ANAPHYSIO | 1

CHAPTER

8 Nervous System
-ENS has both sensory and motor neurons
contained wholly within the digestive tract.
-embedded the lining of the gut.
8.1 Functions of the Nervous System
8.3 Cells of the Nervous System
1. Receiving sensory input.
2. Integrating information. • Neurons- nerve cells; receive stimuli
3. Controlling muscle and glands. - conduct action potentials and transmit signals to
4. Maintaining homeostasis. other neurons or effector organs.
5. Establishing and maintaining mental cavity. • Cell body- single nucleus; the source of
information for gene expression.
8.2 Division of the Nervous System • Dendrites- short; branching to
cytoplasmic extension.
• Central nervous system (CNS)- consist of the
-receives stimulus from other neurons or
brain and spinal cord.
sensory; transmit it to cell body.
• Peripheral nervous system (PNS)- consist of
• Axon- single long cell; extending from the
all the nervous tissue outside the CNS.
neuron cell body.
-carries information from different tissues of
-transmit stimulus to a gland, muscle organ or
the body to the CNS.
other neuron.
• Sensory division or afferent (toward) • Axon hillock- area where the axons leave
division- detects stimuli
the neuron cell body.
-conducts action potentials toward the CNS,
• Collateral axons- an axon may remain
sensory neurons
unbranched or may branch.
• Sensory neurons- neurons that transmit action
• Multipolar neurons- many dendrites; single
potentials from periphery to the CNS.
axon (CNS and motor neurons)
• Motor division or efferent (away)
• Bipolar neurons- one dendrite and axon;
division- conducts action potentials from
located in some sensory organs. (Retina and
the CNS to effector organs.
nasal cavity)
• Motor neurons- the neurons that transmit
• Pseudo-unipolar neurons- appears to have
action potential from the CNS toward the
an axon and no dendrites.
periphery.
-extending from the cell body (sensory
• Somatic nervous system- Transmits action neurons)
potentials from the CNS to skeletal muscles.
• Autonomic nervous system (ANS)- CNS to Glial Cells
cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and glands.
• Enteric nervous system (ENS)- unique • Glial cells- or neuroglia; supportive cells of
subdivision of PNS. the CNS and PNS.
-these cells do not conduct action
potential.
-neuroglia are far more than neurons.
• Astrocytes- major supporting cells in the
CNS.
-star shaped; most abundant
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-can stimulate the signaling activity of nearby • Nerve tracts or conduction pathways-
neurons. propagate action potentials from one area of the
-Participate with the blood vessel endothelium to CNS to another.
for a permeability barrier called Blood-brain • Nerves- white matter of PNS, consists of
barrier. bundles of axons and associated connective
- limit damage to neural tissue. tissue that forms nerves.
• Ependymal cells- ciliated; produce and
8.4 Electrical Signals and Neural Pathways Resting
circulate cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
-help to protect the brain by removing bacteria Membrane Potential
and cell debris.
• Microglia- act as a immune cells of the CNS. • Polarized- uneven distribution or charge means
• Oligodendrocytes- provide an insulating the cell membrane
material that surrounds axons. • Resting cell membrane potential- an
• Schwann cells- known as glial cells, in PNS. unstimulated cell, that uneven charge
-provide insulating material that surround distribution
axons. • Leak channels- always open; ions can leak
• Myelin sheaths- fatty; protective wrapping across the membrane down their
around the axons; excellent insulator concentration gradient.
-formed by oligodendrocytes. • Gated potentials- are closed until
• Myelinated axons- axons with these myelin opened by specific signals
sheath. • Chemically gated channels- are opened by
• Nodes of Ranvier- gaps in the myelin sheath neurotransmitter or other chemicals
where actions potentials develop. • Voltage-gated channels- opened by a
* A typical small nerve, which consist of axons of change in membrane potential
multiple neuron, usually contain more • Sodium-potassium pump- is required to
unmyelinated axons than myelinated axons. maintain the greater concentration of Na+
• Gray matter- center of the spinal cord; contain outside the cell membrane and K= inside.
neuron cell bodies.
Process of Generation of the Resting Membrane
-looks like letter H or a butterfly
Potential
• Cortex- gray matter on the surface of the
brain. 1. In a resting cell, there is a higher concentration of
• Nuclei- cluster of gray matter located deeper K+ inside the cell membrane and a higher
within the brain concentration of Na+ outside the cell membrane.
• Ganglion- cluster of neuron cell bodies. Because the membrane is not permeable to
• White matter- outside of the spinal cord; negatively charge proteins they are isolated to
contain myelinated fibers inside of the cell membrane.
-bundles of parallel axons 2. There are more K+ leak channels than Na+
leak channels. In resting cell, only the leak
channels are opened; the gated channels are
closed. Because of the ion concentration
differences across the
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membrane, K+ diffuses out of the cell down its *Characteristics of autonomic neurons conduct
concentration gradients. The tendency for K+ to action potentials at the rate about 3-15 m/s,
diffuse out of the cell is opposed by the tendency whereas large diameter, heavily myelinated
of the positively charged K+ to be attracted back axons conduct action potentials at the rate of 15-
into the cell by the negative charge inside the 120 m/s.
cell.
Process of Voltage-Gated Ion Channels and the
3. The sodium-potassium pumps helps to maintain
Action Potential
the differential levels of Na+ and K+ by pumping
three Na+ out of the cell in exchange for two K+ 1. Resting membrane potential. Na+ channels
into the cell. The pump is driven by ATP and most but not all, K+ channels are closed.
hydrolysis. The resting membrane potential is The outside of the cell membrane is positively
established when the movement of K+ out of the charged compared to the inside.
cell is equal to the movement of K+ into the cell. 2. Depolarization. Na+ channels open. K+ begins
to open. Depolarization results because the
Action Potentials
inward movement of Na+ makes the inside of the
• Muscle and nerve cells are excitable cells, membrane positive.
meaning that the resting membrane potential 3. Repolarization. Na+ channels close and K+
changes in response to stimuli that activate channels open. Na+ movement into cell stops,
gated ion channels. and K+ movement out of the cell increases,
causing repolarization.
• Local current- Na+ diffuses quickly into the
cell
Process of Continuous Conduction in an
• Depolarization- causes the inside of the cell Unmyelinated Axon
membrane become positive.
• Local potential- result of depolarization 1. An action potential generates a local currents
-if depolarization is not strong enough the Na+ that depolarize the membrane immediately
channels close again. adjacent to the action potential.
• Action potential- depolarization and 2. When depolarization caused by the local currents
repolarization reached threshold, a new action potential is
• Hyperpolarization- charge on the cell produced adjacent to where the original action
membrane briefly becomes more negative potential occurred.
than the resting membrane potential. 3. The action potential is conducted along the cell
• Continuous conduction-action potential is membrane.
conducted along the entire axon membrane.
Process of Saltatory Conduction: Action Potential
• Saltatory conduction- jumping of acting
Conduction in a Myelinated Axon
potentials
-action potential jump from one node of Ranvier 1. An action potential at a node of Ranvier
generates local currents. The local currents flow
the next node of Ranvier because the myelin
sheath of the
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Schwann cell insulates the axon of the 4. Neurotransmitter molecules combine with their
internode. receptor sites and cause chemically gated Na+
2. When the depolarization caused by the local channels to open. Na+ channels to open. Na+
currents reaches the threshold at the next diffuses into the cell and causes a change in
node of Ranvier, a new potential action is membrane potential.
produced.
Reflexes
3. Action potential propagation is rapid in
myelinated axons because the action potentials • Reflex- an involuntary reaction in response to
are produced at successive node of Ranvier (1- a stimulus applied to the periphery and
5) instead of at every part of the membrane along transmitted to the CNS.
the axon.
• Reflex arc- neural pathway by which a reflex
occurs.
The Synapse
Five basic components of the Reflex Arc
• Synapse- a junction where the axon of one 1. Sensory receptor- pick up stimulus, in skin
neuron interacts with another neuron 2. Sensory neuron- send stimulus to
-involve with released of interneurons in spinal cord
neurotransmitters. 3. Interneurons- process stimulus; located in CNS
• Presynaptic terminal- end of the axon and connected to motor neurons.
• Postsynaptic terminal- membrane of the 4. Motor neuron- send response to
dendrite or effector cell effector
• Synaptic cleft- space separating the 5. Effector organ- muscle or organs
presynaptic and postsynaptic membranes.
Neuronal Pathways
• Neurotransmitter- chemical substance are
stored in synaptic vesicles in the presynaptic • Converging pathway- two or more
terminal. synapse with the same postsynaptic
• Acetylcholine and norepinephrine- best neuron.
known suspected neurotransmitter substances. -allow information transmitted in more than one
• Acetylcholinesterase- an enzyme; neuronal pathway to converge into a single
breaks down acetylcholine. pathway
• Diverging pathway- axon from one neuron
Process of the Synapse divides and synapses with more than one other
postsynaptic neuron.
1. Action potentials arriving at the presynaptic
terminal cause voltage gated Ca2+ channels to • Summation- many presynaptic action
potentials are needed in a process
open.
2. Ca2+ diffuses into the cell and causes the • Spatial summation- occurs when the local
synaptic vesicles to release neurotransmitter potentials originate fromdifferent location on
the postsynaptic neuron.
molecules.
3. Neurotransmitter molecules diffuse from the • Temporal summation- when local
presynaptic terminal across the synaptic cleft. potential overlap in time.
*Spatial and Temporal summation can lead to
stimulation or inhibition.
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Spinal Cord Reflexes

8.5 Central and Peripheral Nervous System
- CNS consist of the brain and spinal cord.
Knee-Jerk Reflex or Patellar reflex
- PNS consist of all the nerves and ganglia outside -simplest reflex is the stretch reflex.
the brain and spinal cord.
-Stretch reflex occurs when muscle contract in
-The nerves of the PNS can be divided into two groups:
response to a stretching force applied to them
12 pairs of cranial nerves and 31 pairs of spinal
- a classic of the example of stretch reflex.
nerves.
-stimulus for this reflex is stretching of the
8.6 Spinal Cord quadriceps femoris muscle.
-determine if higher CNS centers that normally influence
• Spinal Cord- extends from the foramen this reflex is functional.
magnum at the base of the skull to the second -if the reflex is absent or greatly exaggerated, it
lumbar vertebra indicates that the neurons within the brain or spinal
• Spinal nerves- communicate between the cord that modify this reflex have been damage.
spinal cord and the body.
Withdrawal Reflex or Flexor reflex
• Cauda equina- inferior end of the spinal cord - is to remove a limb or another body part from a
and the spinal nerves exiting there; resemble a painful stimulus.
horse’s tail.
• Dorsal, ventral, and lateral column- Process of Withdrawal Reflex
three columns of the spinal cord.
• Ascending tracts- consist of axons that 1. Pain receptors detect a painful stimulus.
conduct action potentials toward the brain. 2. Sensory neurons conduct action
• Descending tract- away from the brain potentials to the spinal cord.
3. Sensory neurons synapse with interneurons
• The gray matter of the spinal cord is shaped
that synapse with motor neurons.
like the letter H with posterior horns and
anterior horns. 4. Excitation of the motor neurons results in
contraction of the flexor muscles and withdrawal
• Lateral horns- exist in levels of the spinal
of the limb from the painful stimulus.
cord associated with the ANS.
• Central canal- fluid-filled space in the center of 8.7 Spinal Nerve
the spinal cord.
• The ventral and dorsal roots unite just lateral to • Spinal nerve- arise along the spinal cord
the spinal cord to form a spinal nerve. from the union of the dorsal and ventral
• Dorsal root ganglion- dorsal root that roots.
contains ganglion. • Mixed nerves- contain axon of both
-contains the cell bodies of pseudo- sensory and somatic motor neurons
unipolar sensory neurons. • Dermatome-area of skin supplied with sensory
• The anterior and lateral horns of the spinal cord innervation by a pair of spinal nerves.
gray matter contain the cell bodies of motor • Plexus- where neurons of several come
neurons, which regulate the activities of the together and intermingle.
muscle and glands.
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innervates the skin over the sole of the foot.

• Spinal nerves T2 through T11 do not join a
plexus. • Common fibular nerve- muscles of the lateral
• Coccygeal plexus- (S5 and Co) thigh, leg, and some foot muscle. Innervates the
Supplies motor innervation to the skin over the anterior and lateral leg and the
muscle of the pelvic floor dorsal surface of the foot.
• Sciatic nerve- tibial and common fibular nerves
Cervical Plexus are bound together within the connective tissue
sheath.
• C1 to C4
• Innervate the muscle attached to the hyoid 8.8 Brain
bone, neck and posterior head.
• Brainstem- connects the spinal cord to the
• Phrenic nerve- innervates the
remainder of the brain.
diaphragm
-contain several nuclei involved in vital body
Brachial Plexus function. (Control of the heart rate, blood
pressure and breathing)
• C5 to T1 • Medulla oblongata- most inferior portion of the
• Axillary nerve- innervates two shoulder muscle brainstem and continuous with the spinal cord
and skin over part of the shoulder. -contain ascending and descending tract, which
• Radial nerve- all the muscle and skin in the convey signals to and from other regions of the brain.
posterior arm and forearm and hand. Pyramids- anterior surface; two prominent
enlargements
• Musculocutaneous nerve- anterior muscle of
-extend the length of the medulla
the arm and the skin over the radial surface of
oblongata.
the arm
• Pons- immediately superior to the
• Ulnar nerve- two anterior of the forearm
medulla oblongata
muscles and intrinsic hand muscle.
-contain ascending and descending tract, nuclei.
• Median nerve- anterior forearm muscles
- some of the nuclei in the pons relay
and some intrinsic hand muscles; innervates
information between the cerebrum and
the skin over the radial side of the hand
cerebellum.
Lumbosacral Plexus • Midbrain- superior to the pons; smallest
region of the brainstem Colliculi- dorsal
• L1 to S4 part; four mounds
• Obturator nerve- innervate the muscle of the -involved in visual reflexes, receive touch
medial thigh, skin over the same region and auditory input.
• Femoral nerve- anterior thigh muscles and Substantia nigra- a black nuclear mass; part of
skin over the anterior thigh and medial side of the basal nuclei
the leg. -involved in regulating general body
movement.
• Tibial nerve- posterior thigh of muscle, the
anterior and posterior leg muscles and intrinsic
foot muscles. Also
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-involved in emotional responses to odors and in

• Reticular Formation- group of nuclei
memory
-involved in regulating cyclical motor function
such as respiration, walking and chewing. • Cerebrum- largest part of the brain.
Reticular activating system- arousing and longitudinal fissure- divides the cerebrum into
maintaining consciousness and in regulating left and right hemisphere. Gyri- most
the sleep-wake cycle. conspicuous features on the surface of each
hemisphere and numerous folds.
• Cerebellum- attached to the brainstem by
-gyri increase the surface area of the cerebral
several large connections called cerebellar
cortex.
peduncles
Sulci- intervening grooves
• Diencephalon- located between the brainstem
Frontal lobe- control of voluntary motor
and the cerebrum. Main component: thalamus,
functions, motivation, aggression, mood,
epithalamus and hypothalamus.
olfactory reception.
• Thalamus- largest part of the
Parietal lobe- principal center for receiving
diencephalon
and consciously perceiving most sensory
-consist of cluster of nuclei; yoyo-shape with two
information, such touch, pain, temperature,
large, lateral parts connected in the center by a
and balance.
small interthalamic adhesion.
Central sulcus- separates the frontal and
-influences mood and registers an unlocalized,
parietal lobes.
uncomfortable perception of pain.
Occipital lobe- functions in receing and
• Epithalamus- small area superior and perceiving visual input and is not distinctly
posterior to the thalamus. separate from the other lobe. Temporal lobe-
-consists of a few small nuclei involve olfactory, auditory, sensation and plays an
Pineal gland- an endocrine gland that may
important role in memory.
influence the onset of puberty.
Lateral fissure- temporal lobe is separated
• Hypothalamus- most inferior part of the from the rest of the cerebrum Insula- deep
diencephalon, contains several nuclei that within fissure; often referred to as the fifth lobe
are very important in maintaining
homeostasis. 8.9 Sensory Functions
-play central role in body temperature, hunger,
Sexual pleasures, rage, fear, relaxation. Ascending tracts
Infundibulum- a funnel shape stalk;
• Ascending tracts- transmit information via
extends from the floor of the hypothalamus
action potentials from the periphery to various
to the pituitary gland
parts of the brain.
-plays major role in controlling the secretion of
-consist of two or three neurons in sequence,
hormones from the pituitary gland.
from the periphery to the brain.
Mammillary bodies- from externally visible
swelling on the posterior portion of the • Spinothalamic tract- transmit action
hypothalamus potentials dealing with pain and temperature
to the thalamus and on to the cerebral cortex.
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Descending Tracts
• Dorsal column- transmit action potentials
dealing with touch, position and pressure
Pathway Function
• Spinocerebellar tracts- ex. transmit
Direct
information about body position to the
Lateral corticospinal muscle tone and
cerebellum.
skilled movement,
• Primary sensory areas-where
sensations are perceived esp of hands
• Primary somatic sensory cortex or Anterior corticospinal muscle tone and
general sensory area- located in the movement of trunk
parietal lobe posterior to the central sulcus. muscle
• Sensory fibers- carrying general
sensory input
Indirect
Rubrospinal movement
• Association areas- involved in the
process of recognition. coordination
Reticulospinal Posture adjustment,
8.10 Somatic Motor Functions esp during movement
Vestibulospinal posture and balance
• Somatic motor system of the brain and spinal Tectospinal movement in
cord is responsible for maintaining the body’s
response to visual
posture and balance.
reflexes
• Involuntary movement- occur without
conscious thought
• Voluntary movement- are consciously • Basal nuclei- a group of functionally related
activated to achieve a specific goal. nuclei
• Upper motor neurons- have cell bodies in the Corpus striatum- located deep within the
cerebral cortex cerebrum
• Lower motor neurons- have cell bodies in the substantia nigra- darkly pigmented cells in
anterior horn of the spinal cord gray matter on in the midbrain
cranial nerve nuclei. • Cerebellar cortex- composed of gray matter,
• Primary motor cortex- action potentials gyri, and sulci.
initiated in this region control voluntary • Cerebellum- attached by cerebellar
movements of skeletal system peduncles to the brainstem
• Premotor area- motor functions are -involves participating with the cerebrum in
organized before they are actually initiated learning motor skills.
in primary motor cortex. • Comparator- major function of the cerebellum;
• Pre-frontal area- involved in motivation and sensing device that compare the data from two
regulation of emotional behavior and mood. sources.
- initiate movements occur in the anterior • Proprioceptive neurons- innervate joints,
portion of the frontal lobes. tendons, muscle, and provide information
about the position of the body.

8.11 Other Brain Function

• Right cerebral hemisphere- receives

sensory input from and controls
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muscular activity in the left half of the body. • Long term memory- may be stored for only a
• Left cerebral hemisphere- receives input few minutes or become permanent.
from and controls muscles in the right half of • Consolidation- gradual process involving
the body, the formation of new and stronger synaptic
• Commissures- Sensory information connections.
received by one hemisphere is shared with • Declarative memory- or explicit memory;
the other through connections between the involves the retention of facts, such names,
two hemispheres dates, and places.
• Corpus callosum- a broad band of nerve • Procedural memory- reflexive memory;
tracts at the base of the longitudinal involves the development of motor skills such
fissure riding bike.
• Sensory speech area- (Wernicke area) located • Memory engrams- or memory traces; involved
in the parietal lobe; functions in understanding in the long-term retention of a given piece of
and formulating coherent speech information, an idea.
• Motor speech area- (Broca area) frontal lobe; • Limbic system- influences long term
controls the movement necessary for speech declarative memory, emotions, visceral
• Aphasia- absent or defective speech or responses to emotions, motivation, and mood.
language comprehensive. -respond to olfactory stimulation
• Electroencephalogram (EEG)- record the
8.12 Meninges, Ventricles, and Cerebrospinal Fluid
brain’s electrical activity.
-EEG pattern can be detected as wavelike • Meninges- surround and protect the brain
patterns known as Brain waves. Their intensity and spinal cord
and frequency differ, based on the state of the
• Dura mater- most superficial and thickest
brain.
of the meninges.
• Alpha waves- a normal person who is awake Fold- help hold the brain in place within the skull
but in quiet, resting state with the eyes closed. Dural venous sinuses- collect blood from
• Beta waves- higher frequency than alpha, the small veins of the brain and empty into
occur during intense mental activity. the internal jugular veins, which exit the
• Delta waves- during deep sleep, in infants and skull.
in patients with severe brain disorder. • Subdural hematoma- can put pressure on the
• Theta waves- adults who are experiencing brain.
frustration or who have certain brain • Epidural space- between the dura mater and the
disorder. vertebrae
• Working memory- task associated • Epidural anesthesia- injection site
memory.
• Arachnoid mater- second meningeal
• Short-term memory- can be retained for a membrane is the very thin, wispy
few minutes to a dew day
• Subdural space- space between the dura
mater and the arachnoid mater.
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• Health professionals use such a needle to inject IV. Trochlear (M)- motor to one extrinsic eye
anesthetic into the area as a spinal block or to muscle
take a sample CSF in a spinal tap. V. Trigeminal (S, M)- sensory to face and teeth;
motor to muscle mastication
• Pia mater- 3rd. meningeal membrane.; very
tightly bound to the surface of the spinal cord,
VI. Abducens (M)- motor to one extrinsic eye
muscle
• Subarachnoid space- between the
VII. Facial (S, M, P)- Sensory: tastes; motor to
arachnoid and pia mater.
muscle facial expression; parasympathetic to
-filled with CSF and blood vessels
salivary and tear glands
• Ventricles- CNS contains fluid-filled cavities.
VIII. Vestibulocochlear (S)- hearing and
• Lateral ventricle- contain large cavity balance
• Third ventricle- smaller, midline cavity, IX. Glossopharyngeal (S, M, P)- sensory: taste
located in the center of diencephalon. and touch to back of tongue; motor to
• Fourth ventricle- located at the base of the pharyngeal muscle; parasympathetic to salivary
cerebellum and connected to the 3rd ventricle glands
by a narrow canal X. Vigus (S, M, P)- sensory to pharynx, larynx and
• Cerebral aqueduct- narrow canal viscera; motor to palate, pharynx and larynx;
• Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)- bathes the brain parasympathetic to viscera of thorax and
and spinal cord, providing a protective cushion abdomen.
around the CNS. XI. Accessory (M)- motor to two neck and upper
• Choroid plexus- produce the CSF. back muscle
• Arachnoid granulation- masses of XII. Hypoglossal (M)- motor to tongue muscle
arachnoid tissue.
8.14 Autonomic Nervous System
• Hydrocephalus- blockage of the openings in
the fourth ventricle of the cerebral aqueduct • ANS elevates the smooth muscle,
can cause CSF to accumulate in the cardiac muscle, and glands.
ventricles. • Preganglionic neuron- first neuron
*The accumulation of fluid increased pressure
• Postganglionic neuron- second neuron
that dilates the ventricles and compress the
• Sympathetic division- increased activity;
brain tissue.
prepares for physical activity
8.13 Cranial Nerves • Parasympathetic division- activates
12 pairs of Cranial Nerves involuntary functions (digestion)
• Splanchnic nerves- extend to collateral ganglia
I. Olfactory (S)- smell • Collateral ganglia- located nearer target organs.
II. Optic (S)- vision • Terminal ganglia- either located near effector
III. Oculomotor (M, P)- motor to four six extrinsic organs in the head.
eye muscles and upper eyelid;
• Vigus nerve- extending from the
parasympathetic: constricts pupil, thickens lens. brainstem,
-branches to parasympathetic
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innervation to the heart, lungs, liver, relaxes ciliary muscle to adjust lens for far vision
stomach and other digestive organ Parasympathetic effects: constrict pupil,
contracts ciliary muscle to adjust for near vision
• Acetylcholine- postganglionic neurons of the
parasympathetic division secrete the • Intestinal and stomach walls Sympathetic
neurotransmitter effects: decreases motility, contracts sphincters
• Norepinephrine- sympathetic division secrete Parasympathetic effects: increases
motility, relaxes
• Dual Innervation- autonomic neurons are
innervated by both parasympathetic and • Liver
sympathetic division. Sympathetic effects: breaks down glycogen,
releases glucose Parasympathetic effects:
Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions of the synthesize glycogen
ANS • Adipose tissue
Sympathetic effects: breaks down lipids
Sympathetic Parasympathetic effects: none
Location of preganglionic cell body- T1 to L2 Location • Adrenal gland
of postganglionic cell body- Sympathetic chain ganglia Sympathetic effects: secretes
or collateral ganglia General functions- “fight-or-flight” epinephrine and norepinephrine
prepares the body for physical activity Parasympathetic effects: none
• Sweat glands
Parasympathetic
Sympathetic effects: secretes sweat
Location of preganglionic cell body- Cranial nerves III,
Parasympathetic effects: none
VII, IX, X, S2-S4 spinal nerves Location of
postganglionic cell body- terminal ganglia near or • Salivary glands
embedded in the walls of target organs Sympathetic effects: secrete thick saliva
General functions- “rest-and-digest”, stimulates Parasympathetic effects: secrete water saliva
involuntary activities of the body at rest • Urinary bladder
Sympathetic effects: relaxes muscle,
Effects of the ANS on Various Tissues constrict sphincter
Parasympathetic effects: contracts
• Heart muscle, relaxes
Sympathetic effects: increase rate and force • Pancreas
of contraction Sympathetic effects: decreases secretion of
Parasympathetic effects: decrease rate digestive enzyme and insulin Parasympathetic
• Blood vessels effects: increases secretion of digestive enzymes
Sympathetic effects: constrict and dilate and insulin
Parasympathetic effects: none
• Lungs 8.15 Enteric Nervous System
Sympathetic effects: dilate bronchioles - ENS forms plexuses in the digestive tract wall
Parasympathetic effects: constrict bronchioles -Enteric neurons are sensory, motor, or
• Eyes
Sympathetic effects: dilates pupil,
 ANAPHYSIO | 12

interneurons: they receive CNS input but can also function short attention span, moodiness,
independently. disorientation, and irritability

8.16. Effects of Aging on the Nervous System PNS Disorder

-In general, sensory, and motor functions decline with age
• Herpes
-Mental functions, including memory, may decline with
-skin lesions due to herpes viruses in sensory
age, but his varies from person to person.
ganglia.
Representative Diseases and Disorder: Nervous -different viruses cause oral lesions (cold
System sores),
-STD with lesions on genitalia or
CNS Disorders chickenpox in children (shingles in adult)
• Poliomyelitis
• Encephalitis -viral infection of the CNS; damages somatic
-inflammation of the brain caused by virus and motor neurons, leaving muscle without
less often by bacteria or other agents. innervation
-symptoms: fever, coma, and -leads to paralysis and atrophy
convulsions
• Myasthenia gravis
• Meningitis - autoimmune disorder affecting acetylcholine
-inflammation of meninges caused by viral receptors; makes the neuromuscular junction
and bacterial infections. less functional
-stiffness in the neck, headache, fever, severe -muscle weakness and increase fatigue led to
cases can cause paralysis, coma, or death paralysis.
• Multiple sclerosis
-autoimmune condition; may be initiated by viral
infection; inflammation of the brain and spinal
cord with demyelination and sclerotic sheaths
-exaggerated reflexes, tremor, and speech
defects
• Parkinson disease
-caused by a lesion in basal nuclei;
characterized by muscular rigidity, resting
tremor, general lack of movement,
shuffling gait
• Alzheimer disease
- mental deterioration or dementia; affects
old people; loss of neurons in cerebral
cortex
-intellectual deficiency, memory loss,