Fibre Packing, Yarn Dia and

Twist
Hexagonal Fiber Array
𝜇 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑝𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑖𝑏𝑟𝑒𝑠
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒

𝜋 2
3 𝑋 6 𝑑2
=
3 2
𝑑 + ℎ
4

 1
 2
2 3 h
1  
 d

2
𝐶𝑎𝑠𝑒 1 ∶ 𝑇𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 ℎ = 0

𝜋 1
𝜇= ℎ 2
2 3 1+𝑑

𝒉=𝟎
𝜋 1
𝜇 = 0 2
2 3 1+𝑑
 Very high resistance to
mechanical deformations.
𝜋
=
 Very low softness. 2 3

= 0.91
𝐶𝑎𝑠𝑒 2 ∶ 𝑇𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 0 < ℎ < 𝑑 2

𝜋 1
𝜇= ℎ 2
2 3 1+𝑑

ℎ = 0 ⇒ 𝜇 = 0.91
 High resistance to
mechanical deformations.
𝑑
ℎ = ⇒ 𝜇 = 0.40
 Low softness. 2
𝐶𝑎𝑠𝑒 3 ∶ 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑 2 ≤ ℎ ≤ 𝑑

𝜋 1
𝜇= 2
2 3 1+ℎ
𝑑

d d 𝑑
ℎ= ⇒ 𝜇 = 0.40
2 2 2

ℎ = 𝑑 ⇒ 𝜇 = 0.23

Moderate resistance to
mechanical deformations. 0.23 ≤ 𝜇 ≤ 0.40

 Moderate softness.
𝐶𝑎𝑠𝑒 4 ∶ 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 ℎ > 𝑑

2
𝜋 1
𝜇=
2 3 1 + 𝑑ℎ

ℎ = 𝑑 ⇒ 𝜇 = 0.23

𝝁 < 𝟎. 𝟐𝟑

 Low resistance to mechanical deformations.

 High softness.
 𝑇𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑇𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒

ℎ = 0, 𝜇 = 0.91 0 < ℎ < 𝑑 2, 0.40 < 𝜇 < 0.91

𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒

ℎ > 𝑑, 𝜇 < 0.23
𝑑 2 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑑, 0.23 ≤ 0.40
Open packing of circular fibres

Figure shows centre, 2nd and 3rd layers, and concentric circles
within which the 4th layer fits
Radius

Fig. Showing angle subtended at centre of circle by m fibres close-

packed in a circle

Radius of circle

𝑟𝑙 = 𝑟𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 180 𝑚
Open packing of fibres in yarns

𝒓 = 𝟐 𝒏 − 𝟏 𝒓𝒇
Layer
Number Layer Max. No. in Total no.
(n) Radius (r) rf cosec (180/m) layer Yarn radius of fibres
1 0 - 1 rf 1
2 2rf 2rf ; m= 6 6 3rf 7
3 4rf 3.86rf ; m= 12 12 5rf 19
4.18rf ; m= 13 13 20
4 6rf 5.76rf ; m= 18 18 7rf 37
6.08rf ; m= 19 19 38

5 8rf 7.98rf ; m= 25 25 9rf 62

6 10rf 9.89rf ; m= 31 31 11rf 93
Hexagonal close packing of fibres in yarn

Fig. Hexagonally close-packed yarn, with three layers

Hexagonal close packing of fibres

rc= 𝟐 𝒏 − 𝟏 𝒓𝒇 rs= 𝟑 𝒏 − 𝟏 𝒓𝒇

Layer Distance between yarn centre and fibre centre No. in layer Total no. of fibres
(n) 6(n-1)
At corner (rc) At middle of side (rs)
1 0 0 1 1
2 2rf 1.73rf 6 7
3 4rf 3.46rf 12 19
4 6rf 5.20rf 18 37
5 8rf 6.93rf 24 61
6 10rf 8.66rf 30 91
7 12rf 10.4rf 36 127
8 14rf 12.1rf 42 169
9 16rf 13.9rf 48 217
Closest packing of 169 fibres
Partial occupation of 8th and 9th layers

8-layer yarn requires 169 fibres as per close packing.

Hexagonal Close Packing – more than one
fibre in core

Fig. Hexagonal close packing on other cores.

(a) Core of two; (b) Core of three; (c) Core of four; (d) core of five
Ribbon like form with close packing

Ribbon like forms in which 25 fibres can close-pack

𝑌𝑎𝑟𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟

4𝑆 4𝑇
𝐷= =
𝜋𝜇 𝜋𝜇𝜌

4 2
𝐷= 𝑇 = 𝑇
𝜋𝜇𝜌 𝜋𝜇𝜌 𝐷=𝐾 𝑇 𝐾 ⋯ 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑦𝑎𝑟𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟.

=𝐾
𝐾 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝜇 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜌.

1
𝐷 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ =
28 𝑇 𝑁𝑒
 𝑌𝑎𝑟𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟

4𝑆
𝐷=
𝜋𝜇

4
𝐷= 𝑆 = 𝐾𝑆 𝑆
𝜋𝜇

4
𝐾𝑆 =
𝜋𝜇

𝐾𝑆 ⋯ 𝐶𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑦𝑎𝑟𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟

Yarn diameter is easy to imagine by seeing an idealized picture of a yarn. However, the determination of diameter of a real
yarn body, including yarn hairiness, yarn unevenness, etc., is much more complicated. This problem will be studied later
 Yarn diameter

K is called coefficient of yarn diameter. It depends on fiber mass density, i.e., type of fibers, and moreover
on packing density of the yarn. It follows that K does not need to be a constant, even not for the yarns
prepared from same type of fibers. Nevertheless, different handbooks recommended the use of coefficient
of yarn diameter K as a constant parameter for yarns prepared from same type of fibers. It is because the
variability of packing density is not considered to be too high among the most common types of yarns.

The coefficient KS is, however, not used in industrial practice. It corresponds to substance cross section of
yarn; therefore, we call it substance coefficient of yarn diameter. Being a dimensionless quantity, it is very
much suitable for theoretical work.
Twist

The traditional staple yarns are strengthened by means of twisting the bundle of fibers. The number of coils inserted per unit length
of yarn is called twist Z. This is expressed as

Where NC denotes the number of coils inserted in a length l of yarn. Its dimension is usually expressed in m–1 or inch–1.

Twist intensity

The quantity DZ is therefore dimensionless. Nevertheless, we usually use the following

dimensionless quantity:

where κ is called twist intensity

Twist

The cylinder, shown in Figure, symbolizes a portion of a yarn of length 1/Z . It contains only
one coil of ideal fibers. The peripheral fibers are lying at the cylindrical surface of the yarn, i.e.,
at yarn diameter D. We assume that these fibers follow the helical shape. The angle βD is
defined as an angle between the tangent to the fiber helix and the direction of yarn axis.

Unrolling of the cylindrical surface would result in a triangle, shown in Figure. It is then valid
to write that

So, the twist intensity represents the tangent of angle βD of the peripheral fibers in a yarn. This variable is
evidently dimensionless.
Twist coefficients – definitions

Internationally, Koechlin’s common twist coefficient is mostly used in practice.

 Koechlin’s Equations

Twist coefficient
Substance twist coefficient Common twist coefficient

𝛼𝑠 = Ζ 𝑆 𝛼=𝑧 𝑇

𝜋𝜇 𝐷2 𝐷2 𝜋𝜇𝜌
=Ζ =𝑍
4 4

𝜇 𝜇𝜌
= 𝜋𝐷Ζ = 𝜋𝐷𝑍
2 𝜋 2 𝜋

Κ Κ

𝐾 𝜇𝜌
𝜇 =
=Κ 2 𝜋
2 𝜋
𝑫𝒊𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒆𝒓

Substance 𝑫𝒊𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒆𝒓 Common 𝑫𝒊𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒆𝒓

𝐷 = Κ𝑆 𝑆 𝐷=𝐾 𝑇

𝐷 𝐷
Κ𝑆 = 𝐾=
𝑆 𝑇

𝐷 𝐷
= =
𝜋𝐷2 𝜇 𝐷2 𝜋𝜇𝜌/4
4

2
2 =
= 𝜋𝜇𝜌
𝜋𝜇
Yarn fineness, twist and diameter in accordance with
Koechlin’s concept

The relation among yarn fineness T, twist Z and diameter D is a result of special behaviours of fibrous material in the
yarns. By twisting, the fibrous material of a yarn gets compressed in consequence of working of action forces.

Nevertheless, this fibrous material resists against deformation by its reaction forces. The equilibrium of action and
reaction forces determines the final diameter of the yarn. So, the relations among T, Z and D cannot be solved on the basis
of definitions and relations only.

They should be rather determined by taking into account of the mechanical behaviour of fibrous material. Probably, the
oldest semi-empirical solution to the above-mentioned problem was given by Koechlin in the first quarter of the 19th
century.

General assumptions of Koechlin’s concept

1. prepared from same fibrous material,

2. spun by employing same type of spinning technology and
3. designed for same (and/or analogical) purpose of end-use.

For such yarns, he determined a relation between yarn twist, fineness and diameter based on two special assumptions.
Koechlin’s first assumption

This assumption can be stated as follows: ‘The packing density of yarn is an increasing
function of yarn twist intensity only’. It can be mathematically written as

It is experimentally observed that the packing density increases with an increase of twist,
i.e., also with twist intensity. Nevertheless, this is not the only parameter that decides
packing density. According to our recent knowledge, the packing density depends – besides
twist intensity – also on other variables, for example, yarn fineness.
Koechlin’s second assumption

This assumption can be stated as follows: ‘The yarns of different finenesses should have the same
numerical value of twist intensity’. Mathematically, it can be expressed as

This assumption (recommendation) needs a logical discussion. The yarns having the same (and/or
analogical) purpose of end-use should be logically same (or similar) in terms of all properties.
However, it is not possible in an ‘absolute’ sense. (The yarns with different finenesses cannot have
all properties same).

We, therefore, think about geometrical properties only. If all yarns shall be geometrically similar
then, based on the regulations of geometrical similarity, the corresponding angles must be same.
It means that the angle βD must be same, and then tan βD = must be same too.
The twist intensity of yarns with different counts is same.
Empirical corrections to Koechlin’s concept

Equations of Koechlin’s theoretical concept are very easy so that they

are used in different practical applications worldwide. Nevertheless,
they are not too precise. This is mainly because of the first special
assumption of Koechlin which is not found to be in good accordance
with the experimental results.

Intervals of twist coefficients

The authors of different handbooks of spinning solved the above-

mentioned disproportion by dividing the whole interval of possible
yarn finenesses (same type of yarns) into a few groups – for example,
a group of fine yarns, a group of coarse yarns, etc. Then, they
recommended a little different values of Koechlin’s twist coefficient
for different yarn groups.
Summary of parameters

𝑇𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝑧 , 𝑇𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝐾)