14

JOINING PROCESSES
Objectives
By the end of the topic the learners should be able to:
 Identify permanent and temporary methods of joining metals
 Perform correct riveting techniques
 Demonstrate ability to cut screw threads
 Describe the soft and hard soldering cycle
 Illustrate the tools and equipment used in soft and hard soldering
 Distinguish between hard and soft soldering
 Perform soft and hard Soldering

Joining comprises a large number of processes used to assemble individual parts

into a larger, more complex component or assembly. The individual parts of a
component meet at the joints. Joints transmit or distribute forces generated
during service from one part to the other parts of the assembly.
Two methods used to join of materials permanent and semi-permanent or
temporary, Different materials can be joined in many different ways depending
on the joint needs to be permanent or semi-permanent. They are (Welding,
Brazing, Soldering, Riveting, Adhesives, Nuts and bolts and washers, Knock-
down fittings, Screws).
• Permanent: This term refers to welding, riveting, brazing, soldering
and adhesive bonding. In these processes a permanent joint between the
parts is formed and cannot be separated easily, if separate these parts are
damage.
• Semi-permanent or temporary: this type of joint is a method of joining
that is designed to be permanent, this term refers to nuts and bolts and
washers, knock-down fittings; however, it can be disassembled without
damage the materials.
Permanent joints
Under these we will not look at welding joints because we have looked at them
earlier on. We will cover riveting, brazing, soldering and adhesive bonding.
Rivets and riveting
Rivets are permanent fastenings made from soft malleable materials such as
aluminium, copper, brass and mild steel. They are annealed when made but
work harden as they are hammered into place.
Type of rivets
Snap head rivet

Use snap or roundheads for all general riveting where strength is required.
Pan head rivet

Use panheads for general work of very strong joint and as a decorative feature.
Mushroom countersunk rivet

Use the countersunk mushroom for decoration

Flat head rivet

Use the flathead rivet, which is often made from galvanized iron, for tin-plate
and sheetmetal work. It gives support to the plate and does not rust.
Conical head
Use conical head rivets as decoration, especially in copperwork, for fixing
handles and fabricating fireplace canopies. Also used on belts and hand bands.
Bifurcated rivets

Use bifurcated rivets on soft materials such as leather upholstery, cardboard and
canvas webbing.
Countersunk rivets

Used for riveting metals where the rivet has to be flash with the work. The 90°
countersunk rivet is most commonly used. A 60° countersunk rivet can be used
in thick material, and the 140° countersunk head in very thin material where a
normal countersunk rivet would seriously weaken it.
Riveting tools
Note: A ball pein hammer and a fitter’s vice are also used with the above tools.
Rivet set
Used to set the metals pieces to be joined – bring the 2-metal piece together
with the aid of a hammer
Rivet snap
Used to true up the snap head rivet in the finishing process
Dolly
Used to support the head of a rivet snap during riveting. The dolly is held in the
fitter’s vice.
Riveting
Make sure that rivets have a diameter which is not less than the thickness of the
metals being riveted and not more than three times its thickness.
Where several rivets are to be used, drill clearance holes in the top material and
only one in the bottom piece. Remove the burrs and fix one rivet. Drill a second
hole and locate the rivet and rivet it.
Snap head riveting
 1. Cut the rivet to length leaving a projection of 1.5 diameter.
2. Locate the rivet in the drilled hole and place the head in the dolly. Set the
two pieces close together using a ball pein hammer.
3. Hammer straight down to swell or to bulge the rivet tail using the face of
the hammer. This should be done till the pieces are held rigidly together
and then shape the head using the ballpein of the hammer.
4. Use the rivet snap to make a neat finish.
Countersunk riveting.
Check that the countersunk are prepared to the correct size. Cut the rivets to
length leaving a projection of 0.75 or ¾ the rivet diameter. Locate the rivet in
the holes and place the work on a hard flat anvil. Use the rivet set to set the
pieces together then strike the rivet to fill the countersunk. File the surplus
material to a flash finish.
Pop riveting

A pop riveter is the ideal tool for permanently joining thin sheet and plastics to
each other and to wood using aluminium or steel rivets.
The riveter shown has interchangeable nose bushes for 3, 4 and 5mm diameter
rivets of lengths from 5 to 36 mm. The size of the hole is less critical than with
traditional rivets. The drawing shows how one rivet will adapt to a range of
thicknesses.
Open the pliers and insert a pin. Insert the rivet into the aligned holes and
squeeze the handles until the pin breaks. More than one squeeze may be
necessary Open the handles to release the broken pin.
Note that work proceeds from one side so that access to the reverse side is not
necessary. Use a large flange rivet for securing brittle material such as plastics,
glassware and hardboard sheet.

Soldering
Soldering is a method of using a filler metal (commonly known as solder) for
joining two metals without heating them to their melting points. Soldering is a
simple and fast means for joining sheet metal, making electrical connections,
and sealing seams against leakage. Additionally, it is used to join iron, nickel,
lead, tin, copper, zinc, aluminium, and many other alloys.
Soldering is not classified as a welding or brazing process, because the melting
temperature of solder is below 430° degrees. Do not confuse the process of
SILVER SOLDERING with soldering, for this process is actually a form of
brazing, because the temperature used is above 430°.
EQUIPMENT
Soldering requires very little equipment. For most soldering jobs, you only need
a heat source, a soldering copper or iron bit, solder, and flux.
Soldering iron or bits

A soldering copper (usually called a soldering iron or bit) consists of a forged

copper head and an iron rod with a wooden handle
Soldering bits heads
Soldering heads are available in various shapes. The above diagram shows three
of the more commonly used types. The straight copper bit is for general
soldering work. The stub copper is used for soldering flat seams that need a
considerable amount of heat. The hatchet copper bit is used for soldering seams
that are hard to reach, such as those found in pails, pans, trays, and other similar
objects.
Nonelectrical coppers are supplied in pairs. This is done so one copper can be
used as the other is being heated.
Fluxes
Scale, rust, and oxides form on most metal surfaces when exposed to air, and
heating accelerates this formation. Solder will not adhere to or wet the metal
unless these pollutants are removed. Fluxes are chemical compounds used to
clean and maintain the metal surfaces during the soldering process. They also
decrease the surface tension of the solder, making it a better wetting agent.
Fluxes are manufactured in cake, paste, liquid, or powder form and are
classified as either non-corrosive/passive or corrosive/active.
Requirements of a Good Soldering Flux
1. It must remain liquid at soldering temperatures.
2. In its liquid state it must act as a cover and keep out the atmosphere.
3. It should dissolve any oxide film present on the joint.
4. It should be removed from the joint by the hot liquefied solder.

METALS FLUXES Type

Brass, copper and tin Rosin Passive
Lead Tallow and rosin Passive
Iron and steel Borax Sal Active
 ammoniac
Stainless steel and other nickel Phosphonic acid Active
steel
Galvanised iron Zinc chloride Active
Aluminium Stearine, special Passive
flux
zinc Zinc chloride active

Non- corrosive or passive flux

Noncorrosive fluxes are for soldering electrical connections and for other work
that must be free of any trace of corrosive residue. Rosin is the most commonly
used noncorrosive flux.
Corrosive or active fluxes
These have the most effective cleaning action, but any trace of corrosive flux
that remains on the work can cause corrosion later. For this reason, they are not
used on electrical connections or other work where corrosion would cause a
serious problem
Warning
When diluting the acid always add the acid to the water. Adding water to acid
can result in an explosive reaction, resulting in serious burns.
Special precautions must also be taken when preparing zinc chloride. Rubber
gloves, a full-face screen and an apron are required. The fumes given off by
muriatic acid or by a mixture of muriatic acid and zinc are a health hazard as
well as explosive. Prepare zinc chloride under a ventilation hood, out in the
open, or near openings to the outside to reduce inhalation of the fumes or the
danger of explosion. It is essential that precautions be taken to prevent flames
or sparks from coming in contact with the liberated hydrogen.
Preparing for Soldering
Filing and Tinning the Soldering Iron Tinning a soldering iron means covering
the point with solder. A well tinned iron is absolutely necessary to do a good
job.
There are several important reasons for tinning a soldering iron.
1. Tinning keeps scale and corrosion from forming on the iron point. This
scale and corrosion do not permit the heat to transfer from the iron to the
solder.
 2. Tinning allows the solder to flow properly from the point to the metal.
Also, since tinning keeps the point clean it also keeps dirt and scale out of
both the solder and the seam.
Before tinning the soldering bit, you heat it to a cherry red then file it to remove
any pits or scale, then reheat it and then apply a small amount of flux and solder
to the point, it will flow smoothly if the point is clean and hot enough. If it does
not adhere to it you will have to reheat the iron and clean and proceed again.
The soldering iron should not be overheated because the tinned surface will be
ruined no matter how well it’s tinned. When not in use the heat should be
lowered and the iron withdrawn from the heat.
Applying the Flux
It is very important to apply the flux correctly. Improper use has destroyed
many good jobs. Liquid fluxes are applied by brush, taking care not to drop any
except where it's to be soldered. Rosin may be either sprinkled on, or be melted
on the job by a hot iron.
Positioning of Soldering
The positioning of the soldering iron is important because the iron does two
things as it is applied to the parent metal.
1. It heats the metal to the melting point of the solder.

2. It melts the solder and keeps it in a liquid state while soldering.

First point to remember is that it is important that as much of the point of
the iron rests on the metal to allow maximum heat transfer from the tip to
the metal. Remember that the greatest heat is in the body and the base of
the point and not the tip. However, special work requires the use of the
tip. Since melted solder flows to the hottest point on the metal, the
soldering iron should be held as shown in the diagram so that the solder
will be pulled into the seam.
Types of Soft-Solder Joints
Soft soldering, as a joining method, relies almost entirely on ADHESION for its
strength. Soft-soldered joints are strongest at room temperature, their
mechanical strength decreasing rapidly as the temperature increases.
The strength of a soft-soldered joint is determined by three basic factors:
1. The strength of the solder itself - this is governed by its composition (i.e.,
ratio of TIN/LEAD); surplus solder does not add any strength to the joint.
2. The strength of the bond between the bulk of the solder and the surfaces
which its 'tins' (i.e., the interfaces);
3. The design of the joint. Where strong joints are required, the joint edges
may be interlocked prior to soldering.

BRAZING
Brazing is the process of joining metal by heating the base metal to a
temperature above 430°C and adding a nonferrous filler metal that melts below
the base metal. Brazing should not be confused with braze welding, even though
these two terms are often interchanged. In brazing, the filler metal is drawn into
the joint by capillary action and in braze welding it is distributed by tinning.
Brazing is sometimes called hard soldering or silver soldering because the filler
metals are either hard solders or silver-based alloys. Both processes require
distinct joint designs.
Brazing offers important advantages over other metal-joining processes. It does
not affect the heat treatment of the original metal as much as welding does, nor
does it warp the metal as much. The primary advantage of brazing is that it
allows you to join dissimilar metals
EQUIPMENT
Brazing requires three basic items. You need a source of heat, filler metals, and
flux.
SOURCE OF HEAT
Source of heat for brazing is the oxy-acetylene equipment
Filler Metals
Filler metals used in brazing are nonferrous metals or alloys that have a melting
temperature below the adjoining base metal, but above 430°C. Filler metals
must have the ability to wet and bond with the base metal, have stability, and
not be excessively volatile. The most commonly used filler metals are the
silver-based alloys. Brazing filler metal is available in rod, wire, preformed, and
powder form.
Brazing filler metals include the following eight groups:
1. Silver-base alloys
2. Aluminium-silicon alloys
3. Copper
4. Copper-zinc (brass) alloys
5. Copper-phosphorus alloys
6. Gold alloys
7. Nickel alloys
8. Magnesium alloys
Fluxes
Brazing processes require the use of a flux. Flux is the substance added to the
metal surface to stop the formation of any oxides or similar contaminants that
are formed during the brazing process. The flux increases both the flow of the
brazing filler metal and its ability to stick to the base metal. It forms a strong
joint by bringing the brazing filler metal into immediate contact with the
adjoining base metals and permits the filler to penetrate the pores of the metal.
The following factors must be considered when you are using a flux:
1. Base metal or metals used
2. Brazing filler metal used
3. Source of heat used
Flux is available in powder, liquid, and paste form. One method of applying the
flux in powdered form is to dip the heated end of a brazing rod into the
container of the powdered flux, allowing the flux to stick to the brazing rod.
Another method is to heat the base metal slightly and sprinkle the powdered
flux over the joint, allowing the flux to partly melt and stick to the base metal.
Sometimes, it is desirable to mix powdered flux with clean water (distilled
water) to form a paste. The most common type of flux used is borax or a
mixture of borax with other chemicals.
WARNING
Nearly all fluxes give off fumes that may be toxic. Use them only in WELL-
VENTILATED spaces.
BRAZING PROCEDURES
The procedure for brazing is very similar to braze and oxyacetylene welding.
The metal needs to be cleaned by either mechanical, chemical, or a combination
of both methods to ensure good bonding. The two pieces must be fitted properly
and supported to prevent voids in the joint or accidental movement during
brazing and cooling operations.
Adhesive
Adhesives for Joining metal are comparatively modern alternative to traditional
methods of joining such as riveting, soldering and welding. Adhesives are now
so reliable that they could be used for almost any joint. The should be used
where;
1. rivets would look unsightly
2. rivet holes would weaken the structure
3. access to a joint with a soldering or welding gear is difficult
4. heat would distort or seriously mark the surface of the material
5. materials with different rates of expansion are joined, such as aluminium
and glass
6. Bimetallic corrosion may be a problem with mechanical fixing devices
This list of uses for adhesives does not mean that adhesives should replace
riveting, soldering or welding, because they do have disadvantages. While the
bond takes time to strengthen, the components must be held together, whereas a
weld is immediately strong. Successful joining of the surfaces with adhesive
may be difficult and a faulty joint is difficult to correct.
Semi-permanent or Temporary joints
Modern buildings, vehicles, machinery, and physical products of all sizes and
shapes are put together by joining smaller components with another. A vast
majority among these is assembled with fasteners, as they need to come apart
for potential repair, replacement, or maintenance. Simply put, a fastener is a
screw, nut, bolt or stud with external or internal threads.
Definition of Bolt and Screw (+ Stud):
The words Bolt, Screw and Stud are used commonly in bolting technology.
Therefore, it is necessary to have a clear understanding of the differences in
geometries of these three components. The diagram below shows a schematic of
the bolt screw and stud.
Bolt: Has a hexagonal Head, longer unthreaded Shank Portion, Thread and a
Drive Feature. Bolt is generally tightened with a nut or a threaded through hole
or a blind hole.
Screw: Similar to a bolt but has a much longer thread almost to the head. It can
be tightened with a nut or a threaded-through hole or a blind hole. In some
instances, a screw could cut or form its own thread (e.g., timber screws, thread
forming screws).
Stud: A stud does not have a Head. It may have a drive feature. It could be
threaded at one end, at either end or all the way. It can be used with one or two
nuts, as a Screw or as a Bolt.

Bolts and screws are preferred fasteners for the following reasons:
 Easy to remove and re-assemble
 Strong
 Long lasting
 Reusable
 More resistant to corrosion
Bolts and nuts
Bolts are temporary fastened by nuts to make strong mechanical joints between
components. The high tensile steel bolt shown has a length measured to the
head) from 12 to 150mm, in diameter from 6 to 25mm
They generally have a hexagonal (six-sided) head. The head is measured in two
ways: across the flats for the size of spanner needed to turn it, and across the
comers to measure the greatest diameter to be allowed for so that the bolt can be
turned
Carriage bolts

They get their name from the original use for which they
were designed - to produce strong temporary fixings
between a wood framed carriage and its metal chassis.
They are used on agricultural vehicles and for fixing
heavy vices to bench tops. The domed head gives a neat
finish and the square neck stops the bolt from rotating in
the wood.

Nuts
Nuts are commonly made to match then bolt thread and head size, but they vary
in thickness. Half-nuts can be used where there is limited space.

To prevent a full nut working loose because of vibrations, a half-nut may be

used to lock it. Two spanners are used, one on each nut, to lock the first nut on
to the component and then to tighten it back on to a second nut.
Slotted nuts
They are used with split or cotter pins fixed through a hole drilled in the bolt.
Wing nut

Where fixings need only be hand-tight or need to be frequently removed, use a

hand-turned wing nut instead of a nut.
Stud

When access to the protruding end of a bolt is restricted, use a socket stud. This
has two thread lengths and is inserted into one component using a socket
wrench to turn it. A nut is threaded on from the top to bring the components
together and secure them.
Washers
Flat washers are used to increase the bearing surface of a nut or bolt head and
prevent damage to a surface. Use single- or double-coil washers where vibration
may cause the nut to slacken. The coil presses against the nut and holds it in
position.
Screws
A large variety of screw, made from materials according to their use, are
available. They may be threaded either for part of or for their full length.
The different types of head are shown below.

The hexagonal head is smaller than on standard bolts, the cheese head also
protrudes from the surface, and the socket head is often recessed in a
counterbore. Note that this is driven with a hexagonal wrench (Allen key) and is
often referred to as an Allen screw.
Roundhead, raised countersunk and countersunk heads may be slotted for a
conventional screwdriver or be fitted with a cross slot.
Grub screws are slotted but do not have a head. Use them beneath a surface to
locate components, both of which must be threaded.

Straight-slotted screws may need to be hidden to appear

neat. Some screws are tapped to receive brass or chrome-
plated cover caps which are simply screwed into place by
hand.
Self-tapping screws

These are made from hardened steel and are used on sheet-metal work such as
washing machines, cars and caravans for fixing trim or sheets together. They are
suitable for use in steel, soft metals and hard plastics. They are fluted to give a
cutting edge and the thread is always a perfect match. The first material is often
a trim or fitting which has pre-bored clearance holes. If the top material is
comparatively soft, such as plywood, the screw will cut its way through it.