
collecting ducts of the kidney. As a result, more water is reabsorbed and
retained in the body, creating a more concentrated urine.
b. Oxytocin
o Synthesized in the neuron cell bodies of the paraventricular nucleus of the
hypothalamus.
o Main action:
✓ Induce strong contractions of smooth muscles in uterus resulting in
childbirth.
✓ Oxytocin stimulates the contraction of myoepithelial cells around the
alveoli and ducts in the lactating mammary glands, ejecting milk into
the excretory ducts and the nipple.
*** These hormones are transported along unmyelinated axons and stored in axon terminals of the
posterior pituitary gland as Herring bodies from which they are released into capillaries of the pars
nervosa when needed.

2. Anterior Pituitary
• Also called the adenohypophysis
• Arises as an epithelial up growth from the roof of the primitive oral cavity known as the
Rathke’s pouch.
• Has 3 subdivisions:
a. Pars distalis/pars anterior – largest part
b. Pars tuberalis – surrounds the neural stalk
 c. Pars intermedia – thin cell layer between the pars distalis and the
neurohypophysis. Synthesizes and secretes melanocyte-stimulating hormone
(MSH).
• Cells of the anterior pituitary were initially classified according to the affinity of their
cytoplasmic granules to specific stains.
1. Chromophobes – cells with weakly staining cytoplasm. The cytoplasm appears clear
indicating the absence of granules.
2. Chromophils – cells with strongly staining cytoplasm
a. Acidophils
• More numerous and can be distinguished by their red staining granules
and blue nuclei
i. Somatotrophs
o Most numerous, making up almost half of the bulk of the
anterior pituitary
o Secretes growth hormones
ii. Mammotrophs (lactotrophs)
o Compromise up to 20% of the anterior pituitary, increasing in
number during pregnancy.
o Secretes prolactin, which controls milk production
b. Basophils
• Less numerous and appear as cells that contain blue staining granules.
i. Gonadotrophs
o Make up 5% of the anterior pituitary
o Secretes follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing
hormone (LH)
ii. Thyrotrophs
o Make up 5% of the anterior pituitary
o Secretes thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)/thyrotrophin
iii. Corticotrophs
o Constitute about 20% of the anterior pituitary mass
o Secretes adrenocorticotrophic hormone
(ACTH)/coticotrophin

Thyroid Gland
➢ Butterfly-shaped endocrine gland lying in the upper neck of the trachea
➢ Functional unit: Thyroid follicle
• Spheroidal structures
• Lined by a single layer of epithelial cells bound by a basement membrane
o Inactive: flat or cuboidal
o Active: tall and columnar
✓ The epithelium is initially responsible for the synthesis of the glycoprotein
component of thyroglobulin and conversion of iodide to iodine.
✓ When active thyroid hormone is required, the same thyroid epithelial
cells remove some of the stored colloid and detach T3 and T4, which
then pass through the cell into an adjacent capillary.
 • Contain a homogenous colloid material.
o Serves as a storage of thyroglobulin – storage form of thyroxine (T4) and tri-iodo
thyronine (T3)
➢ Produces 2 hormone types:
1. Iodine containing hormones: T3 and T4
o Regulate basal metabolic rate and influences growth and maturation of nerve
tissue
o Secretion of these hormones is regulated by TSH
2. Calcitonin
o Regulates (lowers) blood calcium levels in conjunction with the parathyroid
hormone
o Secreted by C cells or parafollicular cells found in the thyroid gland as
individual scattered cells in the follicle lining, or as small clumps in between
follicles.
➢ The thyroid gland is unique among the other human endocrine glands in that it stores large
amounts of hormone in an inactive form.
➢ The thyroid gland is enveloped by a fibrous capsule from which fine collagen septa extend
into the gland, dividing it into lobules.

Parathyroid Gland
➢ Small oval glands closely associated with the thyroid gland. There are usually 2 pairs in
mammals.
➢ Contains 2 types glandular cells:
• Chief or principal cells
o Small with round central nuclei and pale eosinophilic or clear cytoplasm.
o Secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH) / parathormone
• Functions to raise blood calcium levels
o Active cells stain more intensely because of an increase in the number of rough
ER.
o Resting cells, on the other hand, have pale cytoplasm and make up 80% of the
total in normal adults.
• Oxyphil cells
o Occur in nodules
o Copious eosinophilic cytoplasm packed with mitochondria
o Do not secrete PTH and increase in number with age.

Adrenal (Suprarenal) Gland

➢ Small, flattened endocrine glands which are closely applied to the upper pole of each
kidney.
➢ Has 2 functionally different types of endocrine tissue:
• Outer part: Adrenal Cortex
o Subdivided into 3 histological zones:
a. Zona Glomerulosa
✓ Outermost layer
 ✓ Composed of cells arranged in irregular ovoid clusters separated by delicate
fibrous trabeculae continuous with the fibro collagenous capsule.
✓ The cells have round nuclei and less cytoplasm than the cells in the zona
fasciculata
✓ The cytoplasm contains plentiful smooth endoplasmic reticulum and
mitochondria, but with only scanty lipid droplets
✓ Secretes mineralocorticoid hormones principally aldosterone.
o Aldosterone mediates sodium reabsorption.

b. Zona Fasciculata
✓ Middle and broadest of the 3 cortical layers
✓ Consists of narrow columns and cords of cells, often only one cell thick,
separated by fine strands of collagen and capillaries
✓ The cell cytoplasm is abundant and pale staining due to large number of lipid
droplets present; mitochondria and smooth endoplasmic reticulum are also
abundant.
✓ Secretes glucocorticoid hormones mainly cortisol
o Cortisol increases blood glucose levels and increase cellular synthesis of
glycogen.
✓ Secretes small amounts of androgenic sex hormones

c. Zona Reticularis
✓ Thin innermost layer and lies next to the renal medulla
✓ Consists of an irregular network of branching cords and clusters of glandular
cells separated by numerous capillaries
✓ The cells are much smaller than those in the zona fasciculata
✓ The cytoplasm is darker staining because it contains fewer lipid droplets
✓ Secretes small quantities of androgens and glucocorticoids

• Inner part: Adrenal Medulla

o Lies in the center of the adrenal gland
o Cells are also arranged in small cords. The cells are modified postganglionic
sympathetic neurons that have lost their axons and dendrites during
development.
o Synthesize and secrete catecholamines (primarily epinephrine and
norepinephrine).
 CLINICAL CORRELATION:
CONNS’ DISEASE/ PRIMARY ALDOSTERONISM
- overproduction of aldosterone by one or both adrenal glands.
- The most common sign of Conn’s syndrome is high blood pressure that is difficult to control,
even with medication.
- Some people also have symptoms such as: headaches muscle weakness or cramps heart
palpations
- Unless it is treated and controlled, high blood pressure increases your risk of having a stroke,
heart disease or kidney disease.

CLINICAL CORRELATION:
ADDISON’S DISEASE
- Hyposecretion of glucocorticoids and aldosterone causes Addison’s disease (chronic
adrenocortical insufficiency).
- Symptoms, which typically do not appear until 90% of the adrenal cortex has been
destroyed, include mental lethargy, anorexia, nausea and vomiting, weight loss,
hypoglycemia, and muscular weakness.
- Loss of aldosterone leads to elevated potassium and decreased sodium in the blood, low
blood pressure, dehydration, decreased cardiac output, arrhythmias, and even cardiac
arrest.
` - The skin may have a “bronzed” appearance that often is mistaken for a suntan.

3.2.1A THYROID GLAND

• Bi-lobed ductless reddish-brown highly vascular

endocrine gland
• Location: at the anterior neck, extending from mid-
thyroid cartilage up to 6th tracheal ring
• 2 lateral lobes are joined midline via isthmus, just
beneath cricoid cartilage at the level of C2-C4
• Pyramidal lobe – present in 30% of the population,
extends upward from the left side of isthmus
• Size: 5cm in length, 4 cm in width, by 2 cm in thickness
• Weight: 25-40 grams
• Function: well-defined mechanism for extracellular
storage of thyroid hormones; synthesis, storage and
elaboration of thyroid hormones T3 and T4
Figure 6: Thyroid gland: Canine general view
o Regulates metabolic rate
 Assignment: To enumerate and briefly describe the proper sequence of thyroid
hormone synthesis (see subsequent text)

A. HISTOLOGY OF THYROID
1. Capsule
• Fibro elastic and collagenous connective tissue
• Derived from cervical fascia, particularly an extension/reflection of pre-tracheal fascia
• Penetrate into the gland as trabeculae or septae, dividing thyroid into lobes or lobules

2. Parenchyma
• Follicles: structural units (Thyroid follicles)
o Spherical/Ovoid, cyst-like spaces
o 0.2mm to 0.9mm in diameter
o Filled with colloid
o Lined by simple epithelium
o Sizes are variable (follicles can enlarge or decrease diameter) but the smaller follicles
predominate
o Each follicle has extremely thin basement membrane
o Supporting framework: Each follicle surrounded by reticular tissue containing nerve
fibers, blood vessels (fenestrated capillaries) lined by termination of lymphatic
capillaries
o Nerve supply: vasomotor
▪ Preganglionic parasympathetic nerves
▪ Postganglionic sympathetic nerves derived from the cervical ganglia
▪ High blood supply = high secretion

• Additional important concepts:

o Follicular epithelium
- Simple cuboidal generally
- Simple squamous/ low columnar epithelium depending upon the degree of glandular
activity
- PRINCIPAL CELLS/ FOLLICULAR CELLS/ THYROCYTES
✓ Spheroidal nucleus
✓ Poor in chromatin
✓ Few, short, irregularly-oriented microvilli
✓ Synthesize T3 and T4

o Colloid
- Dense homogenous gelatinous material that represents extracellular storage form of
the secretion of follicular cells
- Contains the following:
✓ Stored thyroid hormones: Thyroglobulin (a glycoprotein)
✓ Mucoproteins
✓ Proteolytic enzymes (separate hormone from its carrier)
 ✓ Desquamated cells
✓ Macrophages (rare)

o PARAFOLLICULAR CELLS
- Aka Mitochondria-rich cells/ C-cells
- Origin: Ectoderm/ Neuroectoderm
- Located in the interfollicular spaces and also in the follicular epithelium
- Pale staining with intensely staining small nuclei
- Slightly larger than principal cells
- Cytoplasm have brown to black cytoplasmic granules
- Rich in alpha-glycerophosphate dehydrogenase
- Secrete THYROCALCITONIN
✓ decreases serum calcium levels
✓ unbranched single polypeptide chain
✓ made up of 32 amino acids
✓ MW: 3,400

CLINICAL CORRELATION:
THYROTOXICOSIS/ TOXIC GOITER/ EXOPHTHALMIC GOITER
- Cells become taller, have more numerous microvilli, more organelles (more mitochondria,
larger Golgi bodies, more numerous lysosomes, more developed endoplasmic reticulum),
increase in size and number

B. HISTOGENESIS OF THYROID
• Endodermal origin
• Derived from Foramen Cecum
• Downward extension from the floor of the pharynx
• Originates from the base of the tongue then descends into the anterior neck (thyroglossal
duct → thyroglossal tract → may sometimes give rise to thyroglossal cyst)
• Thyroid gland begins to function at the 10th week of fetal life
• Parafollicular C-cells are derived from ectodermal neural crest/ Neuroectoderm

CLINICAL CORRELATION:
HYPERFUNCTION(HYPERTHYROIDISM)
HYPOFUNCTION (HYPOTHYROIDISM)
❖ HYPERTHYROIDISM
▪ Anterior neck mass → Goiter
▪ As compared to the normal structure
Normal size: 5 x 4 x 2 cm
Normal weight: 25-40 g each lobe
 T3 T4
Triiodothyronine *Tetraiodothyroxine /Thyroxine

**Less numerous (10%) **More abundant (90%)

4-5 x more potent Less potent

Short acting (1/2 to 2 days) Longer acting (6 to 7 days)

C. HISTOPHYSIOLOGY OF THYROID
▪ Thyroid hormones (T3 and T4) regulate metabolic rat
*According to books, T4 is TETRAIODOTHYRONINE
**pertains to the level of circulating hormones in the bloodstream

D. SYNTHESIS OF THYROID HORMONE

1. Iodine trapping /Iodine uptake
2. Thyroperoxidation of iodine-catalyzed thyroxine by thyroperoxidase
3. Organification
a. iodination of thyroxine
b. oxidative coupling
4. Storage of thyroid hormones in the form of thyroglobulin; stored in colloid
5. Release of the thyroid hormones
a. Hypothalamus stimulates pituitary gland by means of Thyrotropin Releasing Factor (TRF)
b. Pituitary releases Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH), stimulating the thyroid gland
c. Thyroid gland releases T3(Triiodothyronine) and T4(Thyroxine)
6. Release utilization and metabolism of thyroid hormones

CLINICAL CORRELATION:
GRAVES’ DISEASE
- autoimmune disorder in which the person produces antibodies
- that mimic the action of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH).
- The antibodies continually stimulate the thyroid gland to grow and
produce thyroid hormones.
- A primary sign is an enlarged thyroid, which may be two to three
times its normal size.
- Graves’ patients often have a peculiar edema behind the eyes, called exophthalmos, which causes the
eyes to protrude.
- Treatment may include surgical removal of part or all of the thyroid gland (thyroidectomy), the use of
radioactive iodine to selectively destroy thyroid tissue, and the use of antithyroid drugs to block
synthesis of thyroid hormones
 3.2.1.B PARATHYROID GLANDS

• Small ovoid/spherical, yellowish-brown, highly vascular, ductless endocrine glands

• Location: Posterior surface of thyroid gland
• Normally, there are 4 parathyroid glands usually located at the middle 3 rd of the thyroid (some
can be at the lower 3rd)
• But there may be numerous accessory parathyroid glands
- About 5-10% of parathyroid are located in association with the thymus, deep in the
anterior mediastinum
- May be located within the capsule of the thyroid or embedded in the substance/
parenchyma of the thyroid
- Function: Production of Parathormone
• Size: 3-8mm in length, 2-5mm in width, .5-2mm in thickness
• Weight: 0.5-3 grams

A. HISTOLOGY OF PARATHYROID GLAND

1. Capsule
• Connective tissue that penetrates into the
gland as trabeculae, dividing the gland into
lobules Supporting framework, reticular
connective tissue

2. Parenchyma
• Cell population consists of basically 2 types of
cell arranged in closely compact groups,
arcades or columns: Figure 7: Histology of Parathyroid Gland
a. PRINCIPAL CELLS/CHIEF CELLS
✓ make up the majority of cells population
✓ polyhedral cells
✓ less intensely staining (faintly acidophilic)
✓ 7 – 10 microns in diameter
✓ Vesicular nucleus
✓ Each cell has single cilium that extends into narrow canaliculi
✓ Cytoplasm contains secretory granules
o Lipofuscin pigment
o Glycogen
✓ Secretes PARATHORMONE (PARATHYROID HORMONE)
o Increases serum calcium levels
o Single unbranched polypeptide chain has no cysteine
o MW: 9,000
 b. OXYPHIL CELLS
✓ Singly, solitary or in small groups
✓ Interspersed among the principal cells
✓ Deeply acidophilic, more intensely staining
✓ Dark central nuclei (smaller and more compact)
✓ Less in number
✓ Unknown Function (no hormonal secretion or secretion is unknown)

Other cells (Minor Type):

▪ Intermediate oxyphil cells (between oxyphil and principal cells)
o Aka Water clear cells
▪ Deeply staining oxyphil cells / Dark oxyphil cells

3. Stroma
▪ Supporting framework: reticular connective tissue

CLINICAL CORRELATION:
❖ Increase in size and number of cells in the following:
o RICKETS – Vitamin D absence among children → no calcium reabsorption → weak
skeleton
o NEPHRITIS WITH UREMIA
o HYPERPLASIA/ TUMORS
❖ Great capacity of regeneration
o Complete removal of all parathyroid glands → tetany (violent muscular contractions)
o Surgeons can transplant parathyroid glands in any portion of the body (will
regenerate)

B. HISTOGENESIS OF PARATHYROID
Embryonic origin: 3rd and 4th pharyngeal/ branchial pouches

CLINICAL CORRELATION:

❖ Grave’s Disease – nodular toxic goiter

❖ Plummer’s Syndrome – diffuse toxic goiter
❖ Sjogren’s Syndrome
o General dryness (no secretions)
o Clinical triad:
▪ Dry eyes (keratoconjunctivitis)
▪ Dry mouth (xerostomia)
▪ Rheumatoid arthritis
I. Modified Multiple Choice.
Write: A if the item refers to the Thyroid gland only
B if the item refers to the Parathyroid glands only
C if the item refers to either A or B
D if the item refers to neither A nor B

1. Microvilli
2. Calcitonin
3. Connective tissue capsule
4. Alpha-glycerophosphate dehydrogenase
5. Colloid
6. Oxidative coupling
7. Neuroectodermal origin
8. Increase serum calcium
9. Vasomotor
10. Proteolytic enzymes

II. Arrangement. Using numbers, properly arrange the following events in the synthesis of thyroid
hormones. Place your answers before the box icon.

 Thyroperoxidation
 Storage
 Metabolism
 Release
 Organification
 Iodine uptake
Practical Quiz. Answer the following questions by referring to the histologic images
below.

1.
a. What is the type of epithelium in “1”?

b. Hormonal synthesis of “1” is immediately

stimulated by which hormone?

2.
a. What is the major protein carrier in “2”?

b. Leukocytes present are in the form of?

3.

a. What is the predominant cell in this slide?

b. What is the cellular appendage present in “a”?

 SPECIAL SENSES
UNIT 3.3

How can you describe the color red to a blind

person?

How do deaf people listen to music?

What can cause the loss of taste and smell?

LECTURE ACTIVITY 3.3

UNIT 3.3 – SPECIAL SENSES

3.1.1 ROLE OF THE SPECIAL SENSES IN HOMEOSTASIS

INTRODUCTION
The human body experiences its environment by reacting to stimuli that reach the brain via the
nervous system. The somatic or general senses, including touch, temperature perception, pain, and
proprioception (the awareness of one’s position and movement in space), use the free nerve endings
in the skin, muscles, and membranes of the body to detect change and communicate that information
to the CNS. While it is possible to literally feel the thumping bass at a concert, to truly appreciate the
intricacies of sound – – the pitch, melody, timbre, and texture – – you need a specialized sense called
hearing. The human body has five specialized senses, including vision, hearing, balance, taste, and
olfaction, and each requires a special sensory organ to be perceived.
Objective
1. Describe histologic characteristics of the eyes
2. Describe histologic characteristics of the ears
3. Describe histologic characteristics of the sense of olfaction
4. Discuss physiologic highlights of vision, hearing, balance, taste, and olfaction
3.3.1A EYES

I. Outer Fibrous Layer: Tunica Fibrosa

1. Sclera
- Opaque posterior 5/6 of the eye, dense fibrous CT
- 1mm until gradually thinner up to .3mm at the insertion of recti muscles

a. Episcleral tissue
o fibro elastic tissue
o Has large number of blood vessel
o Attaches the conjunctiva to the sclera

b. Scleral proper
o “middle layer” collagenous fibers oriented parallel
o Fibroblast (producing collagen) are found between the fiber bundles which
constitute the cellular component

c. Lamina fusca
o transition between the sclera and the choroid
o Collagenous and more elastic than sclera propria
o Contains melanin

2. Cornea
- Avascular and can be transplanted.
- Its nutrition is derived from the anterior chamber and the superficial marginal plexes of vessels
(located at the limbus).
- Normal hydration comes from the aqueous humor that fills the anterior chamber. Has a rich
sensory supply (ophthalmic division of the trigeminal nerve) and branch extensively at the
substancia propia.

• Ant. Epithelium
o squamous non-keratinized epithelium of 5-6 layers of cells
o Deepest cells are columnar and containing numerous nerve endings.
o Highly sensitive with great capacity for regeneration
o Corneal cells are attached to each other by desmosomes and losses their nuclei upon
keratinization
• Bowman’s membrane
o “Anterior Homologous Membrane” modified layer of substancia propia.
o Contain Irregular network of fine Collagenous fibers

• Desmets’s membrane
o Similar with bowman’s only a little thicker, lies internal to substancia propia.
o 5-7 mm thick centrally gradually increases to 8-10 mm in the periphery
 • Substancia propia (Corneal Stroma)
o 90% of the thickness of the cornea forming the main portion of the cornea.
o Collagenous fibers are arranged in layers which course parallel to surface of cornea
contributing to its transparency
o Branching of the TGN occurs
o Fibroblasts are arranged between and parallel with Collagenous fibers. Corneal
corpuscles or keratocytes

• Corneal Endothelium (posterior epithelium)

▪ single layer of Low cuboidal or squamous cells lining the inner surface of the
cornea.

3. Scelocorneal Junction (Limbus)- narrow circular zone at the palace of union of the cornea
and sclera
- Canal of Schlemm – filled with aqueous humor and communicates externally with the venous
system
- Ligamentum Pectinatum – Fiber bundles of the trabecular meshwork
- Lymphatic spaces of Fontana – Located in between the ligamentum pectinatum, this drains
in the canal layer of the endothelium. It has afferent connections through the trabecular
spaces for the drainage of the aqueous from the anterior chamber.
- Marginal plexus – only blood vessel that nourish the cornea.
- Glaucoma- obstruction of the filtration process from C of Schlemm and Space of Fontana

II. Middle Vascular Layer: Uvea

Concerned with the nutrition of the tissue of the eye ball. Has 3 regions:

1. Choroid
- Brown, spongy, pigmented and vascular
- 0.1 to 0.3 mm thick in diameter with potential perichroidal space separating it from the
sclera.
- Has 4 sub layers:
a. Scleral proper
▪ “middle layer” collagenous fibers oriented parallel
▪ Fibroblast (producing collagen) are found between the fiber bundles which
constitute the cellular component
b. Lamina fusca
▪ transition between the sclera and the choroid
▪ Collagenous and more elastic than sclera propia
▪ Contains melanin
c. Transparent Limiting Membrane
d. Bruch’s membrane (Glassy membrane)
▪ (lamina elastic or lamina vitrae) has been considered as the inner most layer
of the choroid
 ▪ 5 layers:
a. Basal lamina of the capillaries of the choriocapillaries
b. First layer of collagen fiber
c. Layer of elastic fiber
d. Second layer of collagen fiber
e. Basal lamina of the pigmented epithelium.

2. Ciliary Body
• Extends anteriorly as far as the ora serrata which is the anterior margin of the sensory portion
of the retina
• In front of the ora serrata is the thickened to form the ciliary Body
• A ring in which the suspensory ligaments are attached.
i. Ciliary Muscle – bulk of the ciliary body
ii. Vascular Layer – consists mainly of capillaries and veins, constituting the bulk of
the ciliary process.
iii. Ciliary epithelium – Represents the continuation of neural retina, it faces the
vitreous body and posterior chamber and covered with a double layer of
cuboidal cells.
• Ciliary Process – extend externally from the anterior portion of the ciliary body, probably
the site of aqueous humor formation
• Aqueous Humor – a fluid refractive medium in the eye and essential for nutritive support of
the retina and other retractile elements. Ensures the physical stability of the eye. Secreted
in interstices of vitreous body and iridial stroma and is drained at the angle of the anterior
chamber.

“THE LENS”
▪ Is a biconvex flexible, transparent disk that focuses incident rays of light in the retina
▪ Composed of 3 layers:
1. Capsule / basement membrane
2. Simple cuboidal epithelium (anteriorly located)
3. Lens fibers
▪ Modified EC are derived from the equator of the lens

3. Iris
• Divides the space bet cornea and the lens dividing it into an anterior and posterior
chamber communicating thru the pupil
• Membranous extension of the choroid which partially covers the lens leaving around the
center and opening called pupil.
• Varies in color, which is largely determined by the melanocytes.
• Attached to the anterior portion of the ciliary body by its thinnest portion the root.
• Thicker centrally, becomes thinner at the periphery
 III. The Innermost Layer: Retina
• The inter coat of the eye ball contains the receptor for light.
• Its parts according to location are:
1) Pars iridica retinae
2) Pars Ciliaris retinae
3) Pars Optica Retinae

• 1 & 2 are insensitive to light

• Pars Optica Retinae – innermost coat attached to the choroid and the widest portion used for
vision
o This is the portion of the eye that transduces light stimulus to nerve impulse
o Arises from the optic cup in embryonic development the retina consists of an outer layer
pigmented epithelium and an inner layer neural retina.
o Attached into two regions in the underlying structure, these regions are the Ora serrata
and Optic disk
• Except in optic disk, fovea centralis and ora serrata, 10 layers can be distinguished:

1. Pigmented Epithelium
▪ Firmly adhere to Bruch’s membrane; has numerous invaginations. Mitochondria are
abundant in the region near the cytoplasm near the invagination.
▪ Show cell junction with zonula occludents, zonula adherence at their apices as well as
desmosomes and gap junctions.
▪ Cell apex has abundant microvilli and cylindrical sheaths that invest the lips of the
photoreceptors.
▪ Cytoplasm has abundant Golgi apparatus, believed to be Vitamin A esterification and
transport
▪ Melanin is rich in the apical portion and microvillus extension.
▪ Dark pigment function to absorb light after the stimulation.
2. The Neural Retina
▪ The Retina Propia has 6 types of cells:
i. Rods iv. Bipolar cells
ii. Cones v. Amacrine cells
iii. Horizontal cells vi. Ganglioncell

▪ In the outer plexiform layer, the photoreceptors, horizontal and bipolar cell synapse with
each other
▪ In the inner plexiform layer are the bipolar, amacrine and ganglion cell layers.
▪ Thus there are 3 main types of retinal cells
i. Photoreceptors (rods and cones)
ii. Bipolar cells
iii. Ganglion cells
▪ Two kinds of visual cells
i. Rod cells
ii. Cone cells
10 LAYERS OF RETINA/ PARS OPTICA

I. PIGMENTED EPITHELUM:
II. RODS AND CONES:
The inner and outer segment of R & C constitute this layer, remaining parts form the next 3 layers
Photosensitive cells

Rod Cells:
- Inner and outer segment is joined together by a slender stalk containing 9 longitudinally oriented
fibrils that terminate in the centriole in the distal end of the inner segment
- Has a pear-shaped spherule w/ abundant synaptic vesicle w/c is located in the plexiform layer

Cone Cells:
- Structurally similar with Rods, differences are:
▪ Conical structures of the outer segment
▪ Has a nucleus that has densely packed chromatin
▪ Cones are thicker that the rods and widens at its termination in the outer plexiform layer
forming the cone pedicle
Contain visual pigment, iodopsin w/c is sensitive to red light.
Has a better visual acuity than the rods
In the fovea: cones are long and slender with inner and outer segments of same diameter
In the peripheral: cones are shorter and thicker.

Outer Segment Inner Segment

✓ Contain parallel lamellae ✓ Where cytoplasmic organelles are found
✓ Slender cylinder of uniform thickness w/c ✓ Rich in glycogen and mitochondria
appears homogenous in fresh condition ✓ Polysomes are present in large numbers,
✓ Visual purple/ rhodopsin is present involve in protein synthesis
✓ Two portions
o Ellipsoid- toward the sclera
(mitochondria)
o Myoid – toward the vitreous (Golgi
comp)

III. EXTERNAL LIMITING MEMBRANE

- Not a true membrane, only a junction specialization between the photoreceptors and
processes of Muller’s cells

IV. OUTER NUCLEAR LAYER

- Houses the cell bodies of the photoreceptor cells. At the fovea centralis only cones are
present
V. OUTER PLEXIFORM LAYER
- The region of synapse between axon of the receptor cells and the processes of bipolar
and horizontal cells
VI. INNER NUCLEAR LAYER
- Houses the cell bodies of Muller’s, Amacrine, bipolar and horizontal cells

VII. INNER PLEXIFORM LAYER

- Region of synapse between dendrites of ganglia cells and axon of bipolar cells.
Moreover, processes of Muller and Amacrine cells are also present.

VIII. GANGLION CELL LAYER

- Houses the bodies of multipolar neurons, which are the final link in neuronal chain of the
retina, and their axons form the optic nerve. Additionally, neuroglia are also located in
this layer

IX. OPTIC NERVE FIBER LAYER

- Composed of unmyelinated axons of ganglion cells which forms the optic nerve

X. INNER LIMITING MEMBRANE

- Basal lamina separating Muller’s cells expansion from the vitreous body.

Figure 8: Layers of the Retina

ACCESORY ORGANS OF THE EYE:

1. Eyelid
• Covered by thin skin on its external surface and by a conjunctiva, a mucous membrane,
on its inner aspect.
• The thick dense connective tissue the Tarsal plate maintains and reinforces the eyelid.
• Associated with the tarsal plate are the tarsal glands secreting oily sebum that delivered
to the margin of the eyelid.
• Associated with the eyelashes are Sebaceous glands while ciliary glands are located
between eyelashes

2. Lacrimal Gland
• External to the eye, located superolateral aspect of the orbit.
• It is compound Tubuloalveolar gland producing a serous lysozyme rich fluid with alkaline
pH

Label the parts of the eye.

3.3.1B EAR

o Organ for hearing that translates sound waves into meaningful information as interpreted by the
brain of CNS

PARTS OF THE EARS:

Differ in embryonic origin, function, gross anatomy and histology.

1. External/Outer Ear: receives sound waves

2. Middle Ear: transforms sound waves into vibrations at the auditory ossicles
3. Internal/Inner Ear:
• Conveys impulses to CNS via CN VIII
• Contains vestibular organs responsible for vestibular function or equilibrium/balance
• generate specific nerve impulses that are conducted by the acoustic / auditory nerve to
the brain

EMBRYONIC ORIGIN:

• External & Middle – embryonically derived from the 1st branchial pouch
• Internal – embryonically derived from an ectodermal thickening dorsal to the 1st branchial
groove in between the metencephalon and myelencephalon on both sides of the brain. The
branchial groove becomes the optic vesicles.

PARTS OF THE EXTERNAL EAR:

1. Pinna or auricle
• irregular plate of elastic cartilage covered by flexible perichondrium lined by thin skin
• posterior skin has associated hair and sebaceous glands
• no sweat glands

2. External auditory meatus

• Continuation of the elastic cartilage of the auricle
• opening that leads into the canal

3. External auditory canal

• Extends medially and inferiorly
• Outer part: cartilaginous
• Middle part: bony (temporal bone)
• Lined by thin skin with no papilla
• Large sebaceous glands
• Numerous hairs in the cartilaginous portion
• No eccrine sweat glands
• Apocrine sweat glands are extremely large (CERUMINOUS GLANDS)
 4. Ceruminous glands
• large apocrine sweat glands
• Cerumen:
▪ mixture of the secretions of sebaceous glands and apocrine sweat glands
▪ brown waxy material that prevents desiccation of thin skin
▪ can become impacted→ “impacted cerumen” can block the external auditory
canal
• common cause of deafness in children

TYMPANIC MEMBRANE:
• at the junction of external and middle ear
• medial boundary of auditory canal
• oval semi-transparent shaped like a flat cone
• consisting of collagenous fibers
• 2 parts:
1. Radial and concentric collagenous fibers
▪ Radial: outside
• Outer layer is covered by thin skin with no appendages (no hair and
glands)
▪ Concentric (circular): inside
• Covered by simple squamous epithelium at the superior anterior quadrant
2. Schrapnell’s membrane
▪ Quadrant that is devoid of collagenous fibers
▪ “pars flaccida”
▪ Otitis media: tympanic membrane ruptures, pus will come out from the pars
flaccida

Figure 9: Parts of the External Ear Figure 9.1: SG: sebaceous glands, F: hair
follicles, CG: ceruminous glands, C:
cerumen
PARTS OF THE MIDDLE EAR
1. Tympanic cavity
• Irregular, air-filled cavity in the temporal bone lined by simple squamous epithelium
• Communicates with the nasopharynx by means of the auditory canal or Eustachian tube
• Communicates posteriorly with the mastoid air cells at temporal bone via tympanic antrum

CONTENTS OF TYMPANIC CAVITY:

a. Bones: auditory ossicles (3)

- form a typical diarthroid joint
• Malleus / Hammer
• Incus / Anvil
• Stapes / Stirrup

Diarthroid joints
• Manubrium of malleus is attached to the apex of tympanic membrane
• Foot plate of the stapes fits into fenestra vestibuli (oval window) held together by
annular fibrous ligament

b. Muscles (2)
• Stapedius
• Tensor tympani

c. Nerve (1)
• Chorda tympani

d. Connective tissue

The epithelium near the opening of Eustachian

tube is cuboidal- columnar ciliated

2. Eustachian tube
- extends 4 cm. from the anterior wall of tympanic cavity posteriorly
- 2 parts:
a) Tympanic end: bony (temporal bone)
• Columnar or cuboidal ciliated epithelium
b) Pharyngeal end: cartilaginous (elastic cartilage)
• Pseudostratified columnar ciliated epithelium
• There is a collection of lymphatic nodules called the tubal tonsils of Gerlach
 Figure 10: Pseudostratified columnar epithelium of the Eustachian Tube: pharyngeal end

PARTS OF THE INNER EAR

LABYRINTH

o complex fluid-filled sacs and tubules suspended in irregular cavities in the petrous portion of the
temporal bone
2 PARTS:
a) Bony Labyrinth (Perilymphatic Space)
- Contains perilymph

b) Membranous Labyrinth (Endolymphatic Space)

- Contains endolymph

2 SEGMENTS of the INNER EAR

a) Vestibule:
-contains membranous labyrinth corresponding to the same shape/configuration as the bony
labyrinth
- consists of:
i. Utricle
• Arising from the utricle are the 3 semicircular canals
o Superior
o Posterior
o Lateral
• The semicircular canals are attached to the utricle via the ampulla*

➢ Ampulla
- Dilated areas where the 3 semicircular canals are directly attached to the utricle
- 6 ampullas, but the superior and posterior semicircular canals are held by one ampulla
known as crus commune

✓ Crista ampullaris
- Ridge of neurosensory epithelial cells found in the ampulla
 ii. Saccule
• gives rise to cochlear duct
• lined by simple squamous epithelium

➢ Endolymphatic ducts: from utricle and saccule

• Leads to vestibular aqueduct which ends in the endolymphatic sac.

Simple squamous lining: Endolymphatic duct, vestibular aqueduct, semicircular canals, utricle,
saccules

Endolymphatic sac: site for absorption of endolymph

• Lined by tall cuboidal to columnar absorptive cells

➢ Maculae
o Ridge of neurosensory epithelium at the utricle and saccule
• Macula utriculi: at utricle
• Macula sacculi: at saccule

Crista ampullaris and Maculae are the sensory receptors for balance/equilibrium; stimulus is tilting
of head. If you tilt your head, the endolymph will move, it will stimulate neurosensory receptors in the
crista ampullaris and macula

➢ Ductus reuniens
o Connection between saccule and cochlea

b) Cochlea
➢ Hair cells (Sensory cells)

Type I Type II
• flask shaped: expanded bottom, • columnar
narrow necks, • nucleus at different levels
• round nucleus at the basal cytoplasm • well-developed Golgi apparatus and secretory
surrounded by numerous mitochondria vacuoles
• containing numerous microvilli and 1 • at the apical cytoplasm there are numerous hairs
kinocilium or microvilli progressing in length (1micron-
• numerous microtubules 100micron)
• numerous terminal nerve fibers enclose • single kinocilium at one side
the cell like a chalice • terminal nerve fibers pinched as synapse called
terminal buttons
➢ Cochlea
• has 2 ¾ spiral turn around a central axis called
as modiolus
❖ Modiolus
• Consists of spongy bone and bipolar
afferent neuron of the spiral ganglion

✓ Spiral lamina
• Extends laterally from modiolus (medial
to lateral)
• Medial part: osseous
• Lateral half: membranous basilar membrane

✓ Basilar membrane: made up of collagenous fibers;

attached laterally by means of the spiral ligament
o Medial 1/3: pars arcuata
o Lateral 2/3: pars pectinata
• Auditory strings: striations in pars pectinate

✓ Organ of Corti: effective organ of hearing

• Lies over basilar membrane
• Neurosensory epithelium that contains receptors for
sound waves
o When endolymph moves, the hair cells of the
organ of Corti will move
• Cells:
a) Hair cells (mostly type I)
b) Outer and Inner pillar cells
c) Outer (Cells of Deiters) and Inner
phalangeal cells
d) Border cells: form the inner boundary of
organ of corti
e) Hensen’s cells: form the outer boundary of
organ of corti
f) Cells of Claudius: supporting cells
g) Cells of Bottcher: supporting cells

✓ Tectorial membrane:
• Extends from spiral limbus
• Lies above hair cells
• Has same composition as epidermal keratin
• Synthesized by interdental cells located in the spiral limbus
✓ Spiral limbus
• Consists of collagenous fibers forming the auditory teeth of Huschke

✓ Reissner’s membrane/Vestibular membrane

• Extends from the modiolus towards the lateral surface

✓ Spiral lamina and vestibular membrane: divide the cochlea into 3 chambers:
• Scala vestibuli: perilymphatic space, contains perilymph
• Scala tympani: perilymphatic space, contains perilymph
• Scala media: endolymphatic space, contains endolymph

✓ Planum semilunatum
• supports previous tall columnar cells w/ in folded lat. & basolat membranes
• SYNTHESIZE ENDOLYMPH

✓ Capulae
• gelatinous bodies made up of
sulfated protein polysaccharide
that lies over the hair cells of
the crista ampullaris
• under crista ampullaris

✓ Otoliths
• crystals of Ca carbonate w/
CHON polysaccharide that lies over the hair cells of macula

✓ Helicotrema
• apex of cochlea
• scala tympani & vestibuli communicate

Blood Supply: Inferior Cerebellar Artery → Labyrinthine Artery → Vestibular and Cochlear Arte
3.3.1C SENSE OF TASTE OR GUSTATION

ANATOMY OF TASTE BUDS AND PAPILLAE:

TASTE BUDS:
- location of the receptors
- > 10,000: tongue, soft palate, pharynx, epiglottis
- oval-shaped
- contains 3 KINDS OF CELLS:
• Supporting cells - surround 50 gustatory receptor cells
• Gustatory hair - single, long microvillus from the gustatory receptors
• Basal cells - produce supporting cells
- T ½: 10 days

- taste buds are found in elevations: PAPILLAE – 4 TYPES:

• Filiform
- slender, threadlike structures spread throughout the tongue that contain tactile
receptors; NO taste buds
- gives the tongue a velvety appearance
- increases friction between the tongue and food (mechanical function)
• Foliate
- leaf like structure; well developed mucosal folds during childhood
- located in the small trenches on the lateral margin of the tongue
- contains about 2000 taste buds
• Fungiform
- mushroom shaped elevations interspersed between the filiform papillae
- 300-450 papillae
- 3-5 taste buds per papillae
• Circumvallate
- wall-like structure, forming an inverted V shaped row at the base of the tongue
- 10-12 papillae
- 50-150 taste buds per papillae

Figure 11: Illustration detailing the four types of papilla

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TASTE THRESHOLD: TESTS/CHEMICALS USED TO ASSESS THRESHOLD:

BITTER : quinine (alkaloid component)

SOUR : hydrochloric acid (H+ ions component)

SALTY : sodium chloride (metal component)

SWEET : sucrose

Adaptation: takes 1-5 minutes of continuous stimulation

GUSTATORY PATHWAY:3 Cranial Nerves Involved:

- Facial nerve (CN VII)

- Glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX)

- Vagus nerve (CN X)

Figure 12. The human tongue taste zones

Primary Gustatory Area 43: conscious perception of taste

CLINICAL CORRELATION:
TASTE AVERSION: Avoidance of food

SMELL FATIGUE – adaptation; inability to smell after prolonged stimulation; transient

ANOSMIA – loss of sense of smell

HYPEROSMIA – increased sense of smell

HYPOSMIA – deterioration of sense of smell related to aging (affecting those over 65 years of age and 75%
of those over age 80). Caused by head injury, trauma, Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s; drugs
(antihistamines, analgesics, steroids), and the damaging effects of smoking

CARROTS: contain carotenoids (plant pigment giving carrots the orange color) where Vitamin A
derivatives are formed to produce RETINAL: a light absorbing part of all photopigments

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 3.3.1D SENSE OF SMELL / OLFACTION

ANATOMY:

Figure 12. Anatomy of the Human Nose.

NOSE : contains 10-100 million receptors

: olfactory epithelium occupies the superior part of the nasal cavitycovering the inferior surface
of the cribriform plate, extends along the superior nasal conchae

: function of the olfactory epithelium depends on vapor pressure of substance:

Acetic acid = 1 x 10 -10 g/l air

Mercaptan = 4.5 x 10 -14 g/l air

Other gases are odorless and poisonous: carbon monoxide

Smell contributes to the taste of food (GUSTATORIC SMELLING)

Odors produce feelings of pleasure or reluctance, stimulate or inhibit sexual behaviors

OLFACTORY EPITHELIUM – 3 KINDS OF CELLS:

1. Olfactory receptors
2. Supporting cells – columnar epithelium
- provide physical support, nourishment and electrical insulation for the olfactory receptors
- help detoxify chemicals
3. Basal stem cells
- found between bases of supporting cells
- undergo cell division
- half life: 1 month
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OLFACTORY (Bowmann’s)GLANDS:
- produce mucus to moisten surface of epithelium and dissolve odorants
- Bowmann’s glands and supporting cells: innervated by CN VII (stimulate lacrimal glands)

NASAL CONCHAE – inferior, middle and superior portions

NASAL TURBINATES – bony nasal folds provide surface area for better olfactory capacity – better sense
of smell

7 – 10 primary qualities of sense:

- SPICY, ETHEREAL, FRUITY, PUNGENT, BUNING, PUTRID, FLOWERY, RESINS

A. OLFACTORY RECEPTORS
1. 1st order neuron, bipolar
2. Olfactory sense organs consists of epithelial support cells and specialized olfactory
receptor neurons
a. Olfactory cilia/hair – located on olfactory receptor neurons that touch the olfactory
epithelium lining the upper surface of the nasal cavity
- site of olfactory transduction (TRANSDUCTION: conversion of stimulus energy into a
graded potential in a sensory receptor)

b. Olfactory cells – chemoreceptors; gas molecules or chemicals dissolved in the mucus

covering the nasal epithelium stimulate the olfactory cells
c. Olfactory receptors – extremely sensitive and easily fatigued

B. OLFACTORY PATHWAY – when the level of odor-producing chemicals reaches a threshold level, the
following occurs:
3. Receptor potential, and then action potential, is generated and passed to the olfactory
nerves in the olfactory bulb
4. The impulses then pass through the olfactory tract and into the thalamic and olfactory
centers of the brain for interpretation, integration and memory storage

ODOR THRESHOLD AND ADAPTATION:

- olfaction has low threshold

• only few molecules of odorants need to be present in air to produce odor
1. Mercaptan: detected in concentrations as low as 1/25 billionth mg/ml air
- adaptation (decreasing sensitivity)to odors occur rapidly
• receptors adapt by about 50% then slowly thereafter

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3.3.2 SUMMARY ALGORITHM OF ALL PHYSIOLOGY OF SPECIAL SENSES

A. EYE IMAGE PHYSIOLOGY

1. Pigment cell layer
2. Photoreceptor layer
3. External limiting membrane
4. Outer nuclear layer
5. Outer plexiform layer DIRECTION OF LIGHT
6. Inner nuclear layer
7. Inner plexiform layer
8. Ganglion cell layer
9. Optic nerve layer
10. Internal limiting membrane

Pigment cell layer – contain melanin pigments

Photoreceptors: Rods and Cones

B. SOUND PHYSIOLOGY

Airwaves enter the external auditory canal→ set the tympanic membrane vibrating → vibrations
communicated to the ossicles → transmitted to the fenestra vestibule to perilymph → stimulate nerve
endings in Organ of Corti → impulses carried transmitted to the Cochlear nerve (CN VIII) to the center
of hearing in the brain (temporal lobe)

C. PHYSIOLOGY OF OLFACTION:
- 10,000 odors recognized
- Odorant molecules → bind to receptors linked to G-proteins and activate ADENYLATE CYCLASE
→ production of cAMP → opening of Na+ channels → inflow of Na+ → depolarizing generator
potential → nerve impulse arise → propagate along axon of olfactory receptors

- LATERAL OLFACTORY AREA: temporal lobe – Primary Olfactory Area where conscious
awareness of smell begins
- ORBITOFRONTAL AREA: Area 11; odor identification and discrimination
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D. PHYSIOLOGY OF TASTE:
TASTANTS:

- chemicals that stimulate gustatory receptor cells

- dissolved in the saliva → make contact with the plasma membrane of the gustatory hair for
taste transduction → receptor potential (inflow of calcium ions) stimulate exocytosis of synaptic
vesicles from the gustatory receptor cells → liberation of neurotransmitter → trigger nerve
impulse

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 I. MULTIPLE MATCHING TYPE. Match Column A to Column B. After which, match
your answer to Column C. Letters may be used once, twice, thrice, or none at all. (Example: 1.
A,iii)

COLUMN A COLUMN B COLUMN C

1. Associated with tubal tonsils of Gerlach A. Ampulla i. Inner Ear
2. Connects saccule and cochlea B. Auditory teeth of ii. Middle Ear
3. Connects superior and posterior Huschke iii. Outer Ear
semicircular canals C. Border cells iv. None of the
4. Contains auditory strings D. Cells of Claudius above
5. Extends from modiulus towards the E. Ceruminous
lateral surface F. Cochlea
6. Extends from spiral limbus G. Crista ampullaris
7. Flask-shaped H. Crus commune
8. Form the inner boundary of organ of I. Deiter Cells
corti J. Ductus reuniens
9. Large apocrine sweat glands K. Endolymphatic duct
10. Lateral 2/3 of basilar membrane L. Endolymphatic sac
11. Outer phalangeal cells M. Eustachian tube
12. Oval window N. Fenestra tympani
13. Pars flaccida O. Fenestra vestibuli
14. Ridge of neurosensory epithelium at P. Hensen’s cells
the utricle and saccule Q. Macula
15. Site of absorption of endolymph R. Pars arcuata
16. Spiral limbus S. Pars pectinate
17. Supporting cells in the Organ of Corti T. Reissner’s membrane
18. Synthesized by interdental cells U. Saccule
19. Vestibular membrane V. Schrapnell’s
20. Where stapes footplate is attached membrane
W. Tectorial membrane
X. Type I hair cells
Y. Type II hair cells
Z. None of the above

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II. TRUE OR FALSE. Write A if the statement is true. Write B if the statement is false.
1. Tympanic cavity is lined by squamous epithelium.
2. One-third of the Eustachian tube is bony with low columnar ciliated epithelium.
3. Type II hair cells are flask-shaped with round base and narrow neck.
4. The zona acuata is located between the medial attachment and the outermost cells of
Organ of Corti.
5. Deiter cells are the outer pillar cells.
6. The vestibular membrane diverges from the basilar membrane to join the spiral ligament.
7. The inner lining of the utricle is low columnar.
8. Ductus reuniens connects two of the three semicircular canals.
9. Scala vestibuli is considered a perilymphatic space.
10. Inner ear is embryonically derived from an endodermal thickening.

III. PRACTICALS. Answer the following questions accordingly basing from the given actual
histologic slide.

1.
A. Identify the pointed structure (black arrow).
B. The cavity superior to “A” is known as?

2.
A. Identify the fluid in the encircled structure.
B. What do you call the apex of cochlea?

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Gartner, L., & Hiatt, J., (2015). Cell biology and histology (7thed.). Baltimore, MD: Wolter’s Kluwer
Health

Hussain, A., Kaler, J., Tabrez, E., Tabrez, S., & Tabrez, S. (2020). Novel COVID-19: A Comprehensive
Review of Transmission, Manifestation, and Pathogenesis. Cureus, 12(5), e8184.
https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.8184

Mescher, A. (2016). Junquiera’s basic histology: text and atlas (14thed.). New York: McGraw-Hill
Education

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means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.