Lab Manual

Principle of Measurement Science

Instrumentation and Control Department

Shantilal Shah Engineering College

Bhavnagar

Instrumentation and Control Department Principle of Measurement Science

List of Practical

[Link] Experiments

1 To study static and Dynamic Characteristics of Measurement system

2 To study and Perform the characteristics of Resistive Temperature detector
(RTD)
3 To study and perform the characteristics of thermocouple for measurement of
temperature
4 To study the Orifice and Venturi tube for measurement of flow using DP
transmitter and manometer
5 To study the Electromagnetic flowmeter, ultrasonic and rotameter for
measurement of flow
6 To study the capacitive type level sensor for measurement of level
7 To study piezo type pressure transducer for measurement of pressure
8 To study strain gauge Pressure Transducer for measurement of load using load
cell
9 To Study the Measurement of Linear Displacement Using Resistive transducer
10 To study semiconductor AD 590 for measurement of temperature

Instrumentation and Control Department Principle of Measurement Science

PRACTICAL: 1
AIM: To study Static& Dynamic characteristics of measurement system:

The performance characteristics of an instrument are mainly divided into two categories:

1) Static characteristics

2) Dynamic characteristics

Static characteristics:

The set of criteria define for the instrument, which are used to measure the quantity which are
slowly varying with time or mostly constant, i.e., do not vary with time is called “static
characteristics”

The various static characteristics are:

i. Accuracy
ii. Precision
iii. Sensitivity
iv. Linearity
v. Reproducibility
vi. Repeatability
vii. Resolution
viii. Threshold
ix. Drift
x. Stability
xi. Tolerance
xii. Range or span

Accuracy:

It is the degree of closeness with which the reading approaches the true value of the quantity
to be measured. The accuracy can be expressed in following ways:

a. Point accuracy:
Such accuracy is specified at only one particular point of scale.
It does not give any information about the accuracy at any other point on the scale.

b. accuracy as percentage of scale span:

When an instrument as uniform scale, its accuracy may be expressed in terms of

scale range.

Instrumentation and Control Department Principle of Measurement Science

Accuracy as percentage of true value:

The best way to conceive the idea of accuracy is to specify it in Terms of the true
value of the quantity being measured. Precision: it is the measure of reproducibility i.e., given
a fixed value of quantity, precision is a measure of the degree of agreement within a group of
measurements. The precision is composed of two characteristics:

a) Conformity:

Consider a resistor having true value as 2385692, which is being measured by

ohmmeter. But the reader can read consistently, a value as 2.4M due to non-availability of
proper scale. The error created due to lamination of the scale reading is a precision error.

b) Number of significant figure:

The precision of the measurement is obtain from the number of significant figures in
which the reading is expressed. The significant figures convey the actual information about
the magnitude and the measurement precision of the quantity. The precision can be
mathematically expressed as:

P= Xn-Xn

Xn

Where P= precision

Xn= value of nth measurement

Xn= average value the set of measurement

Sensitivity:

The sensitivity denotes the smallest change in the measured variable to which instrument
responds. It is define as the ratio of the changes in the output of an instrument to a change in
the value of the quantity to be measured mathematically. It is expressed as,

Δq0

Δq0

Δqt Δq1

Instrumentation and Control Department Principle of Measurement Science

 Sensitivity= infinite signal change in output

Infinite signal change in input

Δq0

Δqt

Thus, if the calibration curve is linear, as shown, the sensitivity of the instrument is the slope
of the calibration curve is not linear as shown, then the sensitivity varies with the input.
Inverse sensitivity or deflection factor is defined as the reciprocal of sensitivity. Inverse
sensitivity or deflection factor = 1/sensitivity.

Reproducibility:

In the degree of closeness with which a given value may be repeatedly measured. It is
specifies in terms of scale reading over a given period time.

Repeatability:

It is defined as the variation of scale reading & random in nature drift:

Drift may be classified into three categories:

a) Zero drift:

If the whole calibration gradually shifts due to slippage, permanent set, or due to under
warming up of electronic tube circuits, zero drift sets in.

Δqi

Δqo

Linearity:

The linearity is defined as the ability to reproduce the input characteristics symmetrically &
linearly. The curve shows the actual calibration curve and idealize straight line.

Idealized straight line

Output

Actual curve Maximum deviation

Input

Instrumentation and Control Department Principle of Measurement Science

% non-linearity= max. Deviation of output from idealized straight line

Full scale reading

Output Characteristics with zero drift

Output

Span drift

Nominal characteristics Nominal characteristics

Input Input

Fig. span drift Fig. zero drift

b) Span drift sensitivity drift:

If there is proportional change in the indication all along the upward scale, the drift is called
span drift or sensitivity drift.

c) Zonal drift:

In case the drift occurs only a portion of span of an instrument, it is called zonal drift.

Resolution:

If the input is slowly increased from some arbitrary input value, it will again be found that
output does not change at all until increment is exceeded. This increment is called resolution.

Threshold:

If the input is increased vary gradually from zero there will be some min. value below which
no output change can be detected. This min. value defines the threshold of the instrument.

Instrumentation and Control Department Principle of Measurement Science

Stability:

It is the ability of an instrument to retain its performance throughout is specified operating

life.

Tolerance:

The max. Allowable error in the measurement is specified in terms of some value which is
called tolerance.

Range or span:

The minimum and maximum value of quantity for which an instrument is designed to
measure is called its range or span

Dynamic characteristics:

The set of criteria defined for the instruments, which are changes rapidly with time, is called
dynamic characteristics.

The various dynamic characteristics are:

i. Speed of response
ii. Measuring lag
iii. Fidelity
iv. Dynamic error

Speed of response:

It is defined as the rapidly with which a measurement system responds to changes in the
measurement quantity.

Measuring lag:

It is the retardation or delay in the response of a measurement system to changes in the

measured quantity. The measuring lags are of two types:

a) Retardation type:

In this case the response of the measurement system begins immediately after the change in
measured quantity has occurred.

b) Time delay lag:

In this case the response of the measurement system begins after a dead time after the
application of input.

c) Fidelity:

It is defined as the degree to which a measurement system indicates change in the measured
quantity without dynamic error.

Instrumentation and Control Department Principle of Measurement Science

Dynamic error:

It is the difference between the true value of the quantity change in with time and the value
indicated by the measurement system if no static error is assume it is also called measurement
error.

CONCLUSION:

Instrumentation and Control Department Principle of Measurement Science

PRACTICAL: 2
AIM: To study and Perform the characteristics of Resistive Temperature detector (RTD)

APPARATUS: 1. Trainer kit.

2. Thermometer.

3. DMM.

PROCEDURE:

1. Keep the trainer kit in OFF condition (no interconnections are to be made on the
trainer kit.)
2. Place the thermometer in its designated place in the ‘RTD with heater’ module.
3. Connect the DMM across the terminal marked RTD besides the ‘RTD with heater’
(TP11 & TP12), with multi-meter set in 2k resistance range.
4. Note the ambient (room) temperature (of the heater block) as indicated by the
thermometer and correspondingly note the resistance of the RTD on DMM. Note the
reading in the observation table.
5. Connect the trainer kit to the 230V AC mains supply and switch on the unit. See the
supply indicator glows.
6. Now as the heater is on the temperature will rise. Note the rise of temperature on
thermometer and corresponding resistance of RTD in the observation table.
7. Plot a graph of resistance of RTD v/s temperature.

INTRODUCTION

All electrical conductors possess resistance and in every case the resistance is to some
degree dependent upon temperature in cases resistance increases with transformer
temperature rise and the change in usually undesirable effect to be made as small as
possible. There are two types of sensors namely

1. Thermistor which has a negative temperature coefficient and

2. RTD which as a positive temperature coefficient.

The percentage change of resistance for 1℃ rise is usually much smaller than it is
for negative coefficient devices like the thermister. Typically a pure metal could
have a positive coefficient of about 0.4% whereas the min. coefficient for a typical

Instrumentation and Control Department Principle of Measurement Science

 thermister at 100℃ could be about 2.5% /℃. Thus thermometer based on a pure
metal will be much less sensitive.

For certain material especially, the relationship between resistively and

temperature is very accurately predictable and can be relied upon stay constant
from one sample to another and over very long period of time.

The metal platinum is especially useful as it is resistance to corrosion and general

deterioration and has resistance temperature relationship which is nearly linear
over a small range of temperature and accurately parabolic over the range of
positive temperature from 0℃ to 630℃.

The alpha of platinum RTD is listed as 0.00385. If platinum RTD of 100 were
removed from an environment of 0℃ and placed into a new environment of
100℃, its resistance would increase from show to 138.5 ohm. (The 100 ohm of
resistance at 0℃ ) is multiplied by alpha (0.00385) and this product multiplied by
the 100℃ difference between the old environment and the new environment, and
than added to the 100 ohm resistance at old environment, which equal 138.5ohm.

(100ohms X 0.00385 x 100ohms = 138.5ohms)

As the platinum thermometer is an intrinsically accurate transducer it follow that

to obtain the best result from it domains. That careful attention is paid to the
elimination of all possible sources of error. This includes:

a. The resistance of the probe leads up to the platinum element and possible
variation of this resistance with temperature.
b. Thermocouple emf’s caused by dissimilar metal junctions at unequal
temperature in the probe circuit.
c. Error in determining R100 and R0 example due to change in boiling point
with water impurities with atmospheric pressure.

Platinum thermometers have the considerable advantages of near linearity

of response over the usual ranges of interest, good repeatability of
indication and stability. They are however, repeatability insensitive and
also expensive so, they are used only where is not greatest important as for
example, in certain chemical processes where temperature of reagents
must be controlled to accuracies of better than +1℃.

The resistance change in RTD’s caused by temperature is very linear.

These characteristics allow the RTD to be used, with appropriate electrical
circuitry, to measure the temperature.

RTD’s may be used controlled the action of certain types of DC amplifier

when increased sensitivity and greater outputs are required. The most
common form of electrical circuitry used in conjunction with RTD is four

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 – arm sensitive bridge. The most sensitive electrical arrangement is
realized when the four – arm bridge is used to controlled the output of a
DC amplifier.

CIRCUIT DISCRIPTION:

RTD are generally used in conjunction with other electrical components

and circuitry for most application. The most popular configuration using
RTD is the whetstone bridge circuit. Here the RTD is used in one arm of
the bridge circuit to measure temperature. The excitation of 5V DC is
applied to the bridge circuit. Which change in temperature, the resistance
of the RTD changes causing a unbalance in the bridge circuit. This
imbalance is amplified by amplifier A3. The amplifier A3 produces an
output voltage of 1mV/℃ which can be directly read by the D.P.M the
amplifiers A1 and A2 are buffers.

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 RTD 120

Resistance(Ω) 115

110

105

27 30 35 40 45 50 Temperature (℃)

Characteristics of RTD

CONCLUSION:

Instrumentation and Control Department Principle of Measurement Science

PRACTICAL: 3
AIM: To study and perform characteristics of thermocouple to measure temperature.

APPARATUS:

 Trainer kit.
 Digital multi meter.
 Patch cord.
 Glass thermometer

INTRODUCTION:

 The working principle of a thermocouple is dependent on the thermo-electric effect. If

to dissimilar metals are joined together so, as to form 2 close circuit, there will be two
junctions where they meet each other. If one of the junction is heated, than, a current
flows in the circuit which can be detected by a galvanometer. The amount of current
produce depends in the difference in the temperature between the two junctions and
on the characteristics of the two metals.
 Instrument which record variations in the current flow are calibrated in terms of
temperature and are known as thermocouple pyrometer. The wires are joined at the
ends at which forms two junction, a measuring junction and a reference junction.
Heating the measuring junction produces a voltage greater than the voltage across the
reference junction. The difference between two voltages is measured and voltmeter
reading is converted to its corresponding temperature. There are various types of
thermocouples which are used in industries viz. copper constantan, iron constantan,
chromel alumel, platinum rhodium and chromel constantan.
 To protect thermocouples from harmful the atmosphere, corrosive fluids, mechanical
damage; ton support the thermocouple or to permit entry into pressurized system,
protecting tube or wells are supplied. The thermocouple can used to measure
difference between two temperatures. Based on possible composition of metal, there
are large no. of thermocouples available

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect thermocouple (+) to R3 input, REF. to R4 input. Also connect output 2

digital panel meter (DPM) input, as shown in figure 3. Keep P2 in center position.
2. Keep heater unit in OFF state. [The heater unit consists of the process block with
thermocouple sensor & slot for glass thermometer].
3. Also keep the glass thermometer in its designated slot in the heater unit.
4. Switch on the trainer & see that supply indicator glows.
5. Observe the temperature on glass thermometer [as ambient (room) temperature] &
record the same in the table.
6. Observe the output to reading of the DPM and with the help of pot P2 adjust the DPM
reading to read ambient (room) temperature in℃, & record the same in the table.

Instrumentation and Control Department Principle of Measurement Science

 7. Switch on the heater, the temperature will rise. Observe & record the rise of
temperature on thermometer (for every degree) and corresponding output 2 reading
(now calibrated to read℃) on the DPM. Record same in the observation table.
8. Note the meter readings for different temperature and compare the readings.
9. Switch OFF the heater and the trainer.

CONCLUSION:

Instrumentation and Control Department Principle of Measurement Science

PRACTICAL: 4
AIM: To study measurement of flow using a) orifice b) venture

APPARATUS:

a) Orifice – 25mm. integral type input : 0-2000 LPH

Output: 0-1000mm wc line size 25 NB conductivity: ½” BSP (female)

b) Venture – 25mm. conical type input : 0-2000LPH

c) Output : 0-1000mm wc line size : 25NB
d) Connectivity: 1/2” BSP(female)

THEORY:

ORIFICE METER

The orifice meter is the common type of head flow measuring device for medium and large-
pipe sizes. The orifice plate inserted in a pipe line causes an increase in the flow velocity and
a corresponding decrease in the pressure. The flow pattern shows an effective decrease in the
cross-section of flow beyond the orifice plate with the maximum velocity and minimum
pressure. The particular position where the velocity is maximum and static pressure is
minimum is known as VENA-CONTRACTA.

The orifice plate inserted in the line is basically a thin plate of metal with circular opening.
The orifice configurations may be concentric, eccentric or segmented. The concentric orifice
plate consists of a central hole in a metal plate concentric with the circumference of the plate.
The effect of the orifice plate on the flow pattern in a pipe is shown in figure. Suppose that
the manometer tubes are inserted along the pipe wall at the positions shown in the figure,
then the liquid in these tubes will rise until the pressure due to column of liquid in each tube
is equal to the static pressure at that position.

Observing the different pressure values, the pattern of pressure changes can be traced along
the pipe length, as shown in figure. It may be noted that the points 5 and 6 the pressure is
lower than the upstream pressure, due to the increase in the velocity of the fluid passing
through the smaller area. The stream or jet cross-section decreases in and the velocity is
maximum. This is many due to liquid being directed inward as it approaches the orifice and
also due to inertia effects persisting in the direction for a distance after it leaves the orifice.

The distance from the orifice to these position various with the ratio of the orifice diameter to
pipe diameter, but an average value would be half the pipe diameter. From the vena –
contracta,the stream section expands until it reaches the pipe diameter at the position 11
where it recovers to its upstream value. This would appear to be caused by

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Dissipation of energy involving a pressure loss. For a typical value of 0.6 for the orifice to the
pipe diameter ratio, the percentage loss works out at 65% of the differential pressure. Where
such a pressure loss is a critical consideration. This point should be borne in mind.

The pressure trappings for flow rate measurement can be taken out by a variety of methods.
For pipe sizes of 0.05m or greater in diameter, the usual practice is to locate toppings at
distances D and D/2 in the upstream and downstream respectively, where D is the diameter of
the pipe.

Another type of tapping is the so called corner tapping, where holes are cut obliquely through
the flanges or the pipe base bringing the inside opening of the holes adjacent to our orifice.

The materials used for orifice plates are limited steel, stainless steel, and phosphor.

Less stainless steel is used for water metering, gun metal or mild steel for air metering, and
stain less steel for steam, swage, fuel oils, coal gas, and corrosive gasses.

The main advantages of an orifice meter are its simple construction and high reliability. The
limitations are its poor accuracy, calibration which changes appreciably with wear, high
pressure loss, and possible maintenance problems with blocked tapping.

Since the pressure loss, and possible maintenance problems with blocked tapping. Since the
pressure losses are high, the device is not recommended for high velocities.

VENTURI TUBE:

In application where pressure loss is not acceptable, it is preferable to use and element
possessing a gradual stream area change, such as venture tube. The basic design of venture
tube comprises three section, the converging conical section at the upstream, cylindrical
throat, and the diverging recovery outlet cone at the downstream. Figures illustrate a standard
configuration of a venture tube. The inlet cone tappers down from the pipe area to the throat
section of smaller area tom produce the necessary increase in velocity and decreasing
pressure. The cylindrical throat provides a point of measurement of this decrease in pressure
where the flow rate is steady the diverging outlet cone expands from the throat of the pipe
area resulting in pressure recovery. Pressure measurements are carries out at the upstream

Instrumentation and Control Department Principle of Measurement Science

entrance to the cone and at the throat. Tapping tags the shape of annular chambers, and the
inside surfaces and smoothly machined with holes drilled around the circumference and at
regular intervals this enable the pressure to be averaged before transmission to the measuring
instruments. The construction of the outlet cone is important. The pressure loss due to the
turbulent eddies caused by the increasing diameter and due to friction between the fluid and
the wall of the cone, affects the measurement. The pressure loss due to turbulent eddies can
be reduced by gradual expansion, while the frictional loss can be reduced by using a sharper
cone. The result is a compromise between the two requirements. In practice, to conical angels
of 5-70 and 14-150 with pressure losses of 11-18% respectively are used, which is much
lower than that of the orifice plate, the discharge coefficient of standard type of venture tube
is about 0.99 and, this remains substantially constant for all values of throat- pipe diameter
ratios between 0.5 and 0.75 (m= 0.05 to 0.55). In practice, the approach to the throat is given
curve profile by means of lining, to maintain constant discharge coefficient.

CONSTRUCTION FEATURES:-

The construction of the venture tube is often dictated by its application. For normal uses,
sections are made out of gun matter, stainless steel, and cast iron. The use of gun metal and
stainless steel reduces the risk of corrosion. One advantage of venture tube is that the section
need not be circular-square or rectangular shapes have also been used formally for many
application.

PROCEDURE:-

Flow measurement,

1. Using orifice
2. Using venture

1) Keep the bypass valve approx. 25% open.

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 2) Keep the hand valve in series with venturi and nozzle fully closed.
3) Close the valve S11, S12, S31, S32, of manifold.
4) Connect DPT output to the input of square root extractor through digital
millimeter (|1) and digital manometer as shown in diagram. Coonect output of
square root extractor to the input flow indicator through digital millimeter (|2) as
shown in diagram.
5) Make power on to motor pump. Perform the procedure for equalizing the DP.
6) Vary the flow rate say 300lph to 2000lph in proper steps as observed on rotameter
and for every flow rate take corresponding reading. Digital millimeter meter |1
meter|2.

CONCLUSION:-

Instrumentation and Control Department Principle of Measurement Science

PRACTICAL: 5
AIM: -To study about measurement of flow using rotameter, magnetic flow meter, ultra-
sonic flow meter.

Theory: - the objective of this experiment is to familiarize the student with several types of
flow measuring devices commonly used in the laboratory and in industry while performing
calibration procedure the experiment is designed to study uniform water flow over a range of
flow rates. The system consists of a pipe of several meters plumed in series. There is an inlet
water valve. An air pipe operated water flow control valve, a magnetic inductive flow meter,
a turbine flow meter, Rota meter, an ultrasonic flow meter, an orifice meter and a venture
meter. The experimental setup is shown in [Link] water that exists this pipe will be
collected for known time intervals to obtain the standard flowrate against which other devices
will be calibrated. A dye injection system is included

Magnetic-inductive flow meter

Figure 2 shows the schematic structure of a magnetic flow meter. This meter operates on the
bases of the fact that when a conductive fluid (water in this case flows through a magnetic
field, a voltage is induced in the fluid. The induced voltage is promotional to the magnetic
field strength, the fluid conductivity and the velocity of the fluid (and thus the volumetric
flowrate ǫ) for process in which the working fluid’s conductivity is not change and the
instrument’s configuration is held constant, the voltage is promotional to fluid velocity only.
In this experiment, the magnetic meter measures the voltage and converts the output to pulse
rate (pulses per second or Hertz). The pulse rate is displayed on the pulse counter in units of
kHz. Magnetic flow meters are generally expensive but higher accurate. They do not require
a flow restriction. They are useful for only conducting fluids. The value of Aw various with
the position of the float due to the taper in the tube. The meter can calibrate, and typically a
scale is shown that directly gives the flowrate. Rotameter are usually not very expensive and
there accuracy depends largely on quality of construction.

ULTRASONIC FLOWMETER: -

Ultrasonic flowmeter is ill-used in figure 6. This flow meter measures the flow based on the
difference in the time it takes for an ultrasonic wave to travel upstream as opposed to
downstream. If td is the downstream transit time from A to B, and to is the upstream transit
time from B to A, then

Instrumentation and Control Department Principle of Measurement Science

 𝐿
Td = _______________ (9)
𝑐+𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

𝐿
Tu = _______________ (10)
𝑐−𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

Where L is the path length, x is the axial spacing between the transducer, C is the speed of
sound in the liquid, V is the average linear velocity of the flow, and 𝜃 is the angle between
flow direction and sound transit direction. Note that cos𝜃= X/L. solving equations (9) and
(10) gives the flow velocity:

𝐿2 ∆𝑡
v=2𝑋𝑡 _______________ (11)
𝑢 𝑡𝑑

Where t= tu-td. Because V is the average velocity, some small error may be incurred
in the laminar flow regime due to the parabolic velocity profile.

A magnetic field B is generated by field coils. D is the pipe diameter. When a

conductive fluid travels with a velocity V through the magnetic field, a voltage U is induced:
U=K (VxB). D, where K is an instrument constant.

TURBINE METER: -

A diagram of a turbine meter to shown in figure 3. A turbine-type vanned rotor is placed in

the path of the fluid flow. The rotational motion of the rotor is proportional to the rate of flow
and is sense by a reluctance-type pickup coil. A permanent magnet is encased in one or all of
the rotor vanes. Each time the vane passes the pole of the coil, the change in permeability of
the magnetic circuit produces a voltage pulse at the output terminal. The pulse rate is counted
by a frequency meter or any other suitable type of counter. The count rate is calibrated

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against the flow rate and is usually linear over a range of flow rate. For flow rates from 0-
150cc/sec the manufacturer has provided following calibration imperial relationship between
the volumetric flow rate through the meter and the output frequency:

Q=𝑆ℎ *f

in this equation Q is the volumetric flow rate in cc/sec, 𝑆ℎ is the universal shush constant,
~107cm3/kHz sec, and f is the output frequency in Hz. Turbine meter are generally expensive
and they are accurate if the composition, temperature etc. of flowing liquid remain constant,
but they are subject to were and are only useful for particle-free fluids.

ROTAMETER:

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The rotameter offers the advantage of a wide range of flow rates that can be directly
measured. It is a variable-area meter with a float. Moving freely in a tapered tube. Figure 4
shows the structure of rotameter. For each flow rate, the float is lifted to some point at which
the upward and downward forces acting on it are in [Link] a fluid moves upward the
tube, the float acts as an obstruction and creates a pressure drop (also see orifice and venture
meter). This pressure drop and the buoyance of the float (which may be positive or negative)
produce an upward force on the float which is balanced by the gravitational force. The
pressure force is dependent on the flow rate and the annular area between the float and the
tube. As the float rises, the annular area increases, there by requiring a larger flow rate to
maintain the float position. The basic equation for thermometer can be developed in manner
similar to that for the orifice meter, as shown by equation (3):
2𝑔𝑉𝑓(𝜌𝑓−𝜌𝑤)
Q=Awc( )
𝐴𝑓𝜌𝑤

Where, Q= volumetric rate of flow f𝑡 2 /sec

Vf= volume of the float, f𝑡 3

𝜌𝑓, 𝜌𝑤 = density of the float and the fluid, 1bm/f𝑡 3

Af,Aw = area of the float and the annular orifice, f𝑡 2

C = discharge coefficient.

CONCLUSION:

Instrumentation and Control Department Principle of Measurement Science

PRACTICAL: 6
AIM:-To study about measurement of level using capacitance type level sensor.

MATERIAL REQUIRED: capacitive type transducer,

THEORY:-
The capacitance between two conductive surfaces varies with three major factors:
• The overlapping area (A) of those two surfaces
• The distance between them (d)
• The dielectric constant of the material in between the surfaces.

If two out of three of these variables can be fixed (stabilized) and the third allowed
to vary, then any measurement of capacitance between the surfaces will be solely indicative
of changes in that third variable. The value of capacitance is determined by:

(a) The area of the plates

(b) The distance between the plates
(c) The type of dielectric between the plates
Some transducers work by making one of the capacitor plate’s movable, either in such a way
as to vary the overlapping area or the distance between the plates. Other transducers work by
Moving a dielectric material in and out between two fixed plates:

Capacitive transducers can be classified as:

1. Variable capacitive transducer
2. Differential capacitive transducer

Variable capacitive transducer varies according to:

(a) Area of overlap,
(b) Distance between plates,
(c) Amount of dielectric between plates.

Transducers with greater sensitivity and immunity to changes in other variables can be
Obtained by way of differential design.

Differential capacitive transducer varies capacitance ratio by changing:

(a) Area of overlap
(b) Distance between plates
(c) Dielectric between plates.

The differential devices shown above have three wire connections rather than two: one wire
for each of the “end” plates and one for the “common” plate. As the capacitance between one
of the “end” plates and the “common” plate changes, the capacitance between the other “end”
plate and the “common” plate is such to change in the opposite direction. This kind of
transducer lends itself very well to implementation in a bridge circuit.

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Capacitance Level Gauge:-

A simple condenser / capacitor consist of two electrode plates separated by a small thickness
of an insulator (which can be solid, liquid, gas or vacuum) called the dielectric. The change in
liquid level causes a variation in the dielectric between the two plates, which in turn causes a
corresponding change in the value of the capacitance of the condenser. Therefore, such a
gauge is also termed a dielectric level gauge.

The magnitude of the capacitance depends on the nature of the dielectric, varies directly with
the area of the plate and inversely with the distance between them. The capacitance can be
changed by any of these factors.

In a parallel plate condenser which has identical plates each of area A (cm2) separated by a
distance d (cm) and an insulating medium with dielectric constant K (K = 1 for air) between
them, the expression for the capacitance is given by

From the above equation it is observed that the capacitance varies directly with the dielectric
constant which in turn varies directly with the liquid level between the plates. Figure 29.1
shows the schematic arrangement of a capacitance level gauge. The capacitance would be at
minimum when the tubes contain only air and at a maximum when the liquid fills the entire
space between the electrodes. The change in capacitance can be measured by a suitable
measuring unit such as a capacitive Wheatstone bridge by either manual null balancing or
automatic null balancing using the null detecting circuit with a servo-motor that indicates the
level reading.

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Fig. 29.1 Dielectric liquid level gauge

For the measurement of level in the case of non-conducting liquids, the bare probe
arrangement may be satisfactory since the liquid resistance is sufficiently high. For
conducting liquids, the probe plates are insulated using thin coating of glass or plastic.

The capacitance type level gauge is relatively inexpensive, versatile, and reliable and requires
minimal maintenance. These units have no moving parts, are easy to install and adaptable to
large and small vessels. Further, such devices have a good range of liquid level measurement,
viz. from a few cm to more than 100 m. In addition, apart from sensing the level of the
common liquids, these gases find wide use in other important applications such as
determining the level of powdered or granular solids, liquid metals (high temperatures),
liquefied gases (low temperatures), corrosive materials (like hydrofluoric acid) and in very
high pressure industrial processes.

CONCLUSION:-

Instrumentation and Control Department Principle of Measurement Science

PRACTICAL: 7
AIM: To measure the pressure on the pressure chamber using piezo type pressure transducer.

APPARATUS:

1. Main unit.
2. Pressure chamber with piezo electric type pressure transducer, pressure input valve
for air from pressure generator, pressure release valve.
3. Pressure generator.

THEORY:

When pressure is applied to a crystal, it is elastically deformed. This deformation

result in flow of electric charge (with lasts for a period of few seconds) the resulting
electric signal can be measured as an indication of the pressure which was applied to a
crystal. These sensor cannot detect static pressure, but are used to measure rapidly
changing pressure resulting from blasts, explosions, pressure pulsation (in rocket
motors, engines, compressor) or other source of shock or vibration. Some of this
rugged sensor can detect pressure event having “rise times” on the order of millionth
of a second.

When pressure, force or acceleration is applied to quartz crystal, a charge is

developed across the crystal that is promotional to force applied. The fundamental
difference between this crystal sensor and static force devices such as strain gauges is
that the electric signal generated by the crystal decays rapidly. This characteristic
makes these sensors unsuitable for the measurement of static forces or pressure but
useful for dynamic measurement. Piezo electric devices can further be classified
according to whether the crystals electrostatic charge, its sensitivity, or its resonant
frequency electrostatic charge is measured. Depending on which phenomenon is used,
the crystal sensor can be called electrostatic, piezo resistive, or resonant.

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the required supply and switch ON the unit. See that the supply indicator
glows.
2. Connect the piezo electric transducer output connector to the input jack provided on
the panel.
3. Connect the pressure generator to the pressure input valve for air.
4. Release all the air present in the pressure chamber by pressing the pressure release
valve.
5. Wait for few minutes to stabilize the system.
6. Adjust with zero adjustment potentiometer on the panel, such that meter reads
0.00kg/𝑐𝑚2 .

Instrumentation and Control Department Principle of Measurement Science

 7. Now Apply max. Pressure (say 1.20kg/𝑐𝑚2 ) from the pressure generator. Note the
reading, adjust with span adj. pot. To show the max. Pressure applied (say
1.20kg/𝑐𝑚2 ) on the display.
8. Release all the air present in the pressure chamber by pressing the pressure release
valve (as per point 4 above).
9. Repeat two to three times, the points 6, 7 & 8 as above for stable reading.
10. Now apply 0.20kg/ 𝑐𝑚2 pressure from the pressure generator and note down the
output reading from the display.
11. Repeat the above procedure for different input pressure. (The max. capacity of the
pressure generator is 1.2kg/𝑐𝑚2 approx.)

Note: the pressure release valve is to be used to decrease the pressure in the pressure
chamber.

CONCLUSION:

Instrumentation and Control Department Principle of Measurement Science

PRACTICAL: 8
Aim: - To Study the Operation of Measurement Load Using Strain Gauge with Load Cell

Apparatus: (1) Trainer kit

(2) Dead weight

(3) Digital multi-meter

Circuit Description:-

The circuit is made up of full bridge. i.e. all four arm of bridge are active
strain gauges. They are mounted in load cell on S beam, such that it can be used in both ways
i.e. elongation on compression. The bridge is exited using built in +5V DC supply.
The output of bridge is given to instrument amplifier using IC1, IC2 and IC3.
The output of instrument amplifier at zero load is compensated by zero
adjustment potentiometer provide on the panel.
The output of instrument amplifier is given to an amplifier IC4 whose gain is
calibrated using internal pot, such that output voltage reads directly in kilogram.

Fig: Strain Gauge with Load Cell

Instrumentation and Control Department Principle of Measurement Science

Procedure:-

1. Connect the required supply to the unit and switch on the unit. See that the supply
indicator glows.
2. Connect load cell connector to the input Jack provided on the panel.
3. Wait for few minute to stabilize the system.
4. Adjust with zero adjust potentiometer on the panel, such that meter read 0.00 Kg.
5. Now keep load of 2 Kg on the load cell and note that reading adjusts with span adjust
pot to show 1.99 Kg.
6. Remove load from load cell and adjust the reading with zero port such meter will
show 0.00Kg.
7. Repeat two or three times point 5 and 6.
8. Repeat above procedure with different load the maximum capacity of the strain
gauge with load cell trainer is 2 Kg.

CONCLUSION:-

Instrumentation and Control Department Principle of Measurement Science

PRACTICAL: 9
Aim: -To Study the Measurement of Linear Displacement Using Resistive transducer.

Apparatus: (1) Trainer kit

(2) Digital multi-meter

Introduction:

Control is based on information. Industrial automation system must extract

information from the physical process that is being controlled. Input transducers converts’
physical parameters into electrical signal that correspond to what is happening. In the
broadest sense, a transducer is any device that receive energy in one form from one system
and retransmits it, viewed as a transducer.

Position & Displacement:

Displacement is the difference between the position of some object and a

reference point. Displacement can be linear or rotary. Potentiometric transducer can be used
to measure both linear and angular displacement. This element can be formed by winding
resistance wire on a form or by depositing resistance material. The wiper contact moves
along the resistance element in response to motion applied to the input shaft. If a voltage is
applied across terminals A and B. Then some portion of that voltage will appear across A and
C. Most of the potentiometer transducers are nominally linear. It input shaft is as its
mechanical center position. Half the applied voltage will appear at C. In other words there is
a linear relationship between the shaft position and the output signal.
The actual performance of a displacement potentiometer will deviate from
nominal linearity. Manufactures rate them according to worst case deviation. A 1% linearity
rating or better is typical for transducer service. Potentiometer resolution is another source of
error. Suppose a 100 each turn represents 0.5 ohm of resistance. This is the smallest change
that the transducer can resolve.
Potentiometric transducers are relatively inexpensive and easy to apply.
However there are some limitations, for example attempts to make the resolution very high
usually results in proper linearity. They are temperature sensitive. A characteristic that are
considered to be low to medium accuracy transducers.
Circuit Description:-

The circuit demonstrated here works on the principle of a constant current flowing
through the linear potentiometric transducer. Transducer LPT (P1) along with R1, R2 forms
the constant current source. The drop across transducer (LPT) is sensed and amplified by IC1.
When the variable transducer is at 0 cm, drop across P1 is available at IC1 which is nullified
by zero adjustment of P2 and the display reads ’00.00’. Now such that the display reads
’05.00’ v. IC2 works as a differential amplified.

Instrumentation and Control Department Principle of Measurement Science

Fig: Measurement of linear displacement using resistance transducer.

Procedure:-

(1) Connect the transducer at TRANSDUCER INPUT on main panel. Now connect
main supply to main unit and switch on the unit.
(2) Bring the resistive transducer to 0 positions on the linear (mm) scale.
(3) Observe the reading as shown by the meter. Adjust with zero adjust potentiometer
so the display reads 00 mm.
(4) Now slowly move the resistive transducer from 0 to 50 mm.
(5) Observe the reading as shown by meter adjust with span adjust potentiometer. So
that display reads 50 mm.
(6) Again adjust 000 on DPM (digital panel meter) by bringing resistive transducer
from 5 cm to 0.
(7) Also again adjust 50 mm on meter by bringing resistive transducer to 50 mm
position.
(8) Repeat the above procedure to zero adjusts and span adjustment 2- times.
(9) Now take read in for every 1 mm displacement starting from 0 and note the meter
reading in the observation table.
(10) Plot a graph of resistive scale reading v/s meter reading.

Instrumentation and Control Department Principle of Measurement Science

CONCLUSION:-

Instrumentation and Control Department Principle of Measurement Science

PRACTICAL: 10
AIM: To study semiconductor AD 590 for measurement of temperature

APPARATUS: [Link] Kit

2. DMM

3. Patch cord -3 Nos.

AD590 Temperature Sensor

FEATURES:

1. Linear current output: 1 µA/K

2. Wide temperature range: -55˚C to +150˚C
3. Probe-compatible ceramic sensor package
4. 2-terminal device: voltage in/current out
5. Laser trimmed to ±0.5˚C calibration accuracy (AD590M)
6. Excellent linearity: ±0.3˚C over full range (AD590M)
7. Wide Power supply range: 4V to 30V
8. Sensor isolation from case

GENERAL DESCRIPTION:

The AD590 is a 2- terminal integrated circuit temperature transducer that produces an

output current proportional to absolute temperature. For supply voltages between 4V to 30V,
the device acts as a high impedance, constant current regulator passing 1µA/K. Laser
trimming of the chip’s thin film resistors is used to calibrate the device to 298.2 µA output at
298.2 K (25˚C).

The AD590 should be used in any temperature sensing application below 150˚C in
which conventional electrical temperature sensors are currently employed. The inherent low
cost of a monolithic integrated circuit combined with the elimination of support circuitry
makes the AD590 an attractive alternative for many temperature measurement situations.
Linearization circuitry, precision voltage amplifiers, resistance measuring circuitry, and cold
junction compensation are not needed in applying the AD590.

In addition to temperature measurement, applications include temperature

compensation or correction of discrete components, biasing proportional to absolute
temperature, flow rate measurement, level detection of fluids and anemometry. The AD590 is
available in chip form, making it suitable for hybrid circuits and fast temperature
measurements in protected environments.

The AD590 is particularly useful in remote sensing applications. The device is

insensitive to voltage drops over long lines due to its high impedence current output. Any

Instrumentation and Control Department Principle of Measurement Science

well-insulated twisted pair is sufficient for operation at hundreds of feet from the receiving
circuitry. The output characteristics also make the AD590 easy to multiplex: the current can
be switched by a CMOS multiplexer, or the supply voltage can be switched by a logic gate
output.

PRODUCT HIGHLIGHTS:
1. The AD590 is a calibrated, 2-terminal temperature sensor requiring only a dc voltage
supply (4V to 30V). Costly transmitters, filters, lead wire compensation, and
linearization circuits are all unnecessary in applying the device.
2. State of the art laser trimming at the wafer level in conjunction with extensive final
testing ensures that AD590 units are easily interchangeable.
3. Superior interface rejection occurs because the output is a current rather than a
voltage. In addition, power requirements are low (1.5mW @ 5V @ 25˚C).
4. The high output impedance (>10MΩ) provides excellent rejection supply voltage drift
and ripple. For instance, changing the power supply from 5V to 10V results in only a
1µA maximum current change, or 1˚C equivalent error.
5. The AD590 is electrically durable: it withstands a forward voltage of up to 44V and a
reverse voltage of 20V. Therefore, supply irregularities or pin reversal does not
damage the device.

AD590 SENSOR CALIBRATION:

The AD590 is a linear thermal sensor which acts as a constant current source. It
produces a current, I, which is directly proportional to the absolute temperature, over its
useful range (-50˚C to+150˚C). This0 nominal value can be expressed as:

𝐼 = 1µ𝐴/𝐾

Where I is the nominal current produced by the AD590, and L is temperature in Kelvin.

Temperature controllers use I to determine the nominal temperature, Tn, by the

formula:

𝐼
𝑇𝑛 = ( ) − 273.15
𝐴
1µ 𝐾

Where Tn is in ˚C.

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect AD590 (-ve) toR3 input. Keep Heater in off state.

2. Connect O/P to DPM input all that connections are shown in fig.

Instrumentation and Control Department Principle of Measurement Science

 3. Switch on the trainer & see that supply indicator glows.
4. DPM shows the room temperature.
5. Put the heater in ON state.
6. Observe & note down the temperature DPM reading for every 30sec.
7. Plot the graph of time versus temperature reading. Graph will be linear form.
8. Go up to 70 to 80˚C
9. Switch off the heater & also trainer.

CONCLUSION:

Instrumentation and Control Department Principle of Measurement Science