This is the summary of the

lessons that I’ve learned in

EDUC 105

Outcomes-Based Education: Matching Intentions with Accomplishment is a model

education that puts students in the center of the learning process. It is a change in
educational perspective that puts out the idea of traditional changing. It has three (3)
characteristics:

1. Student-centered - OBE focuses on students and their outcomes.

2. Faculty driven. Teachers are encouraged to take responsibility for their students’
learning.
3. Meaningful OBE provides accurate data of students’ performance for
improvement of instruction and assessment.

Procedures for the Implementation of OBE

1. Identification of the educational objectives of the subject/course. The

objectives are the goals that you will be achieving at the end of the period. The
teachers will help you achieve these objectives. Additionally, the educational
objectives are broad goals and stated from the teachers’ point of views and uses
a verb after to such as to develop, to provide, to enhance, to inculcate, etc.
2. Listing of learning outcomes specified for each subject/course
objective. Subject/course objective are stated broadly and does not specify the
detailed guide to be teachable and measurable. So, we have learning outcomes.
Learning outcomes are stated as concrete active verbs such as to demonstrate,
to explain, to differentiate, etc. One good source of learning outcomes is the
Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives by Benjamin Bloom. This
taxonomy is grouped into three: cognitive, affective and psychomotor.

 Cognitive (knowledge) refers to mental skills such as remembering,

understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating, synthesizing/creating.
 Affective (attitude) refers to growth in feelings or emotions from the simplest
behavior to the most complex such as receiving, responding, valuing,
organizing, and internalizing.
 Psychomotor (skills) includes manual or physical skills, which proceed from
mental activities and range from the simplest to the complex such as
observing, imitating, practicing, adapting and innovating (Navarro and
Santos, 2012).

3. Drafting outcomes assessment procedure. This will enable teachers to

determine the degree to which students are attainting the desired learning
 outcomes.

The Outcomes of Education OBE emphasizes instruction that focuses on the skills
and competencies the students should be able to demonstrate at the end of a specific
period.

Immediate outcomes refer to competencies/skills acquired after completion of a

subject, a grade level, a segment of the program, or of the program itself.

Deferred outcomes refer to the ability to apply cognitive, psychomotor and affective

competencies/skills in different situations after attending school.

D. Sample Educational Objectives and Learning Outcomes

A. Measurement

This is the process of determining or describing the attributes or characteristics of

physical objects generally in terms of quantity.

Types of Measurement: Objective or Subjective

Testing is an example of objective measurement while rating is an example of

subjective measurement.

B. Differences between Testing, Assessment, and Evaluation

What Do We Mean by Testing, Assessment, and Evaluation?
When defined within an educational setting, assessment, evaluation, and testing are all
used to measure how much of the assigned materials students are mastering, how well
students are learning the materials, and how well students are meeting the stated goals
and objectives.

A test or quiz is used to examine someone's knowledge of something to determine

what he or she knows or has learned. Testing measures the level of skill or knowledge
that has been reached.

Evaluation is the process of making judgments based on criteria and evidence.

Assessment is the process of documenting knowledge, skills, attitudes and beliefs,

usually in measurable terms.

REMEMBER!

Testing is for
-- assessing the attainment of teaching objectives;
-- getting feedback about where the students are;
-- helping the students review what has been learned;
-- identifying areas of difficulty and problem;
-- giving the students a sense of progress and achievement;
-- motivating the students;

Testing is not for

-- punishing students;
-- replacing instruction;
-- encouraging competition among students;
-- increasing pressure for learning;

What is a good test?

Validity -- the degree to which a test measures what it is supposed to measure.

Reliability -- the degree to which a test gives consistent results. (test and scorer
reliability)

Discrimination -- the degree to which a test can distinguish tests of different proficiency
or achievement levels.

Practicality (feasibility) -- the degree to which a test can be designed and

administered within the means of available resources, such as financial limitations and
time constraints.
Types of Tests in English Context

Achievement test -- a test which measures how much of a language someone has
learned with reference to a particular course of study or program of instruction.

Proficiency test -- a test which measures someone's general level of language

mastery.

Standardized test -- a test (a) which has been developed from tryouts and
experimentation to ensure that it is reliable and valid, (b) for which norms have been
established, and (c) which provides uniform procedures for administering and for
scoring the test.

Diagnostic test -- a test which is designed to show what skills or knowledge a learner
knows and doesn't know.

Prognostic test -- a test which is designed to predict how well one is likely to do in a
language course.

Placement test -- a test which is designed to place students at an appropriate level in a

program or course.

Discrete-point test -- a language test which measures knowledge of individual

language items, such as a grammar test which has different sections on tenses,
adverbs, and prepositions.

Integrative test -- is a test which requires a learner to use several language skills at the
same time, such as a dictation test, because it requires the learner to use knowledge of
grammar, vocabulary, and listening comprehension.

Criterion referenced test -- a test which measures a student's performance according

to a particular standard or criterion which has been agreed upon.

Norm referenced test -- a test which is designed to measure how the performance of a
particular student or group of students compares with the performance of another
student or group of students whose scores are given as the norm.

Types of Test Items

Alternate response item -- one in which a correct response must be chosen from two
alternatives, e.g., True/False.
Fixed response item -- one in which the correct answer must be chosen from among
several alternatives, e.g., multiple-choice.

*Free response item *-- one in which the student is free to answer a question as he or
she wishes without having to choose from among alternative provided, e.g.,
composition.
Structured response item -- one in which some control or guidance is given for the
answer, but the students must contribute something of their own. e.g., I (go) ____ to the
market for some fruit.

Kinds of Tests

1. Intelligence Test. This test measures the intelligence quotient (IQ) of an individual

as genius, very superior, high average, and average, low average, borderline or
mentally defective. Its function is to establish the ability to think abstractly or to organize
parts of a situation into a coherent whole.

2. Personality Test. This test measures the ways in which the individual’s interest with
other individuals or in terms of the roles an individual has assigned to himself and how
he adopts in the society.

3. Aptitude Test. This kind of test is a predictive measure of a person’s likelihood of

benefit from instruction or experience in a given field such as the arts, music, clerical
work, mechanical tasks, or academic studies (Calmorin, 2004).

4. Prognostic Test. This test forecast how well a person may do in a certain school
subject or work.

5. Performance Test. It is a measure which often makes use of accomplishing the

learning task involving minimum accomplishment or none at all.

6. Diagnostic Test. This test identifies the weaknesses of an individual’s achievement

in any field which serves as basis for remedial instruction. Example: UM Pre-Test in
Mock Exam

7. Achievement Test. This test measures how much the students attain the learning
task. Example: NAT(National Achievement Test)

8. Preference Test. This test is a measure of vocational or academic interest of an

individual or aesthetic decision by forcing the examinee to make force options between
members of paired or group items.
9. Scale Test. This test is a series of items arranged in order of difficulty.

10. Speed Test. This test measures the speed and accuracy of the examinee within the
time imposed. It is also called the alertness test. It consists of items of uniform difficulty.

11. Power Test. This test is made up of series of items arranged from easiest to the
most difficult.

12. Standardized Test. This test provides exact procedures in controlling the method of
administration and scoring with norms and data concerning the reliability and validity of
the test.

13. Teacher-made Test. This test is prepared by classroom teachers based on the

contents stated in the syllabi and the lessons taken by the students.

14. Placement Test. This test is used to measure the job an applicant should fill in the
school setting and the grade or year.

What's the purpose of different types of assessment?

1. Assessment of learning
2. Assessment for learning
3. Assessment as learning

Assessment of learning
Assessments are a way to find out what students have learned and if they’re aligning to
curriculum or grade-level standards.
Assessments of learning are usually grade-based, and can include:
• Exams
• Portfolios
• Final projects
• Standardized tests

They have a concrete grade attached to them that communicates student achievement
to teachers, parents, students, school-level administrators and district leaders.
Common types of assessment of learning include:

• Summative assessments
• Norm-referenced assessments
• Criterion-referenced assessments

Assessment for learning

Assessments for learning provide you with a clear snapshot of student learning and
understanding as you teach -- allowing you to adjust everything from your classroom
management strategies to your lesson plans as you go.

Assessment as learning

Assessment as learning actively involves students in the learning process. It teaches

critical thinking skills, problem-solving and encourages students to set achievable goals
for themselves and objectively measure their progress.

6 Types of assessment to use in your classroom

1. Diagnostic assessment
Diagnostic assessments can also help benchmark student progress.

Some examples to try include:

• Mind maps
• Flow charts
• KWL charts
• Short quizzes
• Journal entries
• Student interviews
• Student reflections
• Graphic organizers
• Classroom discussions
2. Formative assessment
Formative assessments help teachers understand student learning while they
teach, and adjust their teaching strategies accordingly. .
Some examples of formative assessments include:
• Portfolios
• Group projects
• Progress reports
• Class discussions
• Entry and exit tickets
• Short, regular quizzes
• Virtual classroom tools like Socrative or Kahoot!

2. Summative assessment
Summative assessments measure student progress as an assessment of
learning and provide data for you, school leaders and district leaders.

. Try creating assessments that deviate from the standard multiple-choice test,
like:
• Recording a podcast
• Writing a script for a short play
• Producing an independent study project
No matter what type of summative assessment you give your students, keep
some best practices in mind:
 • Keep it real-world relevant where you can
• Make questions clear and instructions easy to follow
• Give a rubric so students know what’s expected of them
• Create your final test after, not before, teaching the lesson
• Try blind grading: don’t look at the name on the assignment before you mark it
4. Ipsative assessments
Ipsative assessments are one of the types of assessment as learning that
compares previous results with a second try, motivating students to set goals and
improve their skills.
You can incorporate ipsative assessments into your classroom with:
• Portfolios
• A two-stage testing process
• Project-based learning activities
5. Norm-referenced assessments
Norm-referenced assessments are tests designed to compare an individual to a
group of their peers, usually based on national standards and occasionally
adjusted for age, ethnicity or other demographics.

Types of norm-referenced assessments include:

• IQ tests
• Physical assessments
• Standardized college admissions tests like the SAT and GRE
Proponents of norm-referenced assessments point out that they accentuate
differences among test-takers and make it easy to analyze large-scale trends.
Critics argue they don’t encourage complex thinking and can inadvertently
discriminate against low-income students and minorities.
Norm-referenced assessments are most useful when measuring student
achievement to determine:
• Language ability
• Grade readiness
• Physical development
• College admission decisions
• Need for additional learning support
While they’re not usually the type of assessment you deliver in your classroom,
chances are you have access to data from past tests that can give you valuable
insights into student performance.

6. Criterion-referenced assessments
Criterion-referenced assessments compare the score of an individual student to a
learning standard and performance level, independent of other students around them.
In the classroom, this means measuring student performance against grade-level
standards and can include end-of-unit or final tests to assess student understanding.

Types of Assessments
Assessment can be delivered in a variety of ways. Don't assume one is easier than
another, although the way you study might differ depending on the type of assessment.
You need to prepare for all assessments, no matter what the delivery method is.

Conventional Exams
Typical exams are delivered in a proctored classroom setting with a specific period of
time to complete a variety of questions and question types. This type of exam is usually
"paper and pencil" but could also be delivered via an electronic device like a computer.

Open Book Exams (completed in class)

Open book exams may consist of many different question types. It is very important to
pay special attention to directives in open book exams. If the exam is an open book
math assessment, you will be expected to show detailed work as to how they reached
their solution to the problem. If the exam is primarily or completely essay, you may be
expected to use quotes, cite sources, and provide more details.

Open Book Exams (Take-Home)

Take-home exams are often graded more stringently than in-class exams because you
do have more time to complete your work. You will need to pay special attention to
details and organization, as well as to directives.

Interviews and Oral Examinations

A formal assessment conducted through an interview or oral exam consists of a series
of questions, which may include having you perform tasks or solve problems. Oral
exams give you an opportunity to practice your speaking and communication, both of
which are needed during job interviews.

Math Exams
Math exams usually require students to complete math problems. Expect to be asked to
show your work. Question types can vary from matching, to multiple-choice, to
completion.

Research Papers)
In a research paper you combine what you know with what you learn, integrating your
personal thoughts and insights.
There are several different types of research papers:
• A review of the literature in a field: research information and then summarize and
paraphrase it.
• A paper that analyzes a perspective: break a topic or concept down into its parts and
then restructure those parts in a way that makes sense to you.
• A paper that argues a point: use information to support your stance on an issue.

Class Projects
Class projects can take a variety of forms. They are also a way to assess what you
have learned. Usually, instead of writing answers to questions, you have to produce
something that will be graded based on specific criteria.

Types of Questions
Assessment literacy involves understanding how assessments are made, what type of
assessments answer what questions, and how the data from assessments can be used
to help teachers, students, parents, and other stakeholders make decisions about
teaching and learning. The following are the four traits:
1. Content validity
2. Reliability
3. Practicability
4. Justness

5. Morality in Assessment

1. Understanding content validity

Content validity is evidenced at three levels: assessment design, assessment
experience, and assessment questions, or items.

2. Reliability

Reliability refers to the consistency of the assessment results.

3. Practicability
Practicability is the test can be satisfactory used by teachers and researchers without
undue expenditure of time, money and effort. In other words, practicability means
usability.

Factors that Determine Practicability

 Ease of Administration
To facilitate ease of administration of the test, instruction must be complete and precise,
As a rule, group tests are easier to administer than individual tests. The former is easier
to administer because direction is given only once to group of examinees thus, saves
time and effort on the part of the examiner or teacher.

 Ease of Scoring
Ease of scoring depends upon the following such as (1) construction of the test is
objective, (2) answer keys are adequately prepared, and (3) scoring directions are fully
understood. Likewise, it is easier if examinees are instructed to write their answer a s
letter or number or word in one column at the right. It is obsolete and imperical to let the
examinees write their response column before the item of left column.

 Ease of Interpretation and Application

Results of test are easy to interpret and apply if tables are presented. All scores must
be given equivalent from tables without necessity of computation. As a rule, norms must
be based on age and grade/year level as in the case of school achievement tests.

 Low cost
It is more practical if the test is low cost material-wise. It is also economical if test can
be reused by future teacher.

 Proper Mechanical Make-Up

A good test must be printed clearly in an appropriate font size for the grade or year level
the test is intended to be given. Careful attention to the picture and illustrations must be
given to lower grades.

4. Justness

Justness is the degree to which the teacher is fair in assessing the grades of the
learners. The learner must be informed on the criteria they are being assessed. If
learner’s assessed fairly and justly by teachers, they are inspired and their interest to
study hard is aroused.

5. Morality in Assessment

To summarize, we measure height, distance, weight; we assess learning outcome; we

evaluate results in terms of some criteria or objectives.

1. Objective examinations – teachers are familiar with this type of assessment though
it is a bit challenging. E.g. multiple choice, true/false, matching, simple recall
2. Essay examinations – this assessment allows the students to express their thoughts
and feelings about things though this may not cover an entire range of knowledge.
3. Written work – this allows learning while on the process as well as in the completion
of the activity.

4. Portfolio assessment – this assessment is of two types: longitudinal which contains

reports, documents and professional activities compiled over a period of time and best-
case/thematic portfolio which is specific to a certain topic or theme.
5. Assessment Rubrics – this is an authentic tool for assessment which measures
student’s work. This is a scoring guide which measures the overall performance of a
student based on different areas.
Performance-Based Assessment

Performance-based tests share the main function of assessing one or more basic
course expectations accurately. They are also dynamic, real, process / product oriented,
time-bound and open-ended.

What are the essential components of a performance-based assessment?

Although performance-based assessments vary, the majority of them share key

characteristics. First and foremost, the assessment accurately measures one or more
specific course standards. Additionally, it is:

1. Complex
2. Authentic
3. Process/product-oriented
4. Open-ended
5. Time-bound

How can teachers create performance-based assessments for their students?

1. Identify goals of the performance-based assessment.

In this instance, the teacher wanted to challenge her students to use critical thinking and
problem-solving skills.

2. Select the appropriate course standards.

Once the goals were identified, she selected the Common Core standards to be
addressed with this performance assessment.

3. Review assessments and identify learning gaps.

This was a very important step. We looked at the current worksheets that students were
completing for the unit. Two-way frequency tables were a large part of the assignments.
Next, we looked at what was missing and noted that there was very little relevant real-
world application. As a result, we decided to create a performance-based assessment
that was also reality-based. Moreover, this task would require students to analyze two-
way frequency tables along with other charts and graphs.

4. Design the scenario.

After brainstorming a few different scenarios, we settled on a situation where the
students would decide if an inmate should be granted parole or remain in prison. This
scenario included five key components:

• Setting
• Role
• Audience
• Time frame
• Product

5. Gather or create materials.

Depending on the scenario, this step may or may not be needed. For this particular
assessment, we wanted students to calculate the probability of the inmate returning to
prison.

6. Develop a learning plan.

We wanted to be careful not to "teach to the test" in preparing students for the
performance-based assessment. We needed to strike a balance between teaching the
content (e.g., probability given two independent events) and preparing students for the
task (e.g., interpreting the validity of a media resource). We brainstormed six different
formative assessments that would need to be in place before students completed the
performance task. However, we also acknowledged that this part of our plan would
need to be constantly reviewed and revised depending on student learning needs.

Example: Public Comments Session

Scenario
Ashley, an inmate at Texahoma State Women's Correctional Institution, is serving three
to five years for embezzlement and assault. After three years, this inmate is up for
parole. Once a month, the Inmate Review Board offers Public Comment Sessions. The
sessions are open to all interested parties who want to voice their support or opposition
to an inmate's release from prison.

Task
You are Ashley's former probation officer, and the warden requested that you attend the
Public Comment Session. You have been asked to review the following documents and
present your opinion: Should Ashley be released from prison early or stay for the
remainder of her sentence? You have been granted three to five minutes to speak to
the review board. Your speech must be short, but detailed with strong evidence to
support your decision.

Documents
1. Criminal history report
2. Article announcing a new web series on embezzlement
3. Blog post about prison nurseries
4. Letter to the parole board from the inmate's mother and son
5. Newsletter about the incarceration rates in the state
6. Press release about a prison-work program
7. Research brief on the recidivism rate of nonviolent offenders

Authentic Ways to Develop Performance-Based Activities

A performance-based assessment is open-ended and without a single, correct

answer, and it should demonstrate authentic learning, such as the creation of a
newspaper or class debate. The benefit of performance-based assessments is that
students who are more actively involved in the learning process absorb and understand
the material at a much deeper level. Other characteristics of performance-based
assessments are that they are complex and time-bound.
1. Creativity and Innovation
2. Critical Thinking and Problem Solving
3. Communication and Collaboration

There are also Information Literacy standards and Media Literacy standards that require
performance-based learning.

Clear Expectations
Performance-based activities can be challenging for students to complete. They need to
understand from the beginning exactly what is being asked of them and how they will be
assessed.

1. Presentations
One easy way to have students complete a performance-based activity is to have them
do a presentation or report of some kind. This activity could be done by students, which
takes time, or in collaborative groups.

The basis for the presentation may be one of the following:

• Providing information
• Teaching a skill
• Reporting progress
• Persuading others

2. Portfolios

Student portfolios can include items that students have created and collected over a
period. Art portfolios are for students who want to apply to art programs in college.

3. Performances

Dramatic performances are one kind of collaborative activities that can be used as a
performance-based assessment. Students can create, perform, and/or provide a critical
response. Examples include dance, recital, dramatic enactment. There may be prose or
poetry interpretation.

4. Projects

Projects are commonly used by teachers as performance-based activities. They can

include everything from research papers to artistic representations of information
learned. Projects may require students to apply their knowledge and skills while
completing the assigned task. They can be aligned with the higher levels of creativity,
analysis, and synthesis.

Students might be asked to complete reports, diagrams, and maps. Teachers can also
choose to have students work individually or in groups.

Journals may be part of a performance-based assessment. Journals can be used to

record student reflections. Teachers may require students to complete journal entries.
Some teachers may use journals as a way to record participation.

5. Exhibits and Fairs

Teachers can expand the idea of performance-based activities by creating exhibits or
fairs for students to display their work. Examples include things like history fairs to art
exhibitions. Students work on a product or item that will be exhibited publicly.

Exhibitions show in-depth learning and may include feedback from viewers.

In some cases, students might be required to explain or defend their work to those
attending the exhibition.

Some fairs like science fairs could include the possibility of prizes and awards.

6. Debates

A debate in the classroom is one form of performance-based learning that teaches

students about varied viewpoints and opinions. Skills associated with debate include
research, media and argument literacy, reading comprehension, evidence evaluation,
public speaking, and civic skills.

There are many different formats for debate. One is the fishbowl debate in which a
handful of students form a half circle facing the other students and debate a topic. The
rest of the classmates may pose questions to the panel.

Another form is a mock trial where teams representing the prosecution and defense
take on the roles of attorneys and witnesses. A judge, or judging panel, oversees the
courtroom presentation.

Portfolio assessment is an assessment form that learners do together with their

teachers, and is an alternative to the classic classroom test. The portfolio contains
samples of the learner's work and shows growth over time. An important keyword is
reflection:

Contents of Portfolio

1. Best work of Students

Best work of students must be stated in the portfolio. For instances, the student
participated in:
a. Local, regional, national, and international projects
b. Won first prize in local, regional, national, and international projects
c. Different contest in local and national level and won.
d. Beauty pageant
e. Graduated valedictorian

2. Individuals student’s work

Individual students work both in school and at home must be stated in portfolio. For
instance, in school, the student is elected as president. At home, during weekend, she
helps her mother.

3. Group work activities

Group work activities of students must be included in the portfolio. For instance, she
was assigned as leader in the group and having the highest score among the other
groups.
4. Extracurricular Activities
These serve as bases for the future teachers of the learner to identify the specific
extracurricular activities he participated in and excelled.

5. Religious Activities
These activities must be recorded in the portfolio especially if the student enrolls in
religious institution. These serve as bases for being active spiritually.

Kinds of Portfolio

1. Working Portfolio
It refers to daily activity of the learner in a particular learning area. This provides and
identities the learner skills to be developed in order to determine if there is progress on
the learning task.

2. Developmental Portfolio
It represents the development or progress of the directed tasks performed by the
student based on the instructional objectives to determine the progress; it helps develop
process skills; it identifies strength and weaknesses of the student; and it keeps tracks
the development of more than one process-product performance.
Example: Math Problem Solving
1st day – Addition of 2 digit by 2 digit
2nd day – Addition of 3 digit by 3 digit
3rd day – Addition of 4 digit by 4 digit

3. Documentary Portfolio
In this portfolio, the best works of the students are gathered for assessment purposes.
It provide evidences that instructional objectives have been attained and states the
student’s progress and weaknesses from one learning task to another.

4. Showcase portfolio
The best work or award winning feats of the students must be displayed. If possible, it
must be published in the school paper, research journal, regional and national
newspaper. It also serves as show window to other students.

5. Evaluation Portfolio
The best work or any task/activity of the student with progress or development must be
recorded in the portfolio for grading purposes.

Portfolio Process

1. Goal Setting
Must be vividly and clearly stated to determine the purpose and give direction in
preparing the portfolio.
Example: To conduct research on utilization and commercialization of milkfish into fish
value added products.

2. Selecting
It must be relevant to the goal of instruction set by the student.
Example: Milkfish bones burger and luncheon meat

3. Performing
After selecting the entry, the student has to perform the activities based on the goal of
instruction. It is also known as conducting research.

4. Data Gathering
The write-up contains the format as follows:
a. Short Abstract
b. Introduction
c. Review Related Literature
d. Materials and Methods
e. Methodology
f. Results and Discussions
g. Summary

5. Reflecting
The cognitive, psychomotor and effective domains must be stated in the portfolio in
relation to the goal set.

6. Exhibiting
The research write-up must be exhibited or displayed in school. The viewing public must
be given a chance to view the learning activities of the students in school.

7. Evaluating
Two works of the student what will be evaluated (1) write-up of the research project and
(2) the portfolio.

Three Characteristics of Rubrics

• Emphasis is on a stated objective
• Performance is rated in a range
• Include specific performance characteristics arranged in levels or degrees in which a
standard has been met.

Two Major Types of Rubrics

Holistic – this type of rubric covers the instrument as a whole; students receive an
over-all score based on a pre-determined scheme.
B. Dimensional/ analytical rubric provides sub-scales for each dimension and a
cumulative score either weighted or unweighted.
Knowledge – this refers to the facts and information the student acquires
Process – refers to cognitive operations that the student performs on facts and
information for the purpose of constructing meanings and understandings. This level is
assessed through activities or tests of analytical ability.
Understanding – refer to enduring big ideas, principles and generalizations inherent to
the discipline which can be assessed using the aspects of understanding. Assessment
at this level requires ability to synthesize, generalize and judge accordingly.
Product/ performance – refers to real-life application of understanding as evidenced
by the student’s performance of authentic tasks. At this level, students are expected to
be able to apply what has been learned in contrived or real situations.

GRADING SYSTEMS

The two most common types of grading systems used at the university level are norm-
referenced and criterion-referenced.

1. Norm-Referenced Systems:

In norm-referenced systems students are evaluated in relationship to one another.

2. Criterion-Referenced System

In criterion-referenced systems students are evaluated against an absolute scale.

3. Other Systems: Some alternate systems of grading include contract grading, peer
grading, and self-evaluation by students.

A standardized test score is usually represented as a number indicating how well a child
performed on an assessment.

Standard Scores

Test developers calculate the statistical average based on the performance of students
tested in the norming process of test development. That score is assigned a value.

Percentiles

These scores show how a student's performance compares to others tested during test
development. A student who scores at the 50th percentile performed at least as well as
50 percent of students his age. A score at the 50th percentile is within the average
range.

Z-Scores

These scores are scaled on a number line ranging from -4 to 4. On this scale, zero is
average. Positive scores are above average, and negative scores are below average.

T-Scores

These scores range in intervals of 10 from 10 to 90 points. Fifty is average on this scale,
and the average range is usually between 40 and 60.

Stanine Score
The stanine scale is also called the standard nine scale. These scores range from 1 to
9, with 5 being average. Scores below 5 are below average. Scores above 5 are above
average.

Scaled Scores

This type of test score involves presenting different scores on a number of subtests, each of
which assesses a specific skill or area. In many cases, these scaled scores are then combined
in order to arrive at an overall composite score.