MODULE

in

MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

COURSE DISCRIPTION:

The course is written for student comprehension. Great care has been taken to write a book
that is mathematically correct and accessible to students.

This course has been designed as a text for one semester for freshmen college students. It
is assumed that the user of this textbook understand already the basic in Mathematics.

The first four chapters discussed the required lessons identified in the course syllabus
while the remaining chapters are the elective ones. Electives are depending on the need of the
students, make up the whole course.

One of the aims of this course is the education of the students in the nature of mathematics
as a logical system. Students must realize that precise definitions are important, that explicitly
stated hypotheses are necessary. The second aim of this book is more specific. A unified
treatment of the basic ideas of problem solving and reasoning, data management and
mathematics of finance is presented. Such materials is fundamental to the students training,
whether they wishes to continue in mathematics, the natural sciences, and engineering.

A lot of completely worked examples are included in this module. Each example is
followed by a similar problem for the student to work while reading the material. This actively
involves the student in the learning process. Each exercise set is designed so that an average or
below – average student will experience success and a very capable student will be challenged.

This course consists of seven modules:

Module 1 – The Nature of Mathematics

Module 2 – Mathematical Language and Symbols

Module 3 – Problem Solving and Reasoning

Module 4 – Data Management

Module 5 – Mathematics of Finance

Module 6 – Apportionment and Voting

Module 7 – Mathematics of Graphs

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Module 1 - The Nature of Mathematics

Introduction:

Mathematics is an indispensable subject of study. It plays an important role in forming the

basis of all other sciences that deal with the material substance of space and time.
(Srivastav 2013)

Scope of the Module:

This module consists of five lessons, as follows:
1. Meaning of Mathematics
2. Importance of Mathematics
3. Uses of Mathematics
4. Pattern and Sequences
5. Fibonacci Sequence

Overview of the Module:

This module is prepared to introduce the fundamental concepts and methods of
mathematics in the modern world. The lesson in this module are especially prepared to make the
introduction very interesting on the number sequence.

Objectives of the Module:

After going through the module, the students are expected to;
1. Define mathematics.
2. Identify the different uses of mathematics
3. Give the importance of mathematics
4. Identify the patterns and sequences of the given numbers.

Mathematics in our World

1.1 What is the meaning of Mathematics?

Mathematics may be described as the fundamental science. It is that branch of science that
uses numbers and symbols. Numbers and symbols are arranged using systematic mathematical
rules.

1.2 Importance of Mathematics

a. Knowledge of mathematics is necessary for the study of the physical sciences.

b. Computation and calculation are the basis of all studies that deal with matter in any form.
c. Even the physician who has to study biological cells and bacilli need to have to the knowledge
of Mathematics, if he means to cut the margin of error which alone can make his diagnosis
dependable.
d. To the mechanic and the engineer it is a constant guide and help, and without
exact knowledge of Mathematics, they cannot proceed one step in coming to grips with any
complicated problem.

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e. Be it the airplane or the atom bomb, radio-communication or nuclear power, anything has to
do with anything concerning matter in any form, knowledge of the principles of Mathematics
is the one thing absolute necessary.
f. Mathematical calculations form an important role in architectural activities. Precise
calculations are made while planning for the development of a new township, buildings,
bridges, etc.
g. An elementary knowledge of the simplest branch of Mathematics, arithmetic, is the daily need
of every man and woman in the ordinary affairs of life.

1.3 Uses of Mathematics

Mathematics is very useful in our day-to-day life. It help us perform many of our tasks.
a. With basic mathematical skills, we can keep record of our day-to-day expenses.
b. We can make budgets and preplan our expenditures. Budgeting is an important took to keep
control over finances, especially expenditure.
c. We can forecast sales and profit by applying mathematical tools. Hence, it facilitates us to do
business in an efficient way.
d. We become more systematic in our approach while dealing with others.
e. Mathematics facilitates business transactions. The value of purchases and sales are recorded
using the principles of mathematics.
f. Develop problem solving approach.
g. Cooking: We need exact measure of vegetables, spices, flour, etc. while cooking food.
h. A carpenter accurately measures the length and breadth of the wood and ply-board while
making furniture.
i. Basic mathematical calculations helps train and develop a child’s mind.

Exercises 1.1

1. What new ideas about mathematics did you learn?

2. What is the importance of mathematics in your life?

1.4 Patterns and Numbers

Mathematics is especially useful when it helps you predict, and number patterns are all about
prediction.

Recognizing number patterns is also an important problem-solving skill. If you see a pattern
when you look systematically at specific examples, you use that pattern to generalize what you
see into a broader solution to a problem.

The youngest children begin simply by counting. They count by 1s, then by s, 5s a [Link]
patterns give students a natural strategy to understand addition and multiplication.

As the student gets older, his knowledge of patterns advances from sums to products. When
asked for the 50th number in the pattern, he will know to multiply 2 times 50.

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 High school students can start to understand functions, such as f(x) = 2x + 2, where x is the
numerical sequence 0, 1, 2, 3,? ([Link].)

Sequences and Numbers

A sequence in mathematics, is a string of objects, like numbers, that follow a particular

pattern. It is the range of the function having for its domain the set of positive integers or a
subset. Each member of the sequence is called term. If the domain of a sequence is a finite set of
successive integers, then the sequence is called a finite sequence. If the domain of a sequence is
an infinite set of successive integers, then the sequence is called an infinite sequence.

Some of the simplest sequences can be found in multiplication tables:

Given: 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21, . . .

Pattern: Add 3 to the previous number to get the next number.

Given: 12, 24, 36, 48, 60, 72, . . .

Pattern: Add 12 to the previous number to get the next number.

Given: 0, 2, 6, 12, 20, 30, 42, . . .

Pattern: Add increasing even number to get the next number.

We can also create sequences based on geometric objects:

1 3 6 10

Triangle Numbers
Pattern: Add increasing integers to get the next number.

If someone asked you to list all natural numbers that are perfect squares, you might
begin by writing

1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36

But you would soon realize that it is impossible to actually list all the perfect
squares, since there are infinite number of them. However, you could represent
this collection of numbers in several different ways. One common method is to write

1, 4, 9, . . . n2

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Where n is the set of real numbers.

Consider the function f given by

f(n) = 2n + 1

where the domain of f is the set of natural numbers N. Note that

f(1) = 2n + 1
=3

f(2) = 2n + 1
=5

f(3) = 2n + 1
=7

a1 = 2(1) + 1 = 3 First term

a2 = 2(2) + 1 = 5 Second term
a3 = 2(3) + 1 = 7 Third term
an = 2n + 1 General term

Example:
Write the first four terms of each sequence:
1. an = 3n – 2

a1 = 3(1) – 2
=1

a2 = 3(2) – 2
=4

a3= 3(3) – 2
=7

a4 = 3(4) – 2
= 10

2. an = -n + 3

a1= -1 + 3
=2

a2 = -2 + 3
=1

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 a3 = -3 + 3
=0

a4 = -4 + 3
= -1

n
3. an =
n+1

1 1
a1 = =
1+1 2

2 2
a2 = =
2+1 3

3 3
a3 = =
3+1 4

4 4
a4 = =
4+1 5

(-1)n
4. an =
n

(-1)1
a1 = = -1
1

(-1)2 1
a2 = =
2 2

(-1)3 -1
a3 = =
3 3

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 (-1)4 1
a4 = =
4 4

Give the general term of the following sequence.

1. 4, 8, 12, 16, . . .
an = 4n

2. 5, 8, 11, 14, . . .
an = 3n + 2

3. 2, 4, 8, 16, . . .
an = 2n

4. 2, 7, 12, 17, . . .
an = 5n – 3

5. 3, 8, 15, 24, . . .
an = n(n + 2)

But if there is a constant d, called the common difference, then

tn = t1 + (n-1) d
where: d = difference
n = nth term
t1 = 1st term

Example:
1. Find the 9th term of the sequence 5, 10, 15, 20, . . .

tn = t1 + (n-1) d
= 5 + (9 -1) 5
= 5 + (8) 5
= 5 + 40
= 45

2. Find the 10th term of the sequence 2, 5, 8, 11, . . .

tn = t1 + (n-1) d
= 2 + (10 -1) 3
= 2 + (9) 3
= 2 + 27
= 29

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 3. Find the 9th term of the sequence 65, 60, 55, 50, . . .

tn = t1 - (n-1) d
= 65 - (9 -1) 5
= 65 - (8) 5
= 65 - 40
= 25

Exercises 1.2
A. Find the first four terms of the sequence defined by each equation.
1. tn = n
2. tn = (-1)n
3. tn = n(n + 1)
4. tn = 2n + 3

1
5. tn = n (n-1)
2

B. Find the general term of the sequence whose first terms agree with the given terms.
1. 2, 4, 6, 8, . . .
2. 1, 8, 27, 64, . . .
3. -2, -1, 0, 1, . . .
4. 5, 7, 9, 11, . . .
5. 1, 2, 5, 12, . . .

Exercises1.3
A. Write the first five terms of each sequence.
1. an = 2n + 1
2. an = 3n - 8
3. an = (n – 1)2

2
4. an = + 2n
3

n+2
5. an =
n+1

2n + 1
6. an =
2n

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 B. Identify the general term of the sequence whose first terms agree with the given
terms.
1. 3, 6, 9, 12, . . .
2. 4, 5, 6, 7, . . .
3. 2, 5, 8, 11, . . .
4. 8, 13, 18, 23, . . .
5. 1, 3, 7, 15, . . .
6. ½, ¾, 5/6, 7/8, . . .

C. Answer the following:

1. Find the 10th term of the sequence 91, 84, 77, 70, . . .
2. Find the 13th term of the sequence 99, 87, 75, 63, . . .

1.5 Fibonacci Sequence

One of the most famous sequences is the Fibonacci Sequence, named after the Italian
Mathematician Leonardo Fibonacci. We start with 1, 1, . . . and every new number is the sum of
the two previous numbers.

A pair of male and female rabbits produces a new pair at the age of two months and every
month thereafter.

Number of Total Number

Months of Pairs
1 AA 1
2 AA 1
3 AA BB 2
4 AA BB CC 3
5 AA BB CC DD EE 5
6 AA BB CC DD EE FF GG HH8

Month 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Number of Pairs 1 1 2 3 5 8

Observe how the third term is related to the first two terms, and also how the
fourth term is related to second and third terms. The second row is a sequence
and this is called Fibonacci Sequence, after Leonardo Fibonacci who discovered the
sequence. (IMDC 1991)

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Formula:
tn = tn+2 – tn+1

Example:

1. tn = tn+2 – tn+1
t1 = t1+2 – t1+1
= t3 – t2
=2–1
=1

2. tn = tn+2 – tn+1
t2 = t2+2 – t2+1
= t4 – t3
=3–2
=1

3. tn = tn+2 – tn+1
t3 = t3+2 – t3+1
= t5 – t4
=5–3
=2

4. tn = tn+2 – tn+1
t4 = t4+2 – t4+1
= t6 – t5
=8–5
=3

5. tn = tn+2 – tn+1
t5 = t5+2 – t5+1
= t7 – t6
=13 – 8
=5

6. tn = tn+2 – tn+1
t6 = t6+2 – t6+1
= t8 – t7
= 21 – 13
=8

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Exercises1.4

Consider the following sequence:

1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, . . .
1. Find the next four terms in the sequence after 144 , 233.

2. Find the sum of the first three odd-numbered terms.

3. Find the sum of the first three even-numbered terms.

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Module 2 - Mathematical Language and Symbols

The use of language in mathematics differs from the language of ordinary speech in three
important ways. First it is non-temporal, there is no past, present, or future in mathematics.
Everything just “is”. This present difficulties informing convincing example of, say, logical
principles using ordinary subjects, but it is not a major difficulty for the student.

The third feature that distinguishes mathematical from ordinary language, one which causes
enormous difficulties for students, is its precision. Ordinary speech is full of ambiguities,
innuendoes, hidden agendas, and unspoken cultural assumptions.

Systematic thought does not mean reducing everything to symbols and equations.
Systematic thought also requires precise verbal expression. (Jamison R.E. 2000)

Scope of the Module:

This module consists of four lessons, as follows:
1. Expression and Sentences
2. Relations
3. Functions
4. The Binary Number System

Objectives of the Module:

After going through the module, the students are expected to;
1. Translate mathematics sentences into mathematics symbols.
2. Identify the solution of the given relations.
3. Evaluate functions.
4. Express binary numbers into decimal numbers and vice-versa.

Examples:

Good Definition: A rectangle is a quadrilateral all four of whose angles are right angles.

Poor Definition: A rectangle is a parallelogram in which the diagonals have the same
length and all the angles are right angles. It can be inscribed in a circle and its area is given by
the product of two adjacent sides.

This statement is true and concise, but the defining property is not BASIC. This would work
better as a theorem to be proved than as a definition. In mathematics, assertions of this kind are
regarded as characterizations rather than as definitions.

Bad Definition: A rectangle is a quadrilateral with right angles.

This is AMBIGUOUS. With some right angles? With all right angles? There are lots of
quadrilaterals that have some right angles but are not rectangles.

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Unacceptable Definition: A rectangle has right angles.
This is unacceptable because mathematics is written as English is written –in complete,
grammatical sentences.

Guidelines for definitions in Good Form:

a. A definition MUST be written as a complete, grammatically correct English sentence.
b. A definition MUST be an “ if and only if” statement.
c. A definition MUST have a clearly stated genus and a clearly stated species.
d. The quantifiers in a good definition MUST be explicitly and clearly stated.
e. The term being defined MUST be underlined.

2.1 Expressions and Sentences

In algebra, verbal expressions are often translated into mathematical expressions. Consider
the following sentence.

Kathy has three more dollars than Nick.

Let x = dollars of Nick
x + 3 = dollars of Kathy

The letter x is a variable, x + 3 is an algebraic expression, and x + 3 = 8 is a sentence. In

algebra, variable are symbols that are used to represent unspecified numbers. Any letter may be
used as a variable.

An algebraic expressions consists of one or more numbers and variables with the operations
of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.

In multiplication expression, the quantities being multiplied are called factors and the result
is called the product. In a division expression, the dividend, the dividend is divided by the
divisor. The result is called the quotient.

To solve verbal problems in mathematics, words must be translated into mathematical symbols.

Mathematics
Symbols Meaning

+ plus, added to, the sum of, increased by, more than
minus, subtracted from, the difference of, decreased by, less than,
– diminished by.

x times, the product of, multiplied by

÷ divided by, the quotient of

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 Mathematical Sentences Mathematical
Symbols

1 The sum of a number and seven is twelve. x + 7 = 12

2 Six subtracted from a number is ten. n – 6 = 10

3 A number is twice another number and their sum is 2y + y = 27

twenty seven.

4 One number is five times another number, their sum a + 5a = 36

is thirty-six.

5 Twice a certain number diminished by five equals 2b – 5 = 29

twenty-nine.

6 The sum of two numbers is 18. The second number is c + 2c = 18

twice the first.

7 The sum of three numbers is 30. The second number n + 3n + 2(3n) = 30

is 3 times the first, and the third is twice the second.

8 Eight is less than 3 times a number is equal to 19. 3x – 8 = 19

9 One number is 3 more than twice another number, 3 + 2m = 17

their sum is 17.
6x
1 The product of 6 times a number divided by 2 is 9. = 9
0 2

Exercises 2.1

A. Translate the following sentences into mathematical symbols.

1. The sum of a number and three is seven.

2. Five times a number is twenty.
3. Eight less than five times a number is twelve.
4. The quotient of six times a number and eight added to two is five.
5. The sum of four times a number and three is equal to the number plus six.

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B. Translate the following algebraic expressions into mathematical sentences:

1. x – 8 = 4

2. 4x + 3 = 15

3. 6x
=4
8

4. 8x
–3=5
5
5. 7x + 5 = 9 + 3x

2.2 Relations

A relation is a set of ordered pairs.

Considered the ordered pairs (2,2), (-2, 3) and (0, -1). In these examples, 2 is paired
with 3, -2 is paired with 3, and 0 is paired with -1.

A relation can be shown by a set of ordered pairs, a table, a mapping, or a graph.

Set
{(2, 2), (-2, 3), (0, -1)}

Table

x 2 -2 0
y 2 3 -1

Mapping
x y

2 2

-2 3

1 -1

Graph

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 y

● 3

2 ●

1
x
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
-1●

-2

-3

The first components of the above ordered pairs are 2, -2, and 0. The domain of the relation
is {2, -2, 0}
The domain of a relation is the set of all first components from each ordered pairs.
The second components are 2, 3, and -1. The range of the relation is {2, 3, -1}
The range of a relation is the set of all second components from each ordered pairs.

Examples:
1. State the set of ordered pairs shown by the table. Then state the domain and the
range of the relation.

X 0 2 1 -3 -1

The set of ordered pairs

in the relation is Y 5 3 -4 3 -2 {(0, 5), (2, 3),
(1, -4), (-3, 3), (-1, -2)}
The domain is the set
of first components or {0, 2, 1, -3, -1}
The range is the set of second components or {5, 3, -4, -2}

2. State the relation for the mapping. Then state the domain and range.

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 x y

0 4

1 5

2 6

The relation is {(0, 4), (1, 5), (2, 6), (3, 6)}
The domain is {0, 1, 2, 3,}
The range is {4, 5, 6,}

3. State the relation shown by the graph. Then state the domain and range.

2●

● 1 ●
x
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
-1

● -2

-3 ●

The relation is {(3, 1), (0, 2), (-2, 1), (-3, -2), (1, -3)}
The domain is {3, 0, -2, -3, 1}
The range is {1, 2, -2, -3}

Equations as Relations

Rose works as part-time in a book store. She earns $12 per hour. She made the

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following chart to show her earnings for different number of hours worked. She let x
equal the number of hours she works per week, and y equal her total pay.

x (hours) 12x y(pay) (x, y)

1 12(1) 12 (1, 12)

5 12(5) 60 (5, 60)

8 12(8) 96 (8, 96)

10 12(10) 120 (10, 120)

12 12(12) 144 (12, 144)

15 12(15) 180 (15, 180)

20 12(20) 240 (20, 240)

The equation y = 12x describes her pay (y) for any number of hours (x). Rose could
have selected other values of x. The ordered pairs in the chart are solutions to the
equations y = 12x.

Since the solutions to an equation in two variables are ordered pairs, such an equation
describes a relation. The set of values of x is the domain of the relation. The set of
corresponding values of y is the range.

Examples:

1. Solve y = 2x + 3 if the domain is {-5, -3, -1, 0, 1, 3, 5}

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 x 2x + 3 y (x, y)

-5 2(-5) + 3 -7 (-5, -7)

-3 2(-3) + 3 -3 (-3, -3)

-1 2(-1) + 3 1 (-1, 1)

0 2(0) + 3 3 (0, 3)

1 2(1) + 3 5 (1, 5)

3 2(3) + 3 9 (3, 9)

5 2(5) + 3 13 (5, 13)

The solution set is {(-5, -7), (-3, -3), (-1, 1), (0, 3), (1, 5), (3, 9), (5, 13)}

2. Solve 2y + 4x = 8 if the domain is {-4, -3, -2, 2, 3, 4}

Values for y are usually easier to determine if the equation is first solved
for y in terms of x.

2y + 4x = 8
2y = 8 – 4x
y = 8 – 4x
2
y = 4 – 2x

x 4 – 2x y (x, y)

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 -4 4 – 2(-4) 12 (-4, 12)

-3 4 – 2(-3) 10 (-3, 10)

-2 4 – 2(-2) 8 (-2, 8)

2 4 – 2(2) 0 (2, 0)

3 4 – 2(3) -2 (3, -2)

4 4 – 2(4) -4 (4, -4)

The solution set is {(-4, 12), (-3, 10), (-2, 8), (2, 0), (3, -2), (4, -4)}

Exercises 2.2
Copy each table. Then find the solutions for each equation for the domain
indicated.

1. y = 4x – 3

x y (x, y)

-3

-2

-1

2m + 5
2. n =
3

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 m n (m, n)

-4

-2

Exercises 2.3
A. Solve each equation for the variable indicated.
1. x + y = 5, for y
2. 3x + y = 7, for y
3. b – 5a = 3, for b
4. 4m + n = 7, for n
5. 8x + 2y = 6, for y
6. 6y + 3y = 12 for y
7. 4a + 3b = 7, for b
8. 6r + 5s = 2, for s
9. 6x = 3y + 2, for y
10. 3a = 7b + 8, for b

B. Solve each equation if the domain is {-2, -1, 0, 2, 5}

1. y = 2x + 1
2. 2x + y = 7
3. 3x = 5 + 2y

Graphing Relations

Some of the solutions of y = 2x – 1 are shown in the table. The solutions can

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 also be shown by graphing.

x 2x – 1 y (x, y)

-2 2(-2) - 1 -5 (-2, -5)

-1 2(-1) - 1 -3 (-1, -3)

0 2(0) – 1 -1 (0, -1)

1 2(1) – 1 1 (1, 1)

2 2(2) -1 3 (2, 3)

3 ●
y = 2x – 1
2

1 ●

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x

-1●

-2

●- 3

-4

● -5

Exercises 2.4
Draw the graph of the given relations:

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 1. 3x = y = 3

2. 3x + 2y = 4

2.3 Functions
A function is a relation in which each element of the domain is paired with exactly one
element of the range. (Merrill)

The following graphs and accompanying tables describe two different relations.

1)
y

● 3

● 2

1●
x
-3 -2 -1 0 1● 2 3

-1 ●

-2 ●

-3

x -2 -1 0 1 2 3

Y 3 2 1 0 -1 -2

For each value of x, there is exactly one value of y, therefore this is a function.

2)

23
 y

2 ●

1 ●
x
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
-1 ●

-2 ●

-3

x 0 1 1 2 2

y 0 -1 1 -2 2

For x = 1, there are two values of y, 1 and -1. For x = 2, there are
two values, 2 and -2.

Therefore, the relation is not a function.

Two relations are described by the following mappings. Which are functions?

X Y X Y

2 3 3 0
3 0 4 -3
5 4 4
-1 -2 6 7
4 1 -2 2

a function not a function

1) Is {(5, -2), (3, 2), (4, -1), (-2, 2)} a function?

Yes, because each element of the domain is paired with exactly one element
of the range.

2) Is {(-1, 3), (0, 5), (2, 3), (5, -2), (2, 4)} a function?
No. The element 2 of the domain is paired with more than one element of

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 the range, namely 3 and 4.

Exercises 2.5
State whether each relation is a function.
1. {(3, 4), (5, 4), (-2, 3), (5, 3)}
2. {(8, 4), (5, -2), (6, 3), (2, 3)}
3. {(4, 1), (-2, 3), (0, 5), (5, 0), (3, 3)}
4. {(5, 1), (5, 2), (5, 3), (5, 4)}
5. {(-2, 4), (1, 3), (5, 2), (1, 4)}

6.
y

3 ●

● 2 ●

● 1 ●
x
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
-1 ●

-2

-3

7.
y

3 ●

● 2 ●

● 1 ●
x
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
-1

-2

-3

Evaluation of Functions

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 Examples:
1. If f (x) = x2 –x + 3, find
a. f(x) = 0
=0–0+3
=3

b. f(x) = 2
= 4 – 2 +3
=5

c. f(x) = -4
= 16 +4 + 3
= 23

d. f(x) = -2x
= (-2x )2 – ( 2x ) + 4
=4x2 + 2x + 4

2. If f(x) = 7 – 2x + x2, find

a. f(x) = 0 c. f(x) = -2
b. f(x) = 3 d. f(x) = -y

Exercises 2.6
1. If f(x) = 4x4 – 3x2 +2x – 2, find
a. f(x) = 2
b. f(x) = -2
c. f(x) = ½
d. f(x) = -x

2. If f(x) = x – x2 , find
1 + x2

a. f(x) = 0
b. f(x) = 1
c. f(x) = 2
d. f(x) = ½

2.4 Binary Number System

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 Binary number refers to as the base -2 system which contains only two symbols,
namely 0 and 1.

A numbering system assigns meaning to the position of the numeric symbols.

For example, consider this set of symbols:

642 is 600 + 40 + 2 in Base 10

Decimal is base 10 and has 10 digit:
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9

Binary is base 2 and has 2, so we use only 2 symbols:

0 and 1

Consider the decimal number 35462

3 5 4 6 2

3x104 + 5x103 + 4x102 + 6x101 + 2x100

30,000 + 5,000 + 400 + 60 + 2

Decimal Binary Decima Binary

Number Number l Number
Number

0 0000 0 8 1000 23 = 8

1 0001 20 = 1 9 1001 23 + 20 = 9

2 0010 21 = 2 10 1010 23 + 21 = 10

3 0011 21 + 20 = 3 11 1011 23 + 21 + 20 = 11

4 0100 22 = 4 12 1100 23 + 22 = 12

5 0101 22 + 20 = 5 13 1101 23 + 22 + 20 = 13

6 0110 22 + 21 = 6 14 1110 23 + 22 + 21 = 14

7 0111 22 + 21 + 20 = 7 15 1111 23 + 22 + 21 + 20 = 15

It is useful to generate a list of powers of 2.

27
 20 = 1
21 = 2
22 = 4
23 = 8
24 = 16
25 = 32
26 = 64
27 = 128
28 = 256

Converting a Decimal Number to a Binary Number

Take the highest power of two less than or equal to x.
Example:
1) 18 =
24 + 23 + 22 + 21 + 20
16 + 8 + 4 + 2 + 1
1 0 0 1 0

2) 27 =
24 + 23 + 22 + 21 + 20
16 + 8 + 4 + 2 + 1
1 1 0 1 1

3) 48 =
25 + 24 + 23 + 22 + 21 + 20
32 + 16 + 8 + 4 + 2 + 1
1 1 0 0 0 0

4) 60 =
25 + 24 + 23 + 22 + 21 + 20
32 + 16 + 8 + 4 + 2 + 1
1 1 1 1 0 0

5) 78 =
26 + 25 + 24 + 23 + 22 + 21 + 20
64 + 32 + 16 + 8 + 4 + 2 + 1
1 0 0 1 1 1 0

6) 201 =
27 + 26 + 25 + 24 + 23 + 22 + 21 + 20
128 + 64 + 32 + 16 + 8 + 4 + 2 + 1
1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1

28
 Converting a Binary Number to a Decimal Number
Example:

9 7 5 ∙ 2 6 8

102 101 100 10-1 10-2 10-3

1) 1 1 0 0 = 23 + 22 + 21 + 20
23 + 22 + 21 + 20
8 + 4 + 0 + 0 = 12

2) 1 1 1 1 = 23 + 22 + 21 + 20
23 + 22 + 21 + 20
8 + 4 + 2 + 1 = 15

3) 1 1 1 0 1 = 24 + 23 + 22 + 21 + 20
24 + 23 + 22 + 21 + 20
16 + 8 + 4 + 0 + 1 = 29

4) 0.1 = 2-1
=½
= 0.5

5) 0.111 = 2-1 + 2-2 + 2-3

= ½ + ½ 2 + ½3
= 0.5 + 0.25 + 0.125
= 0.875

6) 11.001 = 21 + 20 +2-1 + 2-2 + 2-3

= 2 + 1 + 0 + 0 + 0.125
= 3.125

7) 10.0011 = 21 + 20 + 2-1 + 2-2 + 2-3 + 2-4

= 2 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0.125 + 0.0625
= 2.1875

Exercises 2.7

29
A. Express the following Decimal to Binary Number
1. 35
2. 64
3. 50
4. 100
5. 128

B. Express the given Binary to Decimal Number

1. 1 0 0 0 1
2. 1 0 0 1 0
3. 1 0 0 1 1
4. 1 1 1 . 1
5. 1 0 . 1 1 0

Addition of Binary Numbers

Rules:
1. 0 + 0 = 0
2. 0 + 1 = 1
3. 1 + 0 = 1
4. 1 + 1 = 0 carry 1
5. 1 + 1 + 1 = 1 carry 1

Examples:
0 1
1. 0 0 1
+001
0 1 0

1 1 1
2. 1 1 1
+ 0 0 1
1 0 0 0

1 1
3. 1 0 1 1
+ 0 0 1 1
1 1 1 0

1 1 1
4. 1 1 1 1
+ 1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0 1

1 1 1

30
 5. 1 0 1 0 1
+ 1 0 1 0 1
10 1 0 1 0

Subtraction of Binary Numbers

Subtraction of binary numbers is the same as adding its complement and drop
the left innermost 1.

Number Complement Number Complement

-1 15 -10 6

-2 14 -11 5

-3 13 -12 4

-4 12 -13 3

-5 11 -14 2

-6 10 -15 1

-7 9 -17 15

-8 8 -18 14

-9 7 -33 31

Examples: 1 1 1
1. 3 0 0 1 1  0 0 1 1
-2 0 0 1 0 + 1 1 1 0 (14)
1 0 0 0 1= 0 0 0 1

1
2. 9 1 0 0 1  1 0 0 1
-4 0 1 0 0  + 1 1 0 0 (12)
1 0 1 0 1 =0 1 0 1

1 1 1 1

31
 3. 15 1 1 1 1 1  1 1 1 1
-7 0 1 1 1 1  + 1 0 0 1 (9)
1 1 0 0 0 = 1 0 0 0

4. 24 1 1 0 0 0  1 1 0 00
-15 0 1 1 1 1  + 0 0 0 0 1 (1)
1 1 0 0 1 = 1 0 0 1

1 1
5. 36 1 0 0 1 0 0  1 0 0 1 0 0
-20 0 1 0 1 0 0  +0 0 1 1 0 0 (12)
1 1 0 0 0 0=1 0 0 0 0

6. 36 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
-15 0 0 1 1 1 1  + 0 1 0 0 0 1 (17)
1 1 0 1 0 1 = 1 0 1 0 1

Exercises 2.8
A. Add the following Binary Numbers
1) 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0

2) 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 0

3) 1 1 1 0
0 1 1 1

4) 1 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 1 0

5) 1 0 0 0 1 1
0 0 1 1 0 1

B. Subtract the following Binary Numbers

1) 1 1 1 0
0 1 1 0

2) 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 1

3) 1 1 0 1 0

32
 1 0 1 0 0

4) 1 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 1 0 1 0

5) 1 0 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 0 0 1

Exercises 2.9
A. Convert the following binary numbers to decimal number.
1) 1 0 1 0 1
2) 1 1 0 0 1
3) 1 0 0 0 0 0
4) 1 1 1 1 1 1
5) 1 1 0 0 1 1 0

B. Convert the following decimal number to binary.

1) 45
2) 75
3) 120
4) 250
5) 325

C. Add the following.

1) 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 0

2) 1 0 1 1
0 0 1 1

3) 1 1 1 1 0 0
0 0 1 0 1 1

D. Subtract the following.

1) 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 1

2) 1 0 1 0 1
0 1 1 0 1

3) 1 0 0 1 1 0
0 1 1 0 0 1

Module 3 – Problem Solving and Reasoning

33
Scope of the Module:
This module consists of three lessons, as follows:
1. Inductive and Deductive Reasoning
2. Problem Solving Strategies
2. Mathematical Problem Solving

Objectives of the Module:

After going through the module, the students are expected to;
1. Solve mathematical problems using the inductive and deductive reasoning.
2. Apply the Polyas’s four steps in solving mathematical problems.

3.1 Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

Inductive Reasoning
– Patterns are widely used in mathematics to reach logical conclusions. This type of
reasoning is called inductive reasoning.

– using specific data/information to draw general conclusions (patterns).

– characterized by drawing a general conclusion (making a conjecture) from repeated

observations of specific examples. The conjecture may or may not be true.

Conjecture
– guess
– is an unproven statement that is based on observations.
– a conjecture is based on evidence you have gathered.
– predicting from incomplete evidence.

Examples:
Predict the next number in the sequences:
1. 1, 5, 25, 125, ___
2. -5, -2, 4, 13, ___
3. The math consists of 20 boys and 10 girls. Can a conjecture be made about the
composition of the school?
a. There are more boys than girls at this school.
b. There are twice as many boys as girls at this school.

4. Angles made by Transversal

34
 1 2

3 4

5 6

7 8

Angles 1, 2, 7, and 8 = exterior angles

Angles 3, 4, 5, and 6 = interior angles

Angles 1 and 5
2 and 6 = corresponding angles
3 and 7
4 and 8

Angles 1 and 4
2 and 3 = vertical angles
5 and 8
6 and 7

Angles 1 and 8 = alternate exterior angles

2 and 7

Angles 3 and 6 = alternate interior angles

4 and 5

Measure the set of angles as shown in the figure. What conjecture can you draw?
a. corresponding angles are congruent.
b. can you draw another conjecture?

5. Study the following diagrams. Determine a possible relationship between the

35
 figure number and number of small triangles present.

Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3

Figure Number 1 2 3 4 5

No. of Small Triangles 1 4 9 16 25

Conjecture:
The square of the figure number equals the number of small triangles.

Sam makes a conjecture that there will be 100 triangles in the tenth figure. To
answer, organize the information about the pattern below.

Figure Number 1 2 3 4 5

No. of Small Triangles 1 4 9 16 25

3 5 7 9

What do you think about Sam’s conjecture of 100 triangles in the tenth figure?
Use your conjecture to predict how many small triangles would probably be
present in 12th, 13th, and 15th figure.

6. What conjecture can you make about the product of two odd integers?

36
 (3) (5) = 15

(-5) (7) = -35

(-9) (-3) = 27

(7) (-9) = -63

Conjecture:
The product of two odd integers is an odd integer.

Exercises 3.1
A. Using the pattern and make a conjecture.
3 + 4 + 5 = 12 = 4 x 3
7 + 8 + 9 = 24 = 8 x 3
10 + 11 + 12 = 33 = 11 x 3

B. Make and test a conjecture about the sum of any five consecutive integers.
2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 = 20
5 + 6 + 7 + 8 + 9 = 35

C. Study the following data about precipitation (volume of rain) in

Vancouver, Canada from the year 2003 to 2007.

Precipitation in Millimeter

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

2003 150 27 134 139 49 13 19 4 40 248 167 113

2004 249 46 133 90 68 49 44 29 54 155 137 161

2005 284 57 92 71 43 54 25 5 39 58 351 146

2006 181 116 215 76 37 80 53 8 74 155 116 211

2007 138 69 75 62 43 43 16 75 31 99 177 197

Make some conjectures about precipitation in Vancouver.

Exercises 3.2

37
A. Study the pattern and predict the next two terms.
1) 4, 5, 8, 13, 20, ____, ____
2) 20, 25, 31, 38, 46, ____, ____
3) 10, 7, 12, 9, 14, ____, ____
4) 3, 6, 11, 18, 27, 38, ____, ____
5) 2, 6, 15, 31, 56, ____, _____
6) 2, 6, 12, 20, 30, ____, ____
7) 15, 19, 25, 33, 43, ____, ____
8) 1, 2, 5, 14, 41, ____, ____
9) 3, 5, 11, 29, 83, ____, ____
10) 59, 52, 55, 48, 51, 44, 47, ___, ____

B. What conjecture can you make about the difference between two
consecutive squares?
2
0 =0
12 = 1 1–0=1
2
2 =4 4–1=3
32 = 9 9–4=5
42 = 16 16 – 9 = 7
2
5 = 25 25 – 16 = 9

C. Using the September 2011 calendar, consider any two square around four
of the dates.
SEPTEMBER 2011
SUN MON TUE WED THU FRI SAT

1 2 3

4 5 6 7 8 9 10

11 12 13 14 15 16 17

18 19 20 21 22 23 24

25 26 27 28 29 30
Create a conjecture about what you have notice. Test your conjecture with
different two by two squares. Create as many conjectures as you can.

Deductive Reasoning

38
 – Deductive reasoning uses facts, definitions, accepted properties, and the
laws of logic to form a logical argument.

– Is the kind of reasoning in which, roughly, the truth of the input propositions
(the premises) logically guarantees the truth of the output propositions
(the conclusion), provided that no mistake has been made in the reasoning.

The if part or the hypothesis of the statement constitutes the given set of
conditions while the then part constitutes the conclusion implied by the
given conditions.

Laws of Logic
Examples:
1. If two segments have the same length, then they are congruent.

B C

X Y

AB = XY

2. If x is greater than 5, then x2 is greater than 25

If x > 5, then x2 > 25

3. If a polygon is equilateral, then all sides are congruent.

4. If a polygon is equiangular, then angles are congruent.

5. If the sum of two angles is 90⁰, then they are complementary.

6. If a = 3, then 5a = 15.

7. If the figure is a square, then …

8. If the figure is parallelogram, then…

9. If you pass the final exam, then…

10. If two angles measure 130⁰ and 50⁰, then…

Exercises 3.3

39
 Answer the following questions:
1. If the measure of angle A is 35 and the measure of angle B is 55, then …
2. If the typhoon signal is number 3, then ….
3. If we love our country, then…
4. If two counting numbers are even, then ….
5. If the classroom is dark, then …
6. If a student got a high score in his final exam, then …
7. If two counting numbers are odd, then …
8. If y = 6, then …
9. If two sides of a triangle are equal, then …
10. If 3x + 2 = 17, then x is …
11. If x > 6, then…
12. If you do your homework, then …
13. If x > 12, then…
14. If two angles measure 30⁰ and 60⁰, then..
15. If you go to the movies, then…

3.2 Problem Solving Strategies

One of the foremost recent mathematicians to make a study of problem solving

was George Polya (1887 – 1985). He was born in Hungary and moved to the United
States in 1940. The basic problem-solving strategy that Polya advocate consisted
the following four steps.

1. Understand the problem

2. Devise a plan
3. Carry out the plan
4. Review the solution

Polya’s four steps are deceptively simple. To become a good problem solver, it
helps to examine each of these steps and determine what is involved.

Understand the Problem

This part of Polya’s four-step strategy is often overlooked. You must have
a clear understanding of the problem. To help focus on understanding the problem,
consider the following questions.
a. Can you restate the problem in your own words?
b. Can you determine what is known about these types of problems?
c. Is there missing information that, if known, would allow you to solve the
problem?
d. Is there extraneous information that is not needed to solve the problem?
e. What is the goal?

40
 Devise a Plan
Successful problem solvers use a variety of techniques when they attempt
to solve a problem. Here are some frequently used procedures.
a. Make a list of the known information.
b. Make a list of information that is needed.
c. Draw a diagram.
d. Make an organized list that shows all the possibilities.
e. Make a table or chart.
f. Work backwards.
g. Try to solve a similar but simpler problem.
h. Look for a pattern.
i. Write an equation. If necessary, define what each variable represents.
j. Perform an experiment.
k. Guess at a solution and then check your result.

Carry Out the Plan

Once you have devised a plan, you must carry it out.
a. Work carefully
b. Keep an accurate and neat record of all your attempts.
c. Realize that some of your initial plans will not work and that you may have to
devise another plan or modify your existing plan.

Review the Solution

Once you have found a solution, check the solution.
a. Ensure that the solution is consistent with the facts of the problem.
b. Interpret the solution in the context of the problem.
c. Ask yourself whether there are generalizations of the solution that could
apply to other problems.

3.3 Mathematical Problem Solving

Examples:
1. On a map, a line segment 1.75 inches long represents 21 miles. What distance
in miles is represented by a segment 0.6 inches long?

a. For every 1.75 inches long represents 21 mile, how many miles represented
by a segment of 0.6 inches long?

b. 1.75 inches  21 miles

0.6 inc  x
We can solve for x by using the ratio and proportion method.

c. 1.75 0.6
=
21 x

1.75x = 12.6

41
 x = 7.2 miles
Therefore, 0.6 inch represents 7.2 miles.

2. Bonnie sold some stock for $42 a share. This was $10 share more than twice what she
paid for it. At what price did she buy the stock?
a. $42 per share and $10 share more than twice

b. This is a simple equation

10 + 2x = 42

c. 10 + 2x = 42
2x = 32
x = 16

3. A soccer field 75 yards shorter than 3 times its width. Its perimeter is 370 yards. Find its
dimensions.
a. 75 yards, 370 yards

b. This is a perimeter of a rectangle and we can solve the problem by using

the formula for perimeter of a rectangle.
P = 2l + 2w

c. Let x = width
3x – 75 = length

2l + 2w = P
2(3x – 75) + 2x = 370
6x – 150 + 2x = 370
8x = 520
x =65

The width is 65 yards and the length is 120 yards.

4. John rides his bicycle at a speed of 8 mph. How long will it take him to ride 28 miles?
a. T is the time it takes Manuel to ride 28 mile.

b. We can solve the problem by using the formula d = rt.

c. d = rt
28 = 8t
t = 3.5 or 3 ½

Manuel will take 3 ½ hours to ride 28 miles.

5. Dan and Donna leave their home in Chatsworth at the same time. They travel

42
 in opposite directions. Dan travels at 80km/hr and Donna travels at 72 km/hr.
In how many hours will they be 760 km apart?

a. Draw a diagram to help analyze the problem.

Dan 80 km/h Donna 72 km/h

760 km

b. Organize the information

r ∙ t = d

Dan 80 t = 80t

Donna 72 t = 72t

c. Solve the problem

80t + 72t = 760

152t = 760
t=5

In 5 hours, Dan and Donna will be 760 km apart.

6. Find the area of an equilateral triangular plate whose sides are 12 cm.

a. Illustrate the triangle.

S = 12 cm

b. Formula for area of an equilateral triangle is

√3
A= S2
4

c. Solve the problem.

43
 √3
A= S2
4

√3
= (144 cm2)
4

= 62.35 cm2. This is the area of the triangular plate.

7. A rectangular machine shop building is to be enclosed by a fence. The dimensions are

25.7m by 38.2m. How many meters of fencing are needed?

a. Illustrate the diagram.

L = 38.2m

W = 25.7

b. Perimeter of rectangle
P = 2l + 2w

c. P = 2l + 2w
= 2(38.2m) + 2(25.7m)
= 76.4m + 51.4m
= 127.8m

8. A radar circular in shape has an area of 53.94 ft2. Find the circumference of
the radar.

a. Illustrate the figure

b. Formula for circumference and area of a circle

C = 2πr or πd
A = πr2

c. Solve the problem

44
 A = πr2
53.94 ft2 = 3.1416 r2
17.17 ft2 = r2
r = 4.14 ft

C = 2πr
= 2(3.1416) (4.14 ft)
= 26.04 ft.

The circumference of a circle is 26.04 ft.

9. Find the capacity in gallons of a rectangular tank whose base is 60 inch by 72 inch.
and a height of 96 inch. (1 gallon = 231 cu. inches)

a. Draw the figure

72 inch.
60 inch.

96 inch.

b. Volume = length x width x height

c. V = lwh
= (72 inch) (60 inch) (96 inch)
= 414, 720 cubic inches

Volume in gallon = 414, 720

231
V = 1,795.32 gallons

10. Find the volume of heavy fuel oil cylindrical tank if the circumference
of the base is 6π m and its altitude is 3m.

a. Illustrate the cylinder

h = 3m

Circumference of the base = 6π m

45
 b. Volume for cylinder

V = πr2 h

c. Solve the problem

C = 2πr
6π m = 2πr
r = 3m

V = πr2 h
= (3.1416) (3m)2 (3m)
= 84.82 cubic meters

Exercises 3.4
Solve the following problems using the 4 steps.
1. The length of a rectangle is 3 times its width. The perimeter is 32. Find the dimension of
the rectangle.

2. Two ships travel toward each other from points 500 km apart. The two ships meet in 4
hours. What is the average speed of each ship if one travels 15 km. per hour faster than the
other?

3. A trip of 96 miles required 6 gallons of gasoline. At the same rate, how many gallons
would be required for a 152 miles trip?

4. The base of a lube oil cylindrical tank has a diameter of 3m. If the altitude is 3 ½ m what is
the volume of the tank?

5. The scale on a map is 1 centimeter to 57 miles. Washington D.C. and Cleveland are 4.7
centimeters apart on the map. What is the actual distance between these two Cities?

Exercises 3.5
Solve the following problems using the 4 steps.
1. Two airplanes leave Dallas at the same time and fly in opposite directions. One plane
travels 80mph faster than the other. After 3 hours, they are 2,940 miles apart. What is the
rate of each plane?

2. Oil is poured into a large empty tank at the rate of 500 gallons per minute. At the same
time, oil is leaking out at a rate of 300 gallons per minute. If it takes 1 hour to fill, how
many gallons of oil can the tank hold?

3. Three tankers each carry 10,000 tons of oil and a fourth tanker carries 16,000. What is the
average number of tons carried by each of the four tankers?

46
4. When an irregular object is placed in a cylindrical vessel of water whose radius is 8 cm,
the water rises 6 cm. What is the volume of the object if it is completely submerged?

5. A rectangular simulator room is to contain 125 m2 of flooring. It its length is to be five

times its width, what should its dimension be?

6. A water tank 3 ft high, 8 ft wide, and 10 ft long is filled to the top. How many gallons of
water does it hold if 1 ft3 holds about 7 ½ gallons?

7. If two ladders are placed end to end, their combined height is 31.5 ft. One ladder is
6.5 feet shorter than the other ladder. What are the heights of the two ladders?

8. A hat and a jacket cost $100. The jacket costs $90 more than the hat. What are the cost of
the hat and the cost of the jacket?

9. A certain elevator has a maximum weight capacity of 1,500 pounds. If four boxes with an
average of 200 pounds are packed on the elevator along with a man weighing 200 pounds,
how much additional weight in pounds is allowable?

10. Shirley, Pie, and Anna went to buy a $90 power bank. If Pie agrees to pay twice as much
as Anna, and Shirley agrees to pay three as much as pie, how much must Pie pay?

Chapter 4 – Data Management

47
 Data management is the practice of organizing and maintaining data processes to
ongoing information lifecycle needs.([Link]

Scope of the Module:

This module consists of seven lessons, as follows:
1. Organization of Data
2. Presentation of Data
3. Measures of Central Tendency
4. Measures of Variability
5. Measures of Relative Positions
6. Probabilities
7. Correlation

Objectives of the Module:

After going through the module, the students are expected to;
1. Organize data.
2. Compute for the mean, median, and mode using any methods.
3. Solve for quartiles, deciles, and percentiles.
4. Solve probability problems.
5. Compute for correlations.

4.1 Organizing Data

For Ungrouped Data

Steps in organizing ungrouped data

1. Arrange the scores in increasing order.
2. Tally the data.
3. Make a frequency.

53 43 32 37 43 30
36 25 25 42 34 48
20 38 45 34 40 54
39 54 55 53 42 46
50 34 43 45 36 34

Scores Tally Frequency

48
 55 / 1
54 // 2
53 // 2
50 / 1
48 / 1
46 / 1
45 // 2
43 /// 3
42 // 2
40 / 1
39 / 1
38 / 1
37 / 1
36 // 2
34 //// 4
32 / 1
30 / 1
25 // 2
20 / 1
Total = 30

For Grouped Data

Steps in Grouped Distribution

1. Find the highest and lowest score
2. Determine the range by subtracting the lowest score from the highest score.
Range = highest score – lowest score

Example: 75 – H.S.
25 – L.S.
50 Range

3. For the class interval, divide the range by 10.

Range 50
C.I. = = =5
10 10

4. Determine the lowest step score.

25
L.S. = =5
5

Note: If the lowest score (25) is exactly divisible by the class interval (5), then the lowest

49
 step score is 25-29. This is because 25 is divisible by 5. Suppose the lowest score is
24, and 24 is not divisible by 5 find a number which is less than 24 and it should be
divisible by 5, therefore the lowest step score now is 20-24.

5. For the class limits, subtract 0.5 units from the lower limit and add 0.5 from
upper limit.
6. For the midpoint, just simply add the lower limit and upper limit, then divide
it by 2.
7. Tally the data.
8. Find the frequencies.
9. Find the cumulative frequency.

Example:

75 60 45 61 36 63 35 48
70 46 75 49 59 75 67 50
71 47 72 42 73 57 35 25
37 40 60 37 62 74 65 51
38 41 39 64 30 54 53 31

C.I. Limits Midpoint Tally Frequency >C.F. <C.F.

75-79 74.5-79.5 77 /// 3 40 3
70-74 69.5-74.5 72 //// 5 37 8
65-69 64.5-69.5 67 // 2 32 10
60-64 59.5-64.5 62 //// -/ 6 30 16
55-59 54.5-59.5 57 // 2 24 18
50-54 49.5-54.5 52 //// 7 22 25
45-49 44.5-49.5 47 //// 5 15 30
40-44 39.5-44.5 42 /// 3 10 33
35-39 34.5-39.5 37 //// 4 7 37
30-34 29.5-34.5 32 // 2 3 39
25-29 24.5-29.5 27 / 1_ 1 40
N=40

4.2 Presentation of Data Using Graphs

a. Histogram
A histogram consist of a set of rectangles having bases on
a horizontal axis which center of the class mark. A histogram have no
spaces between the bars, class boundaries are located on the horizontal
axis, and frequencies are associated with the vertical axis.

Steps in constructing a Histogram

50
 1. Prepare x and y-axis.
2. Mark x and y scale, x representing the scores and y, the frequencies.
3. The bases of the bars are plotted on the x-axis where the width of the base
corresponds to the class limits of the class interval. The center of the base falls
on the midpoint of the class interval.

Given the following data:

28 60 49 30 42 18 28 43
36 42 47 45 49 15 36 45
40 39 60 40 53 21 46 50
45 27 18 35 55 27 26 52
50 20 25 38 58 30 16 53

H.S.=60
L.S.=15
= 45 is the Range

45 /10 = 4.5 round off = 5 C.I.

Class Interval Tally Frequency CF

60-64 // 2 40
55-59 // 2 38
50-54 //// 5 36
45-49 //// -// 7 31
40-44 //// 5 24
35-39 //// 5 19
30-34 // 2 14
25-29 //// -/ 6 12
20-24 // 2 6
15-19 //// 4__ 4
N=40

51
 7
. .
6

0 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
Histogram of the 40 scores

b. Frequency Polygon

A frequency polygon is a line graph of class frequencies is plotted against

class marks. It is made by connecting the midpoints of the rectangular tops in the
histogram, or simply joining the plotted points for the class marks and their
corresponding frequencies. (De Leon)

Steps in making a frequency polygon

1. Label the point on the base line.

2. Plot the mid points, scores within the interval are concentrated on the midpoint.

3. When all midpoints are located, join them by a series of short lines, additional
at both ends are needed.

52
 Class Interval Tally Frequency CF

60-64 // 2 40
55-59 // 2 38
50-54 //// 5 36
45-49 //// -// 7 31
40-44 //// 5 24
35-39 //// 5 19
30-34 // 2 14
25-29 //// -/ 6 12
20-24 // 2 6
15-19 //// 4__ 4
N=40

7 ●

6 ●

5 ● ● ●

4 ●

2 ● ● ● ●

0 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
Frequency Polygon of the 40 scores

c. Cumulative Frequency Graph

The cumulative frequency graph is another way of representing a frequency
distribution by means of a diagram. In constructing this graph, the upper class limits if
the class intervals are used, scores must be added successively from the lowest class
interval to the highest class interval.

53
Class Interval Tally Frequency CF

60-64 // 2 40
55-59 // 2 38
50-54 //// 5 36
45-49 //// -// 7 31
40-44 //// 5 24
35-39 //// 5 19
30-34 // 2 14
25-29 //// -/ 6 12
20-24 // 2 6
15-19 //// 4__ 4
N=40

45
●
40
●
●
35
●
30

25 ●

20 ●

15
●
●
10
●
5
●

0 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
Frequency Polygon of the 40 scores

54
Exercise 4.1
A. Organize the given data: (Grouped data)

45 27 38 22 30 47 50 43
31 30 33 45 28 54 45 44
43 29 55 23 40 38 24 22
35 41 56 37 24 35 43 26
42 43 37 24 34 24 33 41

B. Construct a histogram for the given data:

Class Interval Frequency C.F.

80-84 1 52
75-79 5 51
70-74 5 46
65-69 9 41
60-64 13 32
55-59 3 19
50-54 7 16
45-49 5 9
40-44 4_ 4
N=52

C. Construct the frequency polygon for the given data:

Class Interval Frequency C.F.

80-84 1 52
75-79 5 51
70-74 5 46
65-69 9 41
60-64 13 32
55-59 3 19
50-54 7 16
45-49 5 9
40-44 4_ 4
N=52

55
4.3 Measure of Central Tendency
Central Tendency = is the point about which the scores tend to cluster, a sort of
average in the series. It is the center of concentration of scores in any set
of data. It is also called the average.

a. The Mean
Mean = is a set of quantitative data is equal to the sum of all the measurements
in the data set divided by the total number of measurements in the set.

When to use mean: (Sta. Maria)

a. When the scores are distributed systematically around the central point.
b. When the central tendency having the greatest stability is wanted.
c. When the other statistics like standard deviation, coefficient of correlation,
etc. are to be computed later, since this statistics are based upon the mean.

Mean for Ungrouped Data

Formula:
_ ∑x
X=
N

Example:

1. 15, 15, 16, 18, 21

_ 15 + 15 + 16 + 18 + 21
X=
5
85
=
5
= 17

2. 25, 18, 36, 13, 22, 16

_ 25 + 18 + 36 + 13 + 22 + 16
X=
6
130
=
6

56
 = 21.67

Weighted Mean

Formula:
fx
Wm=
N
Where:
Wm = weighted mean
fx = product of the frequency and assign point value of each category
N = number of observations

Legend:
5 – Very Effective (VE)
4 – Almost Very Effective (AVE)
3 – Effective (E)
2 – Moderate Effective (ME)
1 – Least Effective (LE)

Example:

Descriptive Statistics of Faculty Respondents’ Research Capability

No. of Respondents = (22) Degree of Effectiveness

Statement VE AVE E ME LE
1. Time and opportunity to engage in
research related activities. /
2. Teaching loads give enough time to
conduct research. /
3. Interest and motivation to conduct
research. /
4. Initiative and enthusiasm to perform
research. /
5. Background training and knowledge to
conduct research. /

57
 Statement VE AVE E ME LE
(5) (4) (3) (2) (1)
1. Time and opportunity to engage in
research related activities. 19 3 0 0 0
2. Teaching loads give enough time to
conduct research 8 2 7 4 1
3. Interest and motivation to conduct
research. 3 2 2 10 5
4. Initiative and enthusiasm to perform
research. 16 4 2 0 0
5. Background training and knowledge to
conduct research. 9 7 6 0 0

Statement VE AVE E ME LE T
(5) (4) (3) (2) (1)
1. Time and opportunity to engage in 19x5 3x4 0x3 0x2 0x1
research related activities. 95 12 0 0 0 107
2. Teaching loads give enough time to 8x5 2x4 7x3 4x2 1x1
conduct research 40 8 21 8 1 78
3. Interest and motivation to conduct 3x5 2x4 2x3 10x2 5x1
research. 15 8 6 20 5 54
4. Initiative and enthusiasm to perform 16x5 4x4 2x3 0x2 0x1
research. 80 16 6 0 0 102
5. Background training and knowledge 9x5 7x4 6x3 0x2 0x1
to conduct research. 45 28 18 0 0 91

Statement WM DR
1. Time and opportunity to engage in
research related activities. 4.86 VE
2. Teaching loads give enough time to
conduct research 3.55 AVE
3. Interest and motivation to conduct
research. 2.45 ME
4. Initiative and enthusiasm to perform
research. 4.64 VE
5. Background training and knowledge
to conduct research. 4.14 AVE

58
 Total 3.93 AVE

Legend:
Weighted Mean Descriptive Rating

4.20 – 5.00 = Very Effective (VE)

3.40 – 4.19 = Almost Very Effective (AVE)
2.60 – 3.39 = Effective (E)
1.80 – 2.59 = Moderate Effective (ME)
1.00 – 1.79 = Least Effective (LE)

Three Column:
Legend:

3 – Agree (A)
2 – Moderate Agree (MA)
1 – Disagree (D)

Weighted Mean Descriptive Rating

2.34 – 3.00 = Agree (A)

1.67 – 2.33 = Moderate Agree (MA)
1.00 – 1.66 = Disagree (D)

Four Column:

4 - Outstanding (A)
3 - Very Satisfactory (VS)
2 - Satisfactory (S)
1 – Fair (F)

Weighted Mean Descriptive Rating

3.25 – 4.00 = Outstanding (O)

2.50 – 3.24 = Very Satisfactory (VS)
1.75 – 2.49 = Satisfactory (S)
1.00 – 1.74 = Fair (F)

59
 Exercise 4.2

Find the weighted mean of each of the following by using the Likert’s Scale:
A.
No. of Respondents = 25
Statement VE AVE E ME LE

1. 12 5 7 1 0

2. 8 9 6 1 1

3. 10 4 8 2 1

4. 5 8 9 1 2

5. 4 7 3 11 0

B.
No. of Respondents = 40
Statement VE AVE E ME LE

1. 15 12 9 4 0

2. 7 11 13 8 1

3. 18 14 6 2 0

4. 3 4 17 16 0

5. 5 10 13 10 2

6. 16 14 5 5 0

7. 14 11 10 4 1

Weighted Mean Descriptive Rating

4.20 – 5.00 = Very Effective (VE)

3.40 – 4.19 = Almost Very Effective (AVE)
2.60 – 3.39 = Effective (E)

60
1.80 – 259 = Moderate Effective (ME)
1.00 – 1.79 = Least Effective (LE)

Mean for Grouped Data

Formula for Short Method

_ ∑fd
X = A.M. + x c.i.
N
where: _
X = Mean
A.M. = Assumed Mean
∑fd = Summation of fd
C.I. = Class Interval
N = Number of Scores

Formula for Long Method

_ ∑fx
X=
N

where: _
X = Mean
∑fx = Summation of fx
N = Number of Scores

Example:

C.I. f d fd x fx
60-64 2 5 10 62 124

55-59 3 4 12 57 171
50-54 5 3 15 +55 52 260
45-49 7 2 14 47 329
40-44 4 1 4 42 168
35-39 6 0 0 37 222
30-34 3 -1 -3 32 96
25-29 2 -2 -4 -34 27 54
20-24 5 -3 -15 22 110

61
 15-19 3 -4 -12 17 51__
N=40 ∑fd = 21 ∑fx = 1,585

Short Method

A.M. = 37
∑fd = 21
C.I. = 5
N = 40
_ ∑fd
X = A.M. + x c.i.
N
21
= 37 + x 5
40
= 37 + (0.525) 5
= 37 + 2.62
= 39.62

Long Method

∑fx = 1,585
N = 40

_ ∑fx
X=
N
1585
=
40
= 39.62

Exercise 4.3
Solve for mean using the short and long method.

C.I. f
172-180 2
163-171 4
154-162 5

62
 145-153 12
136-144 9
127-135 5
118-126 3_
N = 40

b. Median

Median = is a number such that the n measurements fall below the median
and half fall above.

When to use the Median: (Sta. Maria)

a. When the exact midpoint of the distribution is wanted, the 50% point.
b. When there are extreme scores which would markedly affect the mean.
Extreme scores do not disturb the median.
c. When it is desired that certain scores should influence the central tendency
but all that is known about them is that they are above or below the median.

Example:

Median for Ungrouped Data:

1. When N is odd, the median is the middle number.

15, 15, 16, 18, 21
The Median is 16.

2. When N is even, the median is the average of the two middle numbers.
7, 8, 8, 11, 14, 15, 18, 21
The Median is 12.5

Median for Grouped Data:

Formula using the Upper Limit

(N/2-PS)
Md = L.L. + x c.i.
f
where:
Md. = Median
L.L. = Lower Limit
P.S. = Partial Sum
F = Frequency
C.I. = Class Intervals

63
 N = Number of Scores/Cases

Note: N/2 is always greater than or equal to the partial sum.

Formula using the Upper Limit

(N/2-PS)
Md = U.L. – x c.i.
f
Example:

C.I. Class Limits F CF< CF>

80-84 79.5-84.5 1 52 1
75-79 74.5-79.5 5 51 6
70-74 69.5-74.5 5 46 11
65-69 64.5-69.5 9 41 20
60-64 59.5-64.5 13 32 33
55-59 54.5-59.5 3 19 36
50-54 49.5-54.5 7 16 43
45-49 44.5-49.5 5 9 48
40-44 39.5-44.5 4_ 4 52
N=52

For lower limit:

L.L. = 59.5
P.S. = 19
F = 13
C.I. = 5
N = 52

(N/2-PS)
Md = L.L. + x c.i.
f

(26 – l9)
Md = 59.5 + x 5
13

7
= 59.5 + x 5
13

64
 = 59.5 + (0.54)5
= 59.5 + 2.70
= 62.20

For upper limit:

U.L. = 64.5
P.S. = 20
F = 13
C.I. = 5
N = 52

(N/2-PS)
Md = U.L. – x c.i.
f

(26 – 20)
Md = 64.5 – x 5
13

6
= 64.5 – x 5
13

= 64.5 – (0.46)5
= 64.5 – 2.30
= 62.20

Exercise 4.4
Solve for the Median using the lower and upper limit.

C.I Limits F CF< CF>

45-47 44.5-47.5 2 48 2
42-44 41.5-44.5 5 46 7
39-41 38.5-41.5 6 41 13
36-38 35.5-38.5 3 35 16
33-35 32.5-35.5 7 32 23
30-32 29.5-32.5 4 25 27
27-29 26.5-29.5 5 21 32
24-26 23.5-26.5 2 16 34
21-23 20.5-23.5 5 14 39
18-20 17.5-20.5 5 9 44

65
 15-17 14.5-17.5 4 4 48
N= 48

`c. Mode

Mode = is defined as the value of the term that appears most frequently. The mode may
not exist or, if it does, there may be more than one. A distribution having only one mode is called
unimodal, having two modes is called bimodal.

When to use the Mode: (Sta. Maria)

a. When a quick and approximate measure of central tendency is all that wanted.
b. When the measure of central tendency should be the most typical value.

Mode for Ungrouped Data

Example:
1. 11, 12, 13, 16, 16, 16, 19, 20
The Mode is 16.

2. 45, 49, 52, 55, 58

There is no Mode

3. 4, 4, 6, 8, 8, 8, 9, 9, 9, 10
The Modes are 8 and 9, and this is called bimodal mode.

Mode for Grouped Data

C.I. Limits F CF
80-84 79.5-84.5 1 52
75-79 74.5-79.5 5 51
70-74 69.5-74.5 5 46
65-69 64.5-69.5 9 41
60-64 59.5-64.5 13 32
55-59 54.5-59.5 3 19
50-54 49.5-54.5 7 16
45-49 44.5-49.5 5 9
40-44 39.5-44.5 4_ 4
N=52

Formula for Lower Limit:

d1

66
 Mo = L.L. + x c.i.
d1 + d2

Formula for Upper Limit:

d2
Mo = U.L. – x c.i.
d2 + d1

Where:
L.L. = lower limit
d1 = numerical difference between the highest frequency and the frequency just
below it.
d2 = numerical difference between the highest frequency and the frequency just
above it.
Note: A crude mode may be determined by taking the class mark with the
highest frequency.

10
Mo = 59.5 + x 5
10 + 4

10
= 59.5 + x 5
14

= 59.5 + (0.71)5
= 59.5 + 3.55
= 63.05

4
Mo = 64.5 – x 5
4 + 10

4
= 64.5 – x 5
14

= 64.5 – (0.29) 5
= 64.5 – 1.45
= 63.05

67
Exercise 4.5

Solve for mode using any method.

C.I. F

172-180 2
163-171 4
154-162 5
145-153 12
136-144 9
127-135 5
118-126 3_
N = 40
Exercise 4.6
Solve for mean, median and mode, using any method.

C.I. F

57-59 1
54-56 4
51-53 3
48-50 5
45-47 9
42-44 6
39-41 6
36-38 7
33-35 2
30-32 3
27-29 1
24-26 1_
N=48

68
4.4 Measure of Variability
A measure of variability is a quantity that measures the spread or variability of
the given observations in a given population.

Standard Deviation
The standard deviation is a special form of average deviation from the mean. It
is therefore also affected by all the individual values of the items in the distribution.

Steps in computing standard deviation:

a. Compute for mean
b. Get the deviation from the mean
c. Square the deviation from the mean
d. Get the sum of the squared deviation
e. Divide the sum by the total frequency
f. Extract the square root of the quotient of step number 5.

For Ungrouped Data

Example:
Scores d d2

40 5 25
39 4 16
38 3 9
36 1 1
33 -2 4
31 -4 16
28 -7 49_
S= 245 ∑d2=120
_
X = S_= 245 = 35 This is the mean.
N 7
____
∑d2
SD =
√ N
____
120
=
√ 7

69
 = √ 17.14
= 4.14

Grouped Data
C.I. f d fd fd2
__
65-69 2 5 10 50
60-64 6 4 24 68 96
55-59 5 3 15 45
50-54 6 2 12 24
45-49 7 1 7_ 7
40-44 4 0 0__ 0
35-39 8 -1 -8 8
30-34 6 -2 -12 -42 24
25-29 3 -3 -9 27
20-24 2 -4 -8 32
15-19 1__ -5 -5__ 25 _
N=50 ∑fd=26 ∑fd2=338

_ _
2
∑fd ∑fd 2
Sd = c.i.
√ N _ N_
_ _
338 26 2
= 5
√ 50 _ 50 _
____________
= 5 √ 6.76 – 0.2704
____
= 5 √6.49
= 5(2.55)
= 12.75

70
Exercises 4.7
Solve for the standard deviation:

C.I. f d

85-89 2 6
80-84 5 5
75-79 5 4
70-74 4 3
65-69 2 2
60-64 8 1
55-59 6 0
50-54 6 -1
45-49 5 -2
40-44 3 -3
35-39 2 -4
30-34 2 -5
N=50

71
4.5 Measure of Relative Position

a. Quartiles

Quartiles = is a point of measure in a scale where the distribution is divided into

four equal parts. Quartiles are the most widely used measures of
“noncentral” location (also called quantiles) and are employed
particularly when summarizing or describing properties of large sets of
numerical data. The computation of the quartiles is the same as the
computation of the median. (Tattao)

Quartiles for Ungrouped Data

Example 1.

Scores Number
25 8

24 7

23 6 Q3

22 5

21 4 Q2

20 3

18 2 Q1

15 1

Q1 = N/4
=8/4
=2

Q2 = 2N/4
= 2(8) / 4
=4

Q3 = 3N/4

72
 = 3(8) / 4
=6

Example 2

Scores Number
85 14

84 13

83 12

80 11
Q3
79 10

78 9

77 8

76 7 Q2

75 6

74 5

69 4
Q1
68 3

67 2

65 1

a. Q1 = N/4
= 14 / 4
= 3.5

b. Q2 = 2N/4
= 2(14) / 4
=7

73
 c. Q3 = 3N/4
= 3(14) / 4
= 10.5

Quartiles for Grouped Data

Example:

C.I F CF

45-47 2 48
42-44 5 46
39-41 6 Q3 41
36-38 3 35
33-35 7 32
30-32 4 Q2 25
27-29 5 21
24-26 2 16
21-23 5 Q1 14
18-20 5 9
15-17 4 4
N= 48

a. Q1 = N/4
= 1(48)
4
= 12

(N/4-PS)
Q1 = L.L. + x c.i.
f

(12 – 9)
Q1 = 20.5 + x 3
5
3
= 20.5 + x 3
5
= 20.5 + (0.6) 3
= 20.5 + 1.8
= 22.30

74
 b. Q2 = 2N/4
= 2(48)
4
= 24

(2N/4-PS)
Q2 = L.L. + x c.i.
f

(24 – 21)
Q2 = 29.5 + x 3
4

3
= 29.5 + x 3
4
= 29.5 + (0.75) 3
= 29.5 + 2.25
= 31.75

c. Q3 = 3N/4
= 3(48)
4
= 36

(3N/4-PS)
Q3 = L.L. + x c.i.
f

(36 – 35)
Q3 = 38.5 + x 3
4

1
= 38.5 + x 3
6
= 38.5 + (0.1667) 3
= 38.5 + 0.5

75
 = 39.00

Exercise 4.8

Solve for Quartile 1, Quartile 2, and Quartile 3 for the given data:

C.I. F C.F.

45 – 47 3 50
42 – 44 4 47
39 – 41 4 43
36 – 38 4 39
33 – 35 2 35
30 – 32 3 33
27 – 29 13 30
24 – 26 8 17
21 – 23 3 9
18 – 20 3 6
15 – 17 0 3
12 – 14 2 3
9 – 11 1 1
N = 50

76
b. Deciles

Deciles = is a point of measure in a scale where the distribution is divided into 10 equal
parts.

Deciles for Ungrouped Data

Example

Scores Number
91 20
90 19
89 18
88 17
87 16 D8
86 15
85 14
84 13
83 12
80 11
79 10 D5
78 9
77 8
76 7
75 6 D3
74 5
69 4
68 3
67 2
65 1

a. D3 = 3N/10
= 3(20) / 10
=6

b. D5 = 5N/10
= 5(20) / 10
= 10

77
 c. D8 = 8N/10
= 8(20) / 10
= 16

Deciles for Grouped Data

Example

C.I F CF

45-47 2 48
42-44 5 46
39-41 6 41
36-38 3 D7 35
33-35 7 32
30-32 4 25
27-29 5 D4 21
24-26 2 16
21-23 5 14
18-20 5 9
15-17 4 4
N= 48

a. D4 = 4N/10
= 4(48)
10
= 19.20

(4N/10-PS)
D4 = L.L. + x c.i.
f

(19.20-16)
D4 = 26.5 + x 3
5

3.20
= 26.5 + x 3
5
= 26.5 + (0.64) 3
= 26.5 + 1.92
= 28.42

78
 b. D7 = 7N/10
= 7(48)
10
= 33.60

(7N/10-PS)
D7 = L.L. + x c.i.
f

(33.60-32)
D7 = 35.5 + x 3
3

1.60
= 35.5 + x 3
3
= 35.5 + (0.533) 3
= 35.5 + 1.60
= 37.10

Exercise 4.9
Using the above data, solve for D3, D6, and D9.

79
c. Percentiles

Percentile = is a point of measure in a scale where the distribution is divided into

100 equal parts.

Percentiles for Ungrouped Data

Example

Scores Number
91 20
90 19
89 18
88 17
87 16
86 15 P75
85 14
84 13
83 12 P60
80 11
79 10
78 9
77 8
76 7 P35
75 6
74 5
69 4
68 3
67 2
65 1

a. P35 = 35N/100
= 35(20) / 100
=7

b. P60 = 60N/100
= 60(20) / 100
= 12

c. P75 = 75N/100

80
 = 75(20) / 100
= 15

Percentiles for Grouped Data

Example

C.I F CF

45-47 2 48
42-44 5 46
39-41 6 41
36-38 3 35
33-35 7 32
30-32 4 25
27-29 5 21
24-26 2 16
21-23 5 14
18-20 5 9
15-17 4 4
N= 48

a. P40 = 40N/100
= 40(48)
100
= 19.20

(40N/100-PS)
P40 = L.L. + x c.i.
f

(19.20-16)
P40 = 26.5 + x 3
5

3.20
= 26.5 + x 3
5
= 26.5 + (0.64) 3
= 26.5 + 1.92
= 28.42

81
b. P60 = 60N/100
= 60(48)
100
= 28.80

(60N/100-PS)
P60 = L.L. + x c.i.
f

(28.80-25)
P60 = 32.5 + x 3
7

3.80
= 32.5 + x 3
7
= 32.5 + (0.54) 3
= 32.5 + 1.63
= 34.13

c. P75 = 75N/100
= 75(48)
100
= 36

(75N/100-PS)
P75 = L.L. + x c.i.
f

(36-35)
P75 = 38.5 + x 3
6

1
= 38.5 + x 3
6
= 38.5 + (0.1667) 3
= 38.5 + 0.50
= 39.00

82
Exercise 4.10
Using the above data, solve for P35, P65, and P90.

Exercise 4.11

C.I. F CF

97-101 2 35
92-96 2 33
87-91 3 31
82-86 3 28
77-81 9 25
72-76 4 16
67-71 2 12
62-66 3 10
57-61 2 7
52-56 1 5
47-51 3 4
42-46 1__ 1
N=35

Solve for the following:

a. Quartile 3
b. Deciles 4
c. Percentile 70

83
4.6 Probabilities

In Statistics, probability is not expressed in words but in quantitative numbers

which may be in decimal, in percent, or in fraction..
The value of probability ranges from zero to one. A probability of zero
indicates that there is no chance at all that an event will happen or occur. A
probability of one (1) indicates absolute certainty that an event will happen. An event is a
set of happenings or outcomes. If there’s only one outcome, the event is called simple
event. Outcome is the happening which results from an event. (Sta. Maria)

A permutation of different objects taken r at a time is an arrangement of r out of

the n objects with attention given to the order of arrangement. The number of
permutations of n objects taken r at a time is denoted by nPr.

Permutations = refers to the total number of ways by which items may be

arranged in a definite order.

Where there are n items to be arranged all at a time.

n P r = n!
number of items taken at a time
number of items

Where there are n items taken r at a time with number item repeated.

nPr= n!_
(n – r)!
Where: n = total number of items
r = number of items taken at a time

Example:
1. If a coin is tossed, there are only two possible outcomes: head (H) or tail (T).
1 coin = ½

2. If 2 coins are tossed, there are four possible outcomes.

2 coins = ½ ∙ ½ = ¼
TT TH HT HH

3. If 3 coins are tossed, there are eight possible outcomes.

84
 3 coins = ½ ∙ ½ ∙ ½ = 1/8
TTT TTH THT HTT
HHH HHT HTH THH

4. A card is drawn from a deck. What is the probability that the card drawn is
a diamond card?
13 diamond cards
52 total number of cards

13 ÷ 52 = ¼

5. Two dice are tossed. How many possible outcomes are there?
2 dice = 1/6 ∙ 1/6 = 1/36
Therefore: there are 36 possible outcomes

6. How many 2-digit numbers of two different digits can be formed from the
numbers 0, 2, 4, 6, 8?

0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8

2,0 2,4 2,6 2,8
4,0 4,2 4,6 4,8
8,0 8,2 8,4 8,6

7. If the letters a, b, and c were arranged such that all three letters are taken
at a time.
n=3 a, b, c
n P r = n! a, b, c b, a, c c, b, a
=3∙2∙1 a, c, b b, c, a c, a, b
=6

8. In how many ways can the judges in the Bb. Pilipinas pageant choose the
Philippine representatives to the Miss Universe and Miss World beauty
contests from among 5 finalists?

n! 5! 5∙4∙3∙2∙1
nPr = = = = 20
(n – r)! (5 – 2)! 3∙2∙1

9. In how many ways may a class of 10 students select two delegates-

representatives for that class?
n = 10
r=2
10! 10 ∙ 9 ∙ 8 ∙ 7 ∙ 6 ∙ 5 ∙ 4 ∙ 3 ∙ 2 ∙ 1
nPr = =
= (10 – 2)! 8∙7 ∙ 6 ∙ 5 ∙ 4 ∙ 3 ∙ 2 ∙ 1

85
 = 90

Exercises 4.12
Solve the given probability problems:

1. Three dice are tossed. How many possible outcomes are there?

2. If the letters, A, B, C, and D were arranged such that all four letters are taken
at a time. How many possible outcomes are there?

For questions number 3, 4 and 5, pls. refer to the data below. A survey of 100
students, the following data were obtained as to the number of students enrolled in
Math, Science, and History.

Subjects No. of Students Enrolled

Math only 7
Science only 9
History only 14
Math and Science only 8
Math and History only 3
Science and History only 26
All Subjects 14

3. How many students are not taking the subjects?

4. How many students are enrolled in Math?

5. How many students are enrolled in any three subjects?

6. A card is drawn from a deck. What is the probability that the card drawn
is an ace?

7. A card is drawn from a well shuffled deck of 52 cards. What is the probability
that a card drawn is face card?

8. In how ways may the position of President and Vice-President be given

six nominees?

9. In how many ways may a student solve 5 problems out 9 given problems?

10. A group of 6 members gathered for a special meeting. Each member has to
shake hands with all the other members. Find the total number of handshakes
made?
86
 4.7Correlation

Correlation = it is a degree that describes the relation between two sets of

variables. This is usually referred to as the coefficient of correlation. It tells
us to what degree two sets of variables are related to each other.

A. Positive Correlation

B. Negative Correlation

Coefficient of Correlation Formula

N(∑xy) – (∑x)(∑y)
rxy =
√ [N(∑x2) – (∑x)2 ] [N(∑y2) – (∑y)2]

Where:
rxy = correlation between x and y
∑x = sum of test x
∑y = sum of test y
∑xy = sum of the product of x and y
N = number of cases

87
 ∑x2 = sum of squared x score
∑y2 = sum of squared y score

To interpret the correlation value obtained, the following classifications may

be applied. ( ± )

1.00 – + perfect correlation

0.91 – 0.99 very high correlation
0.71 – 0.90 high correlation
0.41 – 0.70 marked correlation
0.21 – 0.40 slight relationship
0.00 – 0.20 negligible correlation

Computation of Pearson Product-Moment Coefficient of Correlation r

Students Scores Scores

X Y X2 Y2 XY
1 9 8 81 64 72
2 10 20 100 400 200
3 5 6 25 36 30
4 8 12 64 144 96
5 13 13 169 169 169
6 8 9 64 81 72
7 7 8 49 64 56
8 11 12 121 144 132
9 4 6 16 36 24
10 3_ 7 9 49 21
∑X = 78 ∑Y = 101 ∑X2 = 698 ∑Y2 = 1,187 ∑XY = 872

∑x = 78
∑y = 101
∑xy = 872
N = 10
∑x2 = 698
∑y2 = 1,187

N(∑xy) – (∑x)(∑y)
rxy =
√ [N(∑x2) – (∑x)2 ] [N(∑y2) – (∑y)2]

10(872) – (78)(101)
=
√[10(698) – (78)2] [10(1,187) – (101)2]

88
 8,720– 7,878
=
√[6,980 – 6,084] [11,870 – 10,201]

842
=
√ [896] [1,669]

842
=
√1,495,424

= 842_
1,222.87
= 0.688 (marked relationship)

Exercises 4.13
The following are scores in English (x) and Science (y) representing a sample
of 10 students. Compute for the Pearson r and interpret the findings.

Students X Y

1 18 13
2 9 9
3 14 18
4 10 19
5 16 16
6 18 15
7 16 20
8 15 12
9 19 18
10 15 14

89
Chapter 5 – Mathematics of Finance

When people need to secure funds for some purposes, one of the ways they
usually resort to is borrowing. On the other hand, the person or institution which lends
the money would also wish to get something in return for the use of the money. The
person who borrows money for any purpose is a debtor, and the person or institution
which loans the money is the lender.([Link])

If you deposit a sum of money in a savings account or if you borrow a sum of

money from a lending agent, the is referred to as the principal. When money is borrowed,
whether it is a savings institution borrowing from you when you deposit money in your
account or you borrowing from a lending agent, a fee is charged for the money borrowed.
The fee is called interest. It is usually computed as a percentage (called the interest rate)
of the principal over a given period of time. Simple interest is generally used only on
short-term basis, often duration less than 1 year. Compound interest is interest added to
the principal at the end of a certain period of time after which the interest is computed on
the new principal, and this process is repeated until the end of the term of the loan is
reached. (Barnett, Raymond A.)

Scope of the Module:

This module consists of four lessons, as follows:
1. Simple Interest
2. Ordinary and Exact Interest
3. Interest on Actual and Approximate Time
4. Compound Interest

Objectives of the Module:

After going through the module, the students are expected to;
1. Define interest.
2. Solve simple and compound interest
3. Apply the formula in computing simple and compound interest.

5.1 Simple Interest

Formula:
I = Prt

Where:
P = Principal
r = Annual simple interest rate
t = Time in years

90
Example:
1. If $3,000 is loaned for 4 months at a 14% annual rate, how much interest is earned?
P = 3,000
r = 0.14
t = 4/12 = 1/3 = 0.333

I = Prt
= 3,000 x 0.14 x 0.333
= $139.86

[Link] the total amount due on loan of $800 at 18% simple interest at the end of
4 months.
P = $800
r = 0.18
t = 4/12 = 1/3

I = Prt
= $800 x 0.18 x 0.333
= $48

A=P+I
= $800 + $48
= $848
Or we can use the formula for
A = P(1 + rt)
= 800[1 + 0.18(0.333)]
= 800(1.06)
= $848

3. Find the interest and amount on P5,500 at 5 ½ % simple interest for 4 years.
I = Prt
= P 5,500 x 0.055 x 4
= P1,210

A = P5,500 + 1,210
= P6, 710

4. If a principal of $1,250 earns interest of $172 in 2 years and 9 months, what

interest rate is in effect?
P = $1,250
I = $172
t = 2 years 9/12 = 2.75

91
 I
r=
Pt

172
=
1,250 x 2.75
= 0.05 or 5%

5. How long will it take for $800 to earn $240, if it is invested at 6 ½ % simple interest?

P = $800
r = 6 ½ = 0.065
I = 240

I
t=
Pr

240
=
800 x 0.065

= 4.62 years or (0.62 x 12)

= 4 years and 7 months

6. If a depositor wants to earn an interest of $328 in 2 years from a bank that

gives 8 ½ % interest, how much should he deposit in the bank now?

I = $328
r = 8 ½ % = 0.085
t = 2 years

I
P=
rt

328
=
0.085 x 2

= $1,929.41

7. Sam borrows P17,000 on April 21, 2002, and repays the loan on April 21, 2004
with interest at 5 1/8%. Find the amount repaid.

92
 P = P17,000
r = 5 1/8% = 0.05125
t = 2 yrs

I = Prt
= P17,000 x 0.05125 x 2
= 1,742.5

A=P+I
= P17,000 + P1,742.5
= P18,742.5

Exercises 5.1
Find the missing value.

Principal Rate Time Interest

1 $1, 520 3 1/3 2 yrs.

2 $2,200 4 yrs. $375

3 $3,800 7½% $805

4 9 3/5% 7yrs. & 7 mos. $876

5 $3,400 5 3/8 % $833

Exercises 5.2
Solve each of the following problem.

1. Find the interest and amount on $1,500 at 6 ¼ % simple interest for 10 months.

2. Find the interest and amount on $850 at 4 ¾ % simple interest for 3 years and
7 months.

3.A principal earns interest of $196 in 3 years and 6 months at a simple interest rate of
6 ½%. Find the principal invested.

4.A businessman charges his client P2,750 on a loan of P15,800 for 2 years and
2 months. What simple interest is he using?

[Link] months after borrowing money, David Tan pays on interest of $270. How much
did he borrow if the simple interest rate is 5 ½ %?

93
6. What amount must be repaid on August 1, 2010, if $650 is barrowed on August 1,
2008 at 6 ¼% simple interest?

7. Pamela, loans P8,700 at 4 3/8% simple interest, how long will it take her to get P510
interest?

8. Rose borrowed P15,600 for 2 years and 8 months and paid P2,150 interest. What was the
simple interest?

9. George borrowed P12,500 from a bank at 9 ½% simple interest for 3 years and 6 months.
How much did George pay back the bank?

10. Vicky, who invested P25,400, had P29,250 returned to him 3 years and 8 months later. At
what rate did her money earn simple interest?

5.2 Ordinary and Exact Interest

There are instances when the time for which a certain amount of money is
borrowed is given in number of days. In such case, it is necessary to change the number
of days to a fractional part of a year when substituting in the simple interest formula. If
the interest is computed with a denominator of 360, the interest is called ordinary (Io),
and if the denominator is 365, the interest is called exact (Ie )([Link])

Note:
a. Ordinary interest is greater than exact interest.
b. When interest (ordinary or exact) is not specified in any problem it is
assumed as ordinary.

Example:
1. Find the ordinary and exact interest on $5,500 for 95 days at 5 3/8% simple
interest.

P = $5,500
r = 5 3/8% = 0.05375
t= 95/360 = 0.2639

Io = Prt
= 5,500 x 0.05375 x 0.2639
= $78.01
t = 95/365 = 0.2603

94
Ie =Prt
= 5,500 x 0.05375 x 0.2603
= $76.94

2. Find the ordinary interest and amount on $6,600 at 6 ½% simple interest for 125 days.

P = $6,600
r = 6 ½ % = 0.065
t = 125/360 = 0.347

Io = Prt
= 6,600 x 0.065 x 0.347
= $148.96

A=P+I
= $6,600 + $148.96
= $6,748.96

5.3 Actual and Approximate Time

When the time is expressed between two dates, it is necessary to determine the
actual and approximate time.

Actual time is the exact or actual number of days in any given month.

Approximate time where all the months with in a year contain 30 days.

Example:
1. Find the actual and approximate time from April 21, 2011 to October 4, 2011.

Actual Days Month Approximate Days

9 April 9
31 May 30
30 June 30
31 July 30
31 August 30
30 September 30
4___ October 4___
166 days 163 days

95
Alternative Solution:

Actual Time (Table)

April 21 = 111
October 4 = 277
Difference = 166 days

Approximate Time
April 21, 2011 = 4 – 21 – 11
October 4, 2011 = 10 – 4 – 11

(9) (34)
= 11 – 10 – 4
= 11 – 4 – 21
5 – 13
= 5 x 30
= 150 + 13
= 163 days

2. Find the actual and approximate time from May 16, 2010 to November 26, 2010.

Actual Days Month Approximate Days

15 May 14
30 June 30
31 July 30
31 August 30
30 September 30
31 October 30
26___ November 26___
194 days 190 days

3. Find the ordinary interest on $3,700 at 6 ½ % from July 18, 2012 to November 7,
2012 using actual and approximate time.

Actual Days Month Approximate Days

13 July 12
31 August 30
30 September 30
31 October 30
7___ November 7___
112 days 109 days

96
 Ordinary Interest for Actual Days = 112/360 = 0.3111

Ordinary Interest for Approximate Days = 109/360 = 0.3028

a. Io – Actual = $3,700 x 0.065 x 0.3111

= $74.82

b. Io – Approximate = $3,700 x 0.065 x 0.3028

= $72.82

4. Find the exact interest on $5,010 at 5 4/5% from September 19, 2012 to
February 25, 2013 using the actual and approximate time.

Actual Days Month Approximate Days

11 September 11

31 October 30
30 November 30
31 December 30
31 January 30
25__ February 25__
159 days 156 days

Exact for Actual Days = 159/365 = 0.4356

Exact for Approximate Days = 156/365 = 0.4274

a. Ie – Actual = $5,010 x 0.058 x 0.4356

= $126.58

b. Ie – Approximate = $5,010 x 0.058 x 0.4274

= $124.19

5. Find the interest using the four methods, on $5,000 at 5% from August 2, 2010
to November 27, 2010.

Actual Days Month Approximate Days

29 August 28
30 September 30
31 October 30
27___ November 27___
117 days 115 days

97
 a. Io – Actual = $5,000 x 0.05 x 117/360
= $81.25

b. Io – Approximate = $5,000 x 0.05 x 115/360

= $79.86

c. Ie – Actual = $5,000 x 0.05 x 117/365

= $80.14

d. Ie – Approximate = $5,000 x 0.05 x 115/365

= $78.77

Exercises 5.3
Solve the given problem:

1. Find the interest on $6,025 at 6 ¼% from November 2009, to April 6, 2010

using the four methods.

Exercises 5.4
Solve each of the following:

1. Find the ordinary interest on $2,100 for 65 days at 5 ¼% simple interest.

2. Find the ordinary interest on P23,450 for 108 days at 4 2/3% simple interest.

3. Find the exact interest on P34,210 for 200 days at 5 1/5% simple interest.

4. Find the exact interest on P28,850 for 76 days at 4 ¼% simple interest.

5. Find the ordinary and exact interest on $2,750 for 75 days at 4 1/8% simple
interest.

6. Find the actual and approximate time from June 26 to December 6 of the
same year.

7. Find the actual and approximate time from February 14 to October 24 of

the same year.

8. Find the interest on $6,025 at 6 ¼% from November 20, 2011 to April 6, 2012
using the four methods.

98
5.4 Compound Interest

In loan and savings transactions, interest arrangements may be simple or

compounded. In the former the periodic interest is based only on the original principal. In
the later, the periodic uncollected interest are added to the principal and their sum is the
basis of the interest for the succeeding interest period. (Dante T. Pasion)

Annually m= 1
Semi - Annually m=2
Quarterly m=4
Monthly m = 12

Formula:

F = P(1 + i)n

Where:
F = final amount/compound amount
P = principal
i = rate (i = r/m)
n = total number of conversion period (n = tm)
I = compound interest

Examples:

1. Find the compound amount and interest of $800 for 4 years at 6%

compounded annually.

P = $800
r = 6%
m = 1 (annually)
t = 4 yrs.

i = 0.06/1 = 0.06
n = 4(1) = 4

F = P(1 + i)n
= $800(1 + 0.06)4
= $800(1.06)4
= $800(1.262)
= $1,009.98

99
2. Accumulate $4,800 for 2 years at 7% converted monthly.

P = $4,800
r = 7%
m = 12
t = 2 yrs.

i = 0.07/12 = 0.0058
n = 2(12) = 24

F = P(1 + i)n
= $4,800(1 + 0.0058)24
= $4,800(1.0058)24
= $4,800(1.1498)
= $5,519.07

3. Find the compound amount and interest if $4,600 is invested at 8% compounded

quarterly for 5 years and 6 months.

P = $4,600
r = 8%
m=4
t = 5 6/12 = 5.5

i = 0.08/4 = 0.02
n = 5.5(4) = 22

F = P(1 + i)n
= $4,600(1 + 0.02)22
= $4,600(1.02)22
= $4,600(1.546)
= $7,111.51

Exercises: 5.5
1. Accumulate $4,500 for 4 years and 8 months at 5 ½% converted annually.
2. Find the compound amount and interest on $8,200 for 2 years and 3 months at 6%
compounded semi-annually.
3. Accumulate P15,300 for 5 years and 9 months at 5 ½%, compounded quarterly.
4. Accumulate P24,700 for 4 years and 5 months at 8% converted monthly.
5. Find the compound amount and interest on $7,400 for 5 years and 6 months
compounded semi-annually.

100
Chapter 6 – The Apportionment and Voting
In this chapter, we discuss two of the most fundamental principles of
democracy: the right to vote and the value of that vote. The U.S. Constitution,
in Article I, Section 2, states that

The House of Representatives shall be composed of members chosen

every second year by the people of the several states, and the electors
in each state shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most
numerous branch of the state legislature…. Representatives and direct
taxes shall be apportioned among several states that may be included
within this union, according to their respective numbers…. The actual
Enumeration shall be made within three years after the first meeting of
the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent term of
ten years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. The number of
Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each
state shall have at least one Representative,….

This article of the Constitution requires that “ Representatives …. Be

apportioned among the several states… according to their respective numbers.
That is, the number of representatives each state send to Congress should be
based on its population. Because populations change over time, this article also
requires that the number of people within a state should be counted “ within
every subsequent term of ten years.”

6.1 Introduction to Apportionment

The mathematical investigation into apportionment, which is a method

of dividing a whole into various parts, has its roots in the U.S. Constitution.
Since 1790, when the House of representatives first attempted to apportion itself,
various methods have been used to decide how many voters would be represented
by each member of the House. The two competing plans in 1790 were put
forward by Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson.

To illustrate how the Hamilton and Jefferson plans were used to

calculate the number of representatives each state should have, we will
consider the fictitious country of Andromeda, with a population of 20,000
and five states. The population of each state is given on the table below.

Andromeda’s constitution calls for 25 representatives to be

chosen from these states. The number representatives is to be apportioned
according to the states’ respective populations.

101
Scope of the Module:
This module consists of two lessons, as follows:
1. Introduction of Apportionment.
2. Introduction of Voting.

Objectives of the Module:

After going through the module, the students are expected to;
1. Compute for the apportionment using the different methods.
2. Explain the different voting system.

Standard Divisor
total population
Standard Divisor =
number of people to apportion

Standard Quota – is the whole number part of the quotient of a population divided
by the standard divisor.

Lower Quota – is the standard quota rounded down to a whole number.

Upper Quota – is the standard quota rounded up to the next whole number.

The Hamilton Plan

State Population

Apus 11,123

Libra 879

Draco 3,518

Cephus 1,563

Orion 2,917

Total 20,000

total population
Standard Divisor =

102
 number of people to apportion

20,000
=
25
= 800

Standard
State Population Quotient Quota

Apus 11,123 11,123/800 = 13.904 13

Libra 879 879/800 = 1.099 1

Draco 3,518 3,518/800 = 4.398 4

Cephus 1,563 1,563/800 = 1.954 1

Orion 2,917 2,917/800 = 3.646 3

Total 22

From the calculations in the above table, the total number of

representatives is 22, not 25 as required by Andromeda’s constitution. When
this happens, the Hamilton plan calls for revisiting the calculation of the
quotients and assigning an additional representatives to the state with the largest
decimal remainder. This process is continued until the number of representatives
equals the number required by the constitution. The states with the three highest
decimal remainders are Cephus (1.954), Apus (13.904), and Orion (3.646). Thus
each of these state gets an additional representatives.

Standard Number of
State Population Quotient Quota Representatives

Apus 11,123 11,123/800 = 13.904 13 14

Libra 879 879/800 = 1.099 1 1

Draco 3,518 3,518/800 = 4.398 4 4

Cephus 1,563 1,563/800 = 1.954 1 2

Orion 2,917 2,917/800 = 3.646 3 4

Total 22 25

103
The Jefferson Plan

The previous example, there were three representatives short. The Jefferson plan
attempts to overcome this difficulty by using a modified standard divisor.

This number is chosen, by trial and error, so that the sum of the standard quotas is
equal to the total number of representatives. The modified standard divisor must be less
than the standard divisor (800). This is in order to get a larger quotient and eventually get
a larger sum for the standard quotas.

Suppose we let the modified standard divisor be equal to 740.

Standard
State Population Quotient Quota

Apus 11,123 11,123/740 = 15.031 15

Libra 879 879/740 = 1.188 1

Draco 3,518 3,518/740 = 4.754 4

Cephus 1,563 1,563/740 = 2.112 2

Orion 2,917 2,917/740 = 3.942 3

Total 25

The table below shows of the Hamilton and Jefferson apportionment methods differ.
Note that each method assigns a different number of representatives of a certain state.

State Population Hamilton Plan Jefferson Plan

Apus 11,123 14 15

Libra 879 1 1

Draco 3,518 4 4

Cephus 1,563 2 2

Orion 2,917 4 3

Total 25 25

104
Exercises 6.1
Suppose the 18 members on the board of the Ruben County environmental
agency are selected according to the populations of the five cities in the county as
shown in the table below.

State Population

Cardiff 7,020

Solana 2,430

Vista 1,540

Pauma 3,720

Pacific 5,290
Total 20,000

Use the Hamilton and Jefferson method to determine the number of board
members each city should have.

Exercises 6.2
A total of 25 teacher aides are to be apportioned among seven classes at a
new elementary school. The enrollments in the seven classes are shown in the
following table.

Class Number of Students

Kindergarten 38

First Grade 39

Second grade 35

Third Grader 27

Fourth Grade 21

Fifth Grade 31

Sixth Grade 33
Total 224
Use the Hamilton and Jefferson method to determine the number of teacher aides
to be apportioned to each class.

105
 6.2 Introduction to Voting

. Voting is a sacred right and power that citizens in a democratic country

exercise to select their leaders. But it is sometimes hard to understand why the best
candidates do not always win in elections. In 1992, former president Fidel Ramos
won the presidential election not because he was popular but because he gained the
most number of votes in a election based on plurality. In plurality voting, it is possible
to elect someone who has less than the majority support.(Baltazar, et. al. 2018)

a. The Plurality Method of Voting

1. Each voter votes for one candidate and the candidate with the most votes win.
2. The winning candidate does not need to have a majority votes. Majority votes
means over 50% of the people voting must vote for the candidate.
3. In case of a tie, a special runoff election may be held. If votes are ranked, the
candidate with the greatest number of first-place votes is the winner.
[Link] choices are not considered in this method; hence its extent is
somewhat limited.

Plurality with Elimination Method (Without Rank)

1. Each person votes for a candidate.

2. If a candidate receives a majority of votes, that candidate declares the winner.
3. If no candidate receives a majority of votes, then the candidate with the
fewest votes is eliminated and a new election is held.
4. This process continues until a candidate receives a majority of votes.

Plurality with Elimination Method (With Rank)

1. First, eliminate the candidate with the fewest number of first-place votes.
2. If two or more of these alternatives have the same number of first-place votes, all
are eliminated unless that would eliminate all alternatives. In that case, a
different method of voting must be used.
3. Adjust the voters’ ranking of the remaining candidates.
4. Repeat the same process of elimination and adjustment until only two candidates
are left.
5. The candidate with the majority of votes wins the election.

Example:
Suppose that 30 members of a regional planning board must decide where to build a
new airport. The airport consultants to the regional board have recommended four
different sites. The preference schedule for the board members is shown in the following
table.

106
 Rankings

Apple Valley 3 1 2 3

Bremerton 2 3 3 1

Cochella 1 2 4 2

Del Mar 4 4 1 4

No. of Ballots 12 11 5 2

Apple Valley = 1 x 11 = 11 points

Bremerton = 1 x 2 = 2 points
Cochella = 1 x 12 = 12 points
Del Mar = 1 x 5 = 5 points

The board members first eliminate the site with the fewest number
first-place votes. If two or more of these alternatives have the same number of
first-place votes, all are eliminated. From the table, Bremerton is eliminated
because it received only two first-place votes. The new preference schedule is

Rankings

Apple Valley 2 1 2 2

Cochella 1 2 3 1

Del Mar 3 3 1 3

No. of Ballots 12 11 5 2

The board members now repeat the process and eliminate the site with
the fewest first-place votes. In this case it is Del Mar.

Rankings

Apple Valley 2 1 1 2

Cochella 1 2 2 1

No. of Ballots 12 11 5 2

107
 From this table, Apple Valley has 16 first-place votes and Cochella has
4 first-place votes. Therefore, Apple Valley is the selected site for new airport.

Exercises 6.3
Use the Plurality by Elimination Method for the following table. A university
wants to add a new sport to its existing program. To help ensure that the new
sport will have the student support, the students of the university are asked to rank
the four sports under consideration.

Rankings (1st Round)

Lacrosse 3 2 3 1 1 2

Squash 2 1 4 2 3 1

Rowing 4 3 2 4 4 4

Golf 1 4 1 3 2 3

No. of Ballots 326 297 287 250 214 197

Rankings (2nd Round)

Lacrosse 3 2 2 1 1 2

Squash 2 1 3 2 3 1

Golf 1 3 1 3 2 3

No. of Ballots 326 297 287 250 214 197

Rankings (3rd Round)

Squash 2 1 2 1 2 1

Golf 1 2 1 2 1 2

No. of Ballots 326 297 287 250 214 197

108
b. Borda Count Method of Voting

The issue of whether plurality voting methods are fair has been around for
more than 200 years. Jean C. Borda (1733-1799) was a member of the French
Academy of Sciences when he first started thinking about the way in which the
people were elected to the Academy. He was concerned that the plurality method of
voting might not result in the best candidate being elected. The Borda count method was
born out of these concerns. It was the first attempt to mathematically quantify voting
system.

1. If there are n candidates or issues in an election, each voter ranks the candidate
or issues by giving n points to the voter’s first choice, n – 1 points to the voter’s
second choice, and so on, with the voter’s least choice receiving 1 point.
2. The candidate or issue that receives the greatest total points is the winner.

Example:
1. The members of the club are going to elect a president from four nominees. If
the 100 members of the club mark their ballots as shown in the table below, who
will be elected president?

Rankings

Avalon 2 2 2 2 3 2

Branson 1 4 4 3 2 1

Columbus 3 3 1 4 1 4

Dunkirk 4 1 3 1 4 3

Total 30 24 18 12 10 6

Each first-place vote receives 4 points, each second-place vote receives 3 points,
each third-place vote receives 2 points, and each last-place vote receives 1 point.

Avalon Branson
First-place 0 x 4 =0 First-place 36 x 4 = 144
Second-place 90 x 3 = 270 Second-place 10 x 3 = 30
Third-place 10 x 2 = 20 Third-place 12 x 2 = 24
Fourth-place 0x1=0 Fourth-place 42 x 1 = 42
Total = 290 Total = 240

109
 Columbus Dunkirk
First-place 28 x 4 =112 First-place 36 x 4 = 144
Second-place 0x3 = 0 Second-place 0x3= 0
Third-place 54 x 2 =108 Third-place 24 x 2 = 48
Fourth-place 18 x 1=18 Fourth-place 40 x 1 = 40
Total = 238 Total = 232

Avalon has the largest total score. Therefore, Avalon is elected president.

Exercises 6.4
Solve for the following table using the Borda Count Voting Method. There are
50 people who were asked to rank their preferences of five varieties of chocolate
candy.

Rankings

Caramel Center 5 4 4 4 2 4

Vanilla Center 1 5 5 5 5 5

Almond Center 2 3 2 1 3 3

Toffee Center 4 1 1 3 4 2

Solid Chocolate 3 2 3 2 1 1

No. of Voters 17 11 9 8 3 2

110
Chapter 7 – The Mathematics of Graphs

In this chapter, you will learn how to analyze and solve a variety of
problems such as how to find the least expensive route of travel on a vacation,
how to determine the most efficient order in which to run errands, and how to
schedule meetings at a conference so that no one has to required meetings at the
same time.

Think of all the various connections we experience in our lives, friends

are connected on Facebook, cities are connected by roads, computers are
connected across the Internet. A graph of mathematics called graphs theory
illustrates and analyzes connections such as these.

Scope of the Module:

This module consists of three lessons, as follows:
1. Constructing Graph
2. Euler Circuit
3. Weighted Graphs

Objectives of the Module:

After going through the module, the students are expected to;
1. Define graph.
2. Solve problems using graph.

Graph – a graph is a set of points called the vertices and line segments or
curves called edges that connect vertices.

The figure represents the flights available on a particular airline

between a selection of cities; each vertex represents a city, and an edge
connection two cities means that there is a direct flight between the two
cities.

111
 San Francisco New York
● Chicago ●
●

● ●
Los Angeles ● Atlanta
Dallas

7.1 Constructing a Graph

The following table lists five students at a college. An “ X” indicates that the
two students participate in the same study group this semester.

Matt Amber Oscar Laura Kayla

Matt X X

Amber X X X

Oscar X X

Laura X X

Kayla X

a. Draw a graph that represents this information where each vertex represents a
student and an edge connects two vertices if the corresponding students study
together.

b. Use your graph to answer the following questions: Which student is involved in the
most study groups with the others? Which students has only one study group in
common with the others? How many study groups does Laura have in common
with the others?

112
 Amber
●
Matt Oscar
● ●

● ●
Kayla Laura

The vertex corresponding to Amber is connected to more edges than the others, so
she is involved with more study groups (three) than the others. Kayla is the only
student with one study group in common, as her vertex is the only one connected
to just one edge. Laura’s vertex is connected to two edges, so she shares two study
groups with the others.

Exercises 7.1
The table below lists five mobile phone companies and indicates whether they
have agreements to roam into each other’s networks. Draw a graph that represents
this information, where each vertex represents a phone company and an edge connects
two vertices if the corresponding companies have a roaming agreements. Then use the
graph to answer the questions: Which company can roam with only one other network?

Samsung Nokia Oppo Iphone Vivo

Samsung No Yes No Yes

Nokia No Yes No No

Oppo Yes Yes Yes No

Iphone No No Yes Yes

Vivo Yes No No Yes

7.2 Euler Circuit

Leonhard Euler (1707 – 1783) was one of the most prolific Mathematician of all
time. He wrote hundreds of papers in almost every area of mathematics.

113
 A path in a graph can be thought of as a movement from one vertex to another
by traversing edges. If a path ends at the same vertex at which it started, it is
considered a close path, or circuit. The path A – D – F – G – E – B – A is a circuit
because it begins and ends at the same vertex. The path A- D – F – G – E – H is not
a circuit, as it does not begin and end at the same vertex.

A B C
● ● ●

D ● ● E

● ● ●
F G H

A circuit that uses every edge, but never uses the same edge twice, is
called an Euler Circuit. (The path may cross through vertices more than once)
The path B – D – F – G – H – E – C – B – A – D – G – E – B is an Euler Circuit.
It begins and ends at the same vertex and uses each edge exactly once. The path
A – B – C – E – H – G – E – B – D – A is not an Euler Circuit. The path begins and
ends at the same vertex but it does not use edges DF, DG, or FG. The path A – B –
C – E – H – G – F – D – A – B – E – G – D – A begins and ends at A but uses
edges AB and AD twice so it is not an Euler Circuit.

Euler Circuit

A Euler circuit is a path that may cross through vertices more than
once and return to the starting vertex.

Eulerian Graph Theorem

A connected graph is Eulerian if and only if every vertex (point) of the

graph is of even degree.

114
Example:
A B C
● ● ●

D ● ● E

● ● ●
F G H

A=2 E=4
B=4 F=2
C=2 G=4
D=4 H=2

Which of the following is an Euler Graph?

a.

● ●

● ●

b. ●

● ●

● ●

c. ● ● ● ●

● ● ●

115
 d. ●
● ●

●
● ●

Exercises 7.2
1. Determine the given graph if it is an Eulerian Graph.

● ●

● ●

● ●

2. An “ X” in the table below indicates a direct train route between the

corresponding cities. Draw a graph that represents this information, in
which each vertex represents a city and an edge connects two vertices if
there is a train route between the corresponding cities.

Springfield Riverside Greenfield Watertow Midland Newhope

n

Springfield X X

Riverside X X X

Greenfield X X X X

Watertown X X

Midland X X X X

Newhope X X X

116
 3. Draw the diagram below without lifting your pen from the paper and without
tracing over the same segment twice.

● ●

Start ● ●

7.3 Weighted Graphs

A weighted graph is a graph in which each edge is associated with a value,

called a weight. The value can represent any quantity we desire. In the case
of distances between cities, we can label each edge with the number of miles
between the corresponding cities.

Hamiltonian Circuit

A Hamiltonian circuit is a path that uses each vertex of a graph exactly

once. A graph that contains a Hamiltonian circuit is called Hamiltonian.

A large law firm has offices in seven major cities. The firm has overnight document
deliveries scheduled every day between certain offices. In the graph below, an edge
between vertices indicates that there is a delivery service between the corresponding
offices. By using the law firm’s existing delivery service, it is impossible to route a
document to all the offices and return the document to its originating office without
sending it through the same office twice?

San Francisco New York

● ●

Los
Angeles ● ● Dallas ●Boston

● ●

117
 Phoenix Atlanta

Example:

The table below lists the distances in miles between six popular cities that a
particular airline flies to. Suppose a traveler would like to start in Chicago,
visit the other five cities this airline flies to, and return to Chicago. Find three
different routes that the traveler could follow, and find the total distance flown for
each route.

Chicago New Washington, Philadelphia Atlanta Dallas

York D.C.

Chicago 713 597 665 585 803

No No
New York 713 Flights Flights 748 1,374
Washington No No
, 597 Flights Flights 544 1,185
D.C.
No No
Philadelphia 665 Flights Flights 670 1,299
No
Atlanta 585 748 544 670 Flights
No
Dallas 803 1,374 1,185 1,299 Flights

New York
●
713
Chicago ● 597 ●Washington, D.C.
748
803 544
1374 1185
665
Dallas ● 1299 ●Philadelphia
585 670
●
Atlanta

a. A route that visits each city just once corresponds to a Hamilton circuit.
Beginning at Chicago, one such circuit is Chicago – New York – Dallas –
Philadelphia – Atlanta – Washington, D.C. – Chicago. By adding the weights
of each edge in the circuit, we see that the total number of miles traveled is
713 + 1,374 + 1,299 + 670 + 544 + 597 = 5,197

b. A second route is Chicago – Philadelphia – Dallas – Washington, D.C. –

118
 Atlanta – New York – Chicago.
665 + 1,299 + 1,185 + 544 + 748 + 713 = 5,154

c. Third route is Chicago – Washington, D.C. – Dallas – New York – Atlanta –

Philadelphia – Chicago.
597 + 1,185 + 1,374 + 748 + 670 + 665 = 5,239

Exercises 7.3

1. The table below lists down the distances in miles between the cities having
direct routes as well as the corresponding distances between them.

Cagayan
Manila Cebu De Oro Davao Palawan Ozamis

Manila 355 485 589 358 477

Cebu 355 137 240 354 148

Cagayan
De Oro 485 137 118 414 64

Davao 589 240 118 495 133

Palawan 358 354 414 495 363

Ozamis 477 148 64 133 363

a. Draw a graph that represents this information where each vertex represents a city
and an edge connects two vertices if the two cities have a direct flight
corresponding weights. (Clue, Hexagon)

b. Find two different routes that visit each of the places and return to its starting
point without visiting any city twice. Compare the total number of miles travelled
by each of these routes. (Clue, Ozamis)

119
2. The cost of flying between various European cities is shown in the following table.
Find the low-cost route that visits each city just once and starts and ends in
London. Which route is more economical?

Cagayan
Manila Cebu De Oro Davao Palawan Ozamis

Manila 355 485 589 358 477

Cebu 355 137 240 354 148

Cagayan
De Oro 485 137 118 414 64

Davao 589 240 118 495 133

Palawan 358 354 414 495 363

Ozamis 477 148 64 133 363

120
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